WORKSHOP  NOTES 


FOR  JEWELERS  AND  WATCHMAKERS. 


BEING  A  COLLECTION  OF  THE  LATEST  PRACTICAL  RECEIPTS 
ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  AND  REPAIRING  OF  WATCHES 
AND  CLOCKS,  AND  ON  THE  VARIOUS  PROCESSES  ENTERING 
INTO  THE  MANUFACTURE  AND  REPAIRING  OF  JEWELRY,  AS 
COLORING,  POLISHING,  ENAMELING,  ANNEALING,  OXYDIZING, 
ETC.;  IN  SHORT,  A  THOROUGH  COMPENDIUM  OF  THE  NUMER¬ 
OUS  MECHANICAL  DEPARTMENTS  OF  THE  JEWELERS’  AND 
WATCHMAKERS’  SHOP . 


BY 


One  who  has  contributed  such 
Matter  to  THE  JEWELERS’ 
CIRCULAR  for  Twenty  Years. 

THIRD  EDITION. 

PART  I. 

1899 


NEW  YORK: 

JEWELERS’  CIRCULAR  PUBLISHING  CO., 

11  JOHN  ST.,  COR.  BROADWAY. 


Co  fj  S 
TS 

S?a 

/ 


PREFACE. 


UBSCRIBERS  to  The  Jewelers’  Circular 


are  well  aware  that  since  the  appearance  of  its 
first  number,  30  years  ago,  it  has  succeeded  in  col¬ 
lecting  on  its  editorial  staff  writers  second  to  none 
in  this  or  any  other  country,  and  that  its  columns 
have  contained  technical  instruction  of  a  high  order 
on  the  subjects  of  horology,  jewelry,  optics,  and 
the  kindred  branches,  both  useful  to  the  appren¬ 
tice  and  the  accomplished  workman  at  the  bench. 

The  management  of  The  Jewelers’  Circular 
has  been  repeatedly  urged  to  collect  and  publisn 
these  articles,  and  issue  them  in  book  form,  as  they 
were  considered  to  be  too  valuable  to  pass  away. 

The  volume  presented  herewith  is  the  result  of 
these  solicitations.  It  will  be  found  to  contain 
numerous  valuable  additions  to  the  extracts  from 
The  Jewelers’  Circular. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  1892. 
by  the  Jewelers’  Circular  Pub.  Co., 
New  York. 


THE  GETTY  CENTER 
LIBRARY 


THE  WATCH. 


IT  is  well,  perhaps,  that  we  preface  the 
more  minute  treatment  of  the  watch  in 
this  work  with  a  few  cursory  remarks. 

It  is  the  common  verdict  of  both  watch¬ 
makers  and  laymen  that  a  well-constructed 
lever  is  the  best  for  all  practical  purposes. 
A  pocket  chronometer  is  not  as  reliable, 
while,  if  of  larger  dimensions  and  furnished 
with  all  the  possible  mechanical  appliances, 
auxiliaries,  and  improvements,  as  ship  or 
marine  chronometer,  it  is  doubtless  the  best 
timepiece  constructed.  When  we  say  “  for 
practical  purposes,”  it  is  not  meant  that  the 
watch  may  be  treated  with  impunity  to  any 
and  every  indignity,  or  be  used  as  toy  by 
children,  as  ladies’  watches  too  often  are. 

Let  us  examine  any  other  piece  of  ma¬ 
chinery  ;  how  strong  and  powerful  it  is  in 
any  and  all  of  its  parts ;  still,  it  is  never  re¬ 
quired  to  perform  one-half  of  the  work  of 
the  tiny  watch,  which  unremittingly  labors 
night  and  day,  week  day  and  Sunday,  month 
and  year,  without  intermission  or  stop,  and 
if  it  has  been  duly  cared  for  and  consider¬ 
ately  treated,  it  may  arrive  at  the  ripe  age 
of  one  hundred  years,  while  the  ponderous 
machinery  is  cleaned  and  oiled  repeatedly 
during  the  day,  hosts  of  men  attend  to  its 
wants,  and  after  all  it  lasts  only  for  a  short 
time. 

The  watchmaker  will  readily  understand 
that  any  external  motions  exert  an  important 
influence  upon  the  vibration,  and  conse¬ 
quently  upon  the  staff  and  pivots  of  the  bal¬ 
ance.  If  this  external  motion  occurs  in  the 
direction  of  the  vibrating  plane  of  the  bal¬ 
ance,  and  a  vibration  takes  place  simultane¬ 
ously  in  the  same  direction,  the  vibration  arc 
is  increased ;  if  in  the  contrary  direction, 
such  an  arc  will  be  decreased,  and  it  is  only 
without  damage  to  the  time-keeping,  if  the 


external  motion  occurs  in  a  vertical  direction 
to  the  balance  axis. 

The  most  ordinary  external  motions,  how¬ 
ever,  occur  in  another  direction  than  that  of 
the  balance,  whereby  a  sensible  pressure  is 
exerted  upon  the  axis  of  the  vibrating  mass, 
productive  of  an  increased  friction  of  the 
pivots  in  their  bearings,  etc.,  and  a  retarda¬ 
tion,  never  an  acceleration,  takes  place.  In 
most  watches,  the  pivot  holes  of  which  are 
of  ruby,  the  retard  of  a  watch  is  much  larger, 
but  standing  fairly  well  in  ratio  with  its  con¬ 
struction  and  finish. 

A  marine  chronometer,  regulated  to  an 
almost  imperceptible  difference,  and  having 
preserved  an  excellent  rate  during  a  long  sea 
voyage,  would,  when  worn  as  a  watch,  go  too 
slow,  in  consequence  of  the  external  motions 
experienced ;  in  fact,  it  would  prove  to  be 
inferior  to  a  good  detached  lever  watch. 
Beside  all  imaginable  auxiliary  improve¬ 
ments,  these  chronometers  are  in  a  special 
box  and  suspended  in  such  a  way  that  they 
do,  or  should,  remain  in  an  equal  position  in 
all  the  different  motions  of  the  ship. 

Watchmakers  should  recommend  to  their 
customers  to  wind  their  watches  slowly,  no 
matter  whether  key-winder  or  stem-winder, 
avoiding  all  jerky  motions.  They  should  be 
wound  at  a  stated  time  in  the  morning ;  the 
watch  will  then  work  best  during  the  day,  as 
the  spring  will  exert  its  best  traction  power, 
whereby  the  external  motions  to  which  the 
watch  is  exposed  during  the  day’s  wear  is 
fairly  well  counterbalanced ;  this  is  greatly 
better  than  when  winding  it  at  night,  because 
it  has  only  the  weakened  spring  to  offer  as 
resistance  next  day.  Nor  need  the  break¬ 
ing  of  the  spring  be  feared  ;  this  is  no  longer 
at  full  tension  during  the  night,  and  can  stand 
better  the  ensuing  cold. 


2 


THE  LEVER  ESCAPEMENT. 


Let  watchmakers  recommend  to  their  cus¬ 
tomers  that  if  they  lay  their  watch  at  night 
either  at  an  inclination,  flat,  or  suspended,  it 
should  always  be  done  in  the  same  manner 
— not  differing  every  night.  The  rate  differ¬ 
ence  between  the  vertical  and  horizontal  po¬ 
sitions  is  often  significant,  in  second-rate 
watches  sometimes  two  or  three  minutes  in 
one  night ;  another  vicious  way  is  to  suspend 
a  watch  from  a  nail  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
will  rock  to  and  fro  like  a  pendulum,  and  a 
watch  with  a  heavy  balance  will  gain,  and, 
vice  versd,  one  with  a  light  one  will  lose. 
This  lies  of  course  in  the  nature  of  things. 
Similar  observations  can  be  made  by  clocks 
which  are  not  firm  in  their  case. 

The  temperature  difference  between  the 
heat  of  the  pocket  and  a  wall  nearly  to  the 
freezing  point  is  about  770  to  88°  F.  and  a 
watch  should  therefore  never  be  either  sus¬ 
pended  or  laid  upon  it — least  of  all  an  out¬ 
side  wall ;  the  sudden  change  of  tempera¬ 
ture  may  cause  the  sudden  breaking  of  the 
spring ;  also  the  oil  thickens,  especially  if  no 
longer  pure,  which  cannot  help  but  produce 
irregularities  of  rate  ;  if  the  balance  is  not 
compensated,  it  must  gain  from  this  piece  of 
carelessness,  and  should  it  possess  construct¬ 
ive  defects,  it  may  stand  still  from  the  cold. 

The  watch  wearer  should  clean  his  watch 
pocket  frequently,  to  free  it  from  accumulat¬ 
ing  dust  and  fibers.  Even  by  the  cleanest 
pursuits,  a  sort  of  fiber  dust  will  gather  in  the 
pocket,  caused  by  the  friction  of  the  watch 
case,  and  this  very  easily  finds  its  way  into 
the  interior  of  the  watch,  and  is  much  more 
pernicious  than  common  dust,  by  wrapping 
around  the  little  component  parts,  and  re¬ 
tarding,  sometimes  preventing,  their  motion. 
No  other  articles  should  be  carried  in  the 
watch  pocket,  such  as  keys,  coin,  etc. ;  it  is 
often  done,  yet  highly  detrimental  and  care¬ 
less.  Watch  crystals  may  be  broken,  the 
case  indented,  the  dial  and  hands  injured, 
etc.  The  watch  should  never  be  worn  against 
the  bony  part  of  the  body. 

But  by  even  the  greatest  of  care,  it  is  impos¬ 
sible  that  the  watch  can  go  forever  without 
periodical  repairs,  ahd  it  should  be  cleaned 
once  a  year.  All  manner  of  machinery  re¬ 
quires  an  occasional  supervision,  and  this 
should  be  performed  on  the  watch  at  least 
once  a  year ;  the  oil  has  dried  up  by  this 
time,  and  become  mixed  with  particles  of 
metallic  dust,  which  acts  like  emery.  The 
writer,  during  a  long  practice,  has  had  occa¬ 
sion  to  manipulate  costly  watches,  and  sev¬ 


eral  of  them  were  almost  ruined  beyond  re¬ 
pair  by  having  run  beyond  the  time.  'They 
generally  belonged  to  people  who  were  afraid 
to  trust  their  timepieces  to  indifferent  work¬ 
men,  and  sooner  risked  the  consequences. 

If  the  repairing  watchmaker  urges  these 
points,  and  many,  many  more,  upon  his  cir¬ 
cle  of  customers,  he  may  in  time  succeed  in 
educating  them  into  treating  their  watches 
with  a  little  more  consideration  than  is  gen¬ 
erally  allotted  them,  to  the  satisfaction  both 
of  the  repairer  and  the  owner. 


THE  LEVER  ESCAPEMENT. 

REVIEW  of  the  different  watch  escape¬ 
ments  is  highly  instructive,  and  an  aston¬ 
ishing  amount  of  ingenuity  has  often  been  put 
forth  in  their  construction  ;  nevertheless,  prac¬ 
tice  has  shown  that  all  except  four,  to  wit : 
the  verge,  cylinder,  anchor  or  lever,  and 
chronometer  escapements,  are  unreliable. 
The  verge  is  fast  becoming  obsolete,  and 
only  the  last  three  are  left.  The  escapement 
most  universally  used  to-day  is  the  lever,  and 
is  claimed  to  be  an  English  invention,  said 
to  have  been  made  in  1770,  by  Mr.  Thos. 
Mudge ;  others  accredit  it  to  Tompion,  and 
date  its  invention  to  1695.  The  Swiss  also 
claim  the  invention.  It  is  very  possible  that 
it  was  invented  simultaneously  about  the 
same  time  in  England  and  Switzerland,  and 
although  the  general  form  and  principles  to¬ 
day  are  the  same,  they  varied  largely  about 
100  years  ago,  at  which  time  the  Swiss  con¬ 
struction  rightfully  deserved  the  name  of 
“  anchor  ”  escapement,  from  its  peculiar 
form,  while  the  English  called  theirs  “  lever  ” 
escapement,  with,  every  show  of  reason  ;  both 
appellations  are  still  dominant  in  these  two 
countries. 

We  borrow  the  description  and  action  of 
the  escapement  from  the  excellent  work  on 
watchmaking  by  Mr.  F.  J.  Britten,  omitting 
the  illustrations,  as  every  watchmaker  is  so 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  functions 
and  performance  of  the  parts  that  an  illus¬ 
tration  is  unnecessary.  The  cut  shows  the 
most  usual  form  of  the  English  lever  escape¬ 
ment,  in  which  the  pallets  scape  over  three 
teeth  of  the  wheel.  A  tooth  of  the  escape 
wheel  is  at  rest  upon  the  locking-face  of  the 
entering  left-hand  pallet.  The  impulse  pin 
has  just  entered  the  notch  of  the  lever  and 
is  about  to  unlock  the  pallet.  The  action 
of  the  escapement  is  as  follows  :  The  balance 
which  is  attached  to  the  same  staff  as  the 


THE  LEVER  ESCAPEMENT. 


3 


roller,  is  traveling  in  the  direction  indicated 
by  the  arrow,  which  is  around  the  roller, 
with  sufficient  energy  to  cause  the  impulse 
pin  to  move  the  lever  and  pallets  far  enough 
to  release  the  wheel  tooth  from  the  locking- 
face,  and  allow  it  to  enter  on  the  impulse 
face  of  the  pallet.  Directly  it  is  at  liberty, 
the  escape  wheel,  actuated  by  the  mainspring 
of  the  watch,  moves  round  the  same  way  as 
the  arrow,  and  pushes  the  pallets  out  of  its 
path.  By  the  time  the  wheel  tooth  has  ar¬ 
rived  at  the  end  of  the  impulse  face  of  the 
pallet,  its  motion  is  arrested  by  the  exit  or 
:right-hand  pallet,  the  locking-face  of  which 
has  been  brought  into  position  to  receive 
another  tooth  of  the  wheel.  When  the  pal¬ 
let  was  pushed  aside  by  the  wheel  tooth,  it 
'carried  with  it  the  lever,  which  .in  its  turn 
communicated  a  sufficient  'blow  to  the  im¬ 
pulse  pin  to  send  the  balance  with  renewed 
energy  on  its  vibration,  so  that  the  impulse 
pin  has  the  double  office  of  unlocking  the 
pallets  by  giving  a  blow  on  one  side  of  the 
notch  of  the  lever,  and  of  immediately  re¬ 
ceiving  a  blow  from  the  opposite  side  of  the 
notch.  The  balance  proceeds  on  its  excur¬ 
sion,  winding  up,  as  it  goes,  the  balance 
spring,  until  its  energy  is  expended.  After 
it  is  brought  to  a  state  of  rest,  its  motion  is 
reversed  by  the  uncoiling  of  the  balance 
spring,  the  impulse  pin  again  enters  the  notch 
of  the  lever,  but  from  the  opposite  direction, 
and  the  operation  already  described  is  re¬ 
peated.  The  object  of  the  safety  pin  is  to 
prevent  the  wheel  from  being  unlocked  ex¬ 
cept  when  the  impulse  pin  is  in  the  notch 
of  the  lever.  The  banking  pins  keep  the 
motion  of  the  lever  within  the  desired  limits. 
They  should  be  placed  where  every  blow 
from  the  impulse  pin  on  to  the  outside  of  the 
lever  is  received  direct.  They  are  sometimes 
placed  at  the  tail  of  the  lever,  but  in  that 
position  the  locking  pins  receive  the  blow 
through  the  pallets,  staff  pivots,  which  are 
liable  to  be  broken  in  consequence. 

The  escape  wheel  has  fifteen  teeth,  and 
the  distance  between  the  pallets,  from  center 
to  center,  is  equal  to  6o°  of  the  circumference 
of  the  wheel.  The  pallets  are  planted  as 
closely  as  possible  to  the  wheel,  so  that  the 
teeth  of  the  wheel,  in  passing,  just  clear  the 
belly  of  the  pallets.*  The  width  of  each 

*  When  the  tooth  is  pressing  on  the  locking,  the 
line  of  pressure  should  pass  through  the  center  of 
the  pallet  staff.  But  as  the  locking-surface  of  the 
two  pallets  are  not  equidistant  from  the  center  of 
motion,  a  tangent  drawn  from  the  locking  corner  of 
one  pallet  would  be  wrong  for  the  other,  and  as  a 


pallet  is  made  as  nearly  as  possible  half  the 
distance  between  one  tooth  of  the  escape 
wheel  and  the  next.  As  the  teeth  of  the 
wheel  must  be  of  an  appreciable  thickness 
and  the  various  pivots  must  have  shake,  it  is 
not  found  practicable  to  get  the  pallets  of 
greater  width  than  io°  of  the  circumference 
of  the  wheel,  instead  of  120,  which  would 
be  half  the  distance  between  one  tooth  and 
the  next.  This  difference  between  the  the¬ 
oretical  and  actual  width  of  the  pallet  is 
called  the  “  drop.”  The  lever  is  pinned  to 
the  pallets,  and  has  the  same  center  of 
motion.  The  distance  between  the  center 
of  the  lever  and  the  center  of  the  roller 
is  not  absolute.  The  distance  generally 
adopted  is  a  chord  of  96°  of  a  circle  repre¬ 
senting  the  path  of  the  tips  of  the  escape- 
wheel  teeth,  that  is  the  distance  from  the  tip 
of  one  tooth  to  the  tip  of  the  fifth  succeed¬ 
ing  tooth.  The  proportion,  as  it  is  called,  of 
the  lever  and  roller  is  usually  from  3  to  1  to 
3)4  to  1.  In  the  former  case,  the  length  of 
the  lever  (measured  from  the  center  of  the 
pallet  staff  to  the  center  of  impulse  pin  or 
mouth  of  notch)  is  three  times  the  distance 
of  the  center  of  the  impulse  pin  from  the 
center  of  the  roller,  and  in  the  latter  case 
3)4  times.  The  portion  of  the  lever  to  the 
left  of  the  pallet-staff  hole  acts  as  counter¬ 
poise. 

In  this  form  of  the  lever  escapement  the 
pallets  have  not  less  than  io°  of  motion. 
Of  this  amount,  20  are  used  for  locking,  and 
the  remainder  for  impulse.  The  amount  of 
locking  is  to  some  extent  dependent  on  the 
size  of  the  escapement.  With  a  large  escape¬ 
ment,  less  than  i)40  would  suffice,  while  a 
small  one  would  require  more  than  20.  The 
quality  of  the  work,  too,  is  an  element  in 
deciding  the  amount  of  locking.  The  lighter 
the  locking  the  better,  but  it  must  receive 
every  tooth  of  "the  wheel  safely,  and  where 
all  the  parts  of  the  escapement  are  made 
with  care,  the  escapement  can  be  made  with 
a  light  locking,  io°  pallets,  with  a  lever  and 
roller  3  to  1,  give  a  balance  arc  of  300,  that 
is  to  say,  the  balance  in  its  vibration  is  freed 
from  the  escapement  except  during  300, 
when  the  impulse  pin  is  in  contact  with  the 
lever. 

Presuming  that  the  staff  hole  is  correctly 

matter  of  fact,  if  a  diagram  is  made  it  will  be  found 
that  even  when  the  pallets  are  planted  as  close  as 
possible  they  are  hardly  as  close  as  they  should  be 
for  the  right-hand  pallet.  To  plant  as  close  as  pos¬ 
sible  is  therefore  a  very  good  rule  and  is  the  one 
adopted  by  the  best  pallet  makers. 


4 


THE  CLUE-TOOTH  LEVER  ESCAPEMENT. 


drilled  with  relation  to  the  planes,  a  rough 
rule  for  testing  io°  pallets  is  that  a  straight 
edge  laid  on  the  plane  of  the  entering  pallet, 
should  point  to  the  locking  corner  of  the  exit 
pallet. 

When  from  setting  the  hands  of  a  watch 
back,  or  from  a  sudden  jerk,  there  is  a  ten¬ 
dency  for  the  pallets  to  unlock,  the  safety 
pin  butts  against  the  edge  of  the  roller.  It 
will  be  observed  that  when  the  impulse  pin 
unlocks  the  pallets,  the  safety  pin  is  allowed 
to  pass  the  roller  by  means  of  the  crescent 
which  is  cut  out  of  the  roller  opposite  to  the 
impulse  pin.  The  teeth  of  the  escape  wheel 
make  a  considerable  angle  with  a  radial  line 
(240),  so  that  their  tips  only  touch  the  lock¬ 
ing-faces  of  the  pallets.  The  locking-faces 
of  the  pallets,  instead  of  being  curves  struck 
from  the  center  of  motion  of  the  pallets,  as 
would  be  otherwise  the  case,  are  cut  back  at 
an  angle,  so  as  to  interlock  with  the  wheel 
teeth.*  This  is  done  so  that  the  safety  pin 
shall  not  drag  on  the  edge  of  the  roller,  but 
be  drawn  back  till  the  lever  touches  the 
banking  pin.  When  the  operation  of  setting 
the  hands  back  is  finished,  or  the  other  cause 
of  disturbance  removed,  the  pressure  of  the 
wheel  tooth  on  the  locking-face  of  the  pallet 
draws  the  pallet  into  the  wheel  as  far  as  the 
banking  pin  will  allow.  The  amount  of  this 
“  run  ”  should  not  be  more  than  sufficient  to 
give  proper  clearance  between  the  safety  pin 
and  the  roller,  for  the  more  the  run  the 
greater  is  the  resistance  to  unlocking.  This 
rule  is  sometimes  sadly  transgressed  and 
occasionally  the  locking  is  found  to  be,  from 
excessive  run,  almost  equal  in  extent  to  the 
impulse.  It  will  generally  be  found  that  in 
these  cases  the  escapement  is  so  badly  pro¬ 
portioned  that  the  extra  run  has  had  to  be 
given  to  secure  a  sound  safety  action.  In 
common  watches,  the  safety  action  is  a  fre¬ 
quent  source  of  trouble.  The  more  the  path 
of  the  safety  pin  intersects  the  edge  of  the 
roller,  the  sounder  is  the  safety  action,  and 
if  the  intersection  is  small,  the  safety  pin  is 
likely  to  jam  against  the  edge  of  the  roller, 
or  even  to  pass  it  altogether. 

With  an  ordinary  single-roller  escapement, 
a  sound  safety  action  cannot  be  obtained 
with  a  less  balance  arc  than  300.  Even 
with  a  balance  arc  of  300,  the  roller  must 
be  kept  small  in  the  following  way  to  insure 
the  soundness  of  the  safety  action.  The 

*  The  locking  face  forms  an  angle  of  6°  to  8°  with 
a  tangent  to  a  circle  representing  the  path  of  the 
locking  corner. 


hole  for  the  impulse  pin  must  not  be  left 
round.  After  it  is  drilled,  a  punch  of  the 
same  shape  as  the  impulse  pin — that  is,  with 
one  third  of  its  diameter  flattened  off — should 
be  inserted  and  the  edge  of  the  roller,  where 
the  crescent  is  to  be  formed,  beaten  in.  By 
this  means,  the  roller  can  be  turned  down 
small  enough  to  get  a  sufficient  intersection 
for  the  safety  pin. 

It  is  useful  in  estimating  the  balance  arc  of 
a  watch  to  remember,  if  it  has  a  three-armed 
balance,  that  300  is  one-fourth  of  the  dis¬ 
tance  between  two  arms.  With  a  compensa¬ 
tion  balance,  a  third  of  the  distance  between 
two  of  the  quarter  screws  is  300. 


THE  CLUB-TOOTH  LEVER  ESCAPE¬ 
MENT. 

ATCHMAKERS  know  well  that  this 
form  of  escapement  is  almost  exclu¬ 
sively  used  in  all  the  countries  on  the  conti¬ 
nent,  and  since  many  specimens  of  it  come 
to  the  workbench  of  the  American  repairer,  it 
is  well  perhaps  to  turn  our  attention  to  it.  The 
readers  of  the  Circular  Workshop  Notes 
are  well  aware  that  the  club-tooth  escape¬ 
ment  principally  differs  from  the  ratchet 
tooth  in  having  the' action  divided  between 
the  pallet  and  the  tooth,  both  having  inclined 
impulse  faces.  The  club  tooth  has  also  an 
advantage  in  closer  escaping,  the  back  of  the 
tooth  being  undercut,  thereby  allows  the 
pallet  to  pass  inward  at  the  back  of  the  tooth, 
thus  giving  from  one-half  to  a  full  degree 
more  impulse  arc  in  the  scape  wheel  action, 
although  no  more  in  the  pallet  action. 

The  action  of  this  style  of  escapement  is 
a  little  more  complex  and  difficult  to  under¬ 
stand  than  the  ratchet  tooth,  but  is  quite  as 
easy  to  repair  if  once  the  principle  is  under¬ 
stood.  The  American  and  Swiss  watches 
have  almost  universally  this  form  of  escape¬ 
ment,  consequently  four-fifths  of  the  watches 
the  watchmaker  has  to  repair  are  either  of 
the  one  or  the  other  of  these  makes.  The 
American  watch,  being  provided  with  ex¬ 
posed  pallets  set  in  slots,  can  be  moved  and 
manipulated  until  a  near  approximation  of 
the  correct  action  is  obtained.  This  ease  of 
change  and  adjustment,  although  very  nice 
for  those  who  thoroughly  understand  the 
principles  involved,  is  very  vexatious  to  those 
who  are  so  unfortunate  as  to  lack  this 
knowledge.  American  scape  wheels  of  all 
the  factories  are  nearly  duplicates  of  each 
other,  so  are  also  the  pallet  stones,  conse- 


THE  CLEANING  OF  A  WATCH. 


5 


quently  there  are  but  few  changes  which 
need  to  be  made  except  in  setting  the  pallet 
stones. 

The  American  watches  made  by  the  sev¬ 
eral  factories  have  different  methods  of  ar¬ 
riving  at  similar  results.  One  factory  acting 
from  their  convictions  assume  they  can  over¬ 
come  slight  inaccuracies  by  one  method, 
while  another  insists  their  system  is  best. 
The  most  frequent  disarrangement  to  which 
the  American  lever  is  subject  is  the  breaking 
or  loss  of  the  jewel  pin  and  the  loosening 
and  loss  of  a  pallet  stone. 


INSPECTION  OF  THE  CYLINDER 
ESCAPEMENT. 

HIS  form  of  escapement  is  also  known  as 
the  horizontal,  so  called  from  the  fact  of 
the  escape  wheel  lying  horizontally,  in  distinc¬ 
tion  from  the  verge  or  vertical  escapement. 
This  escapement  was  invented  by  Tampion 
and  perfected  by  Graham,  early  in  the  last 
century ;  it  is  now  almost  exclusively  em¬ 
ployed  in  watches  made  on  the  continent, 
the  English  turning  their  attention  more 
toward  patent  levers  Movements  of  the 
flattest  kind  have  cylinder  escapements.  The 
axis  of  the  balance  is  a  hollow  cylinder,  cut 
away  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  scape 
wheel  teeth.  Though  excellent  for  ordinary 
pocket  watches,  the  cylinder  escapement 
cannot  be  said  to  equal  the  lever  and  some 
others,  where  greater  accuracy  is  required. 
The  drop  of  the  escapement  is  the  cause  of 
much  trouble  to  watch  repairers,  but  the 
following  means  will  enable  them  to  ascer¬ 
tain  how  far  the  drops  are  equal  and  correct : 

The  movement  being  slightly  wound  up, 
with  a  fine  wire  or  strip  of  paper  turn  the 
balance  till  a  tooth  falls  ;  now,  try  how  much 
shake  the  escape  wheel  has,  and  allow  the 
tooth  to  escape ;  then  try  again  and  go  all 
round  the  wheel,  to  see  how  all  the  teeth 
and  spaces  agree  in  size.  To  correct  any 
inequality  is  certainly  a  job  for  an  expert 
hand,  and  directions  will  not  avail  much  un¬ 
less  to  an  expert.  When  the  tooth  contained 
within  the  cylinder  has  no  freedom  and  rubs 
at  the  point  and  heel,  there  is  no  internal 
drop ;  when  the  tooth  has  escaped  and  the 
cylinder  shell  rubs  on  the  point  of  one  tooth 
and  the  heel  of  the  next,  then  there  is  no 
outside  drop.  The  internal  drop  is  increased 
by  reducing  the  length  of  the  teeth,  the  ex¬ 
ternal  by  increasing  the  space  between  the 
teeth.  When  the  drop  is  very  slight,  the 


watch  is  very  liable  to  stop  through  the  ex¬ 
cessive  friction ;  in  the  case  of  unequal  drop 
the  rate  of  a  watch  cannot  be  maintained, 
and  occasional  stoppages  will  occur. 

This  fault  is  found  by  dotting  the  balance 
with  spots  of  rouge  and  carefully  noting  the 
vibrations,  which,  if  unequal,  indicate  un¬ 
equal  drops.  Though  this  is  the  usual  cause, 
the  same  effect  may  be  the  result  of  some 
teeth  lifting  more  than  others. 

A  noisy  drop  is  caused  by  badly  polished 
surfaces,  and  in  such  a  case  the  heel  of  the 
cylinder  should  be  carefully  noticed.  If  the 
pivot  holes  of  the  escape  wheel  are  too  large 
an  immense  amount  of  trouble  will  be  caused, 
and,  in  fact,  all  the  end  shakes  and  side 
shakes  of  the  cylinder  require  most  careful 
adjustment.  An  excess  of  oil  will  also  cause 
an  infinity  of  errors  to  arise  and  should  be 
most  carefully  guarded  against.  The  points 
of  the  escape  wheel  teeth  may  catch  in  a 
slight  burr,  which  is  sometimes  left  at  the  lips 
of  the  cylinder,  and,  of  course,  would  stop 
the  watch.  This  is  remedied  by  polishing 
the  cylinder  and  rounding  off  the  points 
of  the  scape  wheel  teeth. 

The  balance  spring  should  be  pinned  up 
to  have  the  escapement  in  perfect  beat. 
This  is  done  by  pinning  the  stud  on  the 
spring  so  that  it  is  exactly  over  a  dot  marked 
in  the  balance  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
the  position.  Sometimes  the  lower  corner 
of  the  heel  of  the  scape  wheel  tooth  touches 
the  inside  cylinder  and  stops  the  watch. 
But  all  these  defects  may  be  seen,  or  rather 
felt,  by  careful  trial.  If  there  is  any  doubt 
of  parts  touching  where  they  should  not,  a 
spot  of  rouge  put  on  will  at  once  mark  where 
it  touches.  _ 

THE  CLEANING  OF  A  WATCH. 

ANY  methods  and  agents  :  Benzine  and 
alcohol,  cyanide  of  potassium,  etc.,  are 
used  for  cleaning  watches,  and  the  horologi- 
cal  press  occasionally  publishes  a  batch  of 
new  ones,  so  that  the  practical  workman  has 
every  reason  to  look  forward  to  the  time 
when  the  movement  need  no  longer  be  taken 
down,  but  is  cleaned,  lubricated  and  bur¬ 
nished  up  while  the  customer  is  waiting  in 
the  shop.  But  while  we  anxiously  await  the 
invention  or  discovery  of  this  new  method, 
let  us  meanwhile  discuss,  perhaps,  the  oldest 
and  unexcelled — the  washing  in  soap  and 
water.  The  washing  with  a  soft  brush, 
warm  water  and  an  easily  foaming  soap  is 
unsurpassed  for  the  gilt  parts,  as  well  as  the 


6 


THE  CLEANING  OF  A  WATCH. 


mat  ground  steel  parts  of  a  watch.  After 
washing,  the  parts  are  only  rinsed  in  pure 
alcohol,  which  dissolves  all  the  particles  of 
soap  still  adhering,  and  they  are  finally  dried 
in  sawdust.  The  original  luster  is  hereby 
restored  to  the  gilding,  and  it  is  necessary 
merely  to  lightly  dab  the  pieces  with  a  clean 
brush  and  to  clean  the  holes. 

Some  of  our  readers  will  rejoin  by  saying 
that  this  method  is  too  tedious ;  this  is  true 
of  shops  where  the  several  agents  necessary 
are  not  at  disposal.  Every  shop  should  con¬ 
tain  a  wash  table,  with  alcohol  lamp  and  a 
small  light  copper  kettle  in  which  to  heat 
the  water  over  the  flame.  Cold  water  can 
also  be  used,  but  this  will  not  take  off  the 
old  oil. 

The  steel  parts  are  most  suitably  cleaned 
in  benzine  and  dried  in  sawdust.  Polished 
brass  parts  must  previously  be  retouched 
with  the  buffstick. 

When  all  the  parts  have  been  taken  out 
of  the  sawdust,  they  are  finally  cleaned  in 
the  order  in  which  to  be  mounted  in  the 
movement,  so  that  each  cleaned  part  is  at 
once  located  in  its  place  upon  the  plate. 

The  wheels,  and  more  especially  the  deli¬ 
cate  parts,  must,  after  cleaning,  be  scrutinized 
with  the  magnifier  so  as  to  be  satisfied  that 
no  brush  hair  or  other  disturbing  element 
has  lodged  anywhere.  A  hair  is  apt  to 
lodge  itself  in  the  slit  between  the  plate  and 
the  lower  cylinder  bridge,  and,  when  trans¬ 
parent,  it  is  easily  overlooked.  When  this 
hair  comes  in  contact  with  one  of  the  escape¬ 
ment  parts,  it  naturally  will  give  rise  to  a 
very  injurious  disturbance. 

When  the  plate  has  been  cleaned  and  the 
cap  jewel  plate  screwed  in  place,  I  clean 
first  the  fourth  wheel,  screw  the  bridge  on, 
and  satisfy  myself  of  the  correct  end-shake 
and  the  perfect  freedom  of  the  wheel ;  the 
third  and  center  wheels  are  then  mounted  ; 
the  pivot  of  the  latter  wheel  is  lubricated, 
the  center  staff  is  put  into  the  cannon  and  the 
cannon  pinion  broached. 

Some  workmen  will,  after  the  fourth  wheel, 
mount  the  scape  wheel,  and,  if  the  fourth 
wheel  is  without  seconds  pivot,  they  begin 
the  mounting  with  the  cylinder  scape  wheel, 
as  the  freedom  of  this  wheel  is  of  great  im¬ 
portance. 

1  think  that  my  method  is  preferable,  be¬ 
cause  it  will  happen  that  after  the  fastening 
of  the  cannon  pinion  a  pinching  of  the  center 
wheel  will  occur.  Such  a  pinching  is,  in  the 
absence  of  the  scape  wheel,  far  more  easily 


seen  and  changed.  An  accidental  trembling: 
of  the  center  staff,  also,  is  more  easily  cor¬ 
rected. 

When  the  scape  wheel  has  been  mounted,, 
and  its  shake  found  correct,  investigate  the 
smooth  action  of  the  train  in  different 
positions,  by  occasionally  exerting  a  slight 
pressure  against  the  center  wheel. 

The  cylinder  bridge  is  then  put  together,, 
and  the  cylinder,  with  spring,  is  fastened  to 
the  bridge.  These  parts  are  put  together 
without  oil,  and  examined  whether  every¬ 
thing  is  in  thorough  order.  Only  when  the 
cylinder  shake,  the  balance  spring,  and  the 
drop  has  been  arranged,  put  oil  into  the 
sinks.  If  too  great  a  quantity  is  applied,  so 
that  it  overruns  the  jewel,  the  oil  will,  by 
capillary  action,  draw  away  from  the  spot 
where  it  should  be. 

When  putting  together  the  barrel  parts, 
never  forget  to  lubricate  the  clickwork,  more- 
particularly  that  of  the  going  barrel,  as  the 
injury  occasioned  thereby  would  soon  show 
itself.  The  mainspring  is  to  be  lubricated 
only  slightly.  The  stopfinger  should  always- 
be  fastened  with  a  steel  pin ;  it  is  more 
securely  retained  thereby.  The  barrel  is 
mounted  in  the  plate,  and  the  spring  is 
wound  a  few  teeth  to  apply  oil  to  the  es¬ 
capement. 

I  am  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  best  to  ap¬ 
ply  a  small  portion  of  oil  to  each  cylinder 
wheel  pivot,  while  other  workmen  prefer  to 
place  a  small  drop  of  oil  in  the  cylinder. 

The  oil  placed  in  the  cylinder  draws  at 
once  to  the  surface  of  the  plug,  and  outside 
of  the  cylinder  up  to  the  collet.  It  therefore 
may  happen  with  .long  cylinders  that  the 
teeth  receive  little  or  no  oil.  With  short 
ones  it  is  immaterial  in  which  manner  the  oil 
is  applied  to  the  escapement,  as  it  will  in 
every  case  draw  upward,  because  the  wheel 
teeth  come  very  near  to  the  plug  surface. 

Before  the  movement  is  set  into  the  case 
this  must  be  well  cleaned  within,  because 
even  new  cases  contain  particles  of  dust  and 
remnants  of  crocus.  The  case  springs  must 
invariably  be  taken  out  and  cleaned  ;  a  large 
quantity  of  filth  will  often  be  found  round, 
about  and  behind  them,  which,  if  not  re¬ 
moved,  would  fall  into  the  movement.  Dm 
the  same  with  the  push  button. 

Only  when  the  movement  has  been  fast¬ 
ened  in  the  case  do  I  apply  oil  to  those- 
pivots  which  still  can  be  reached.  The 
minute  wheel  pinion,  also,  must  be  slightly- 
moistened,  because  the  pinion  runs  upon  a. 


REPAIRING  AND  EXAMINING  WATCHES.— METHODS. 


7 


steel  pivot ;  therefore  two  steel  parts  lie 
against  each  other,  which  is  apt  to  engender 
rust.  A  spreading  spring  will  generally  be 
necessary  for  the  hour  wheel,  if  the  correct 
shake  is  not  produced  itself  by  the  minute 
work  or  the  hands  themselves. 

When  the  hands  have  been  mounted  the 
watch  is  ready  for  service,  and  only  requires 
timing.  With  a  cylinder  watch  it  is  well  not 
to  put  the  regulator  entirely  on  “  fast,”  be¬ 
cause  every  such  watch,  after  the  course  of 
a  few  months,  has  an  inclination  to  lose,  and 
the  regulator  must  stand  so  that  a  subse¬ 
quent  difference  of  rate  can  be  corrected. 

The  timing  of  a  watch  requires  so  much 
expert  skill  that  we  omit  describing  it. 


TO  CLEAN  A  WATCH. 

AKE  the  watch  all  apart  and  immerse  in 
benzine,  do  not  leave  the  cap  jewel  and 
jewel  slip  attached  to  cock  and  potence,  or 
the  potence  to  the  plate,  etc.,  but  have 
everything  apart  so  that  each  piece  can  be 
thoroughly  cleaned.  Take  each  piece  out 
separately  and  dry  with  clean  linen  rag,  and 
brush  all  the  parts  with  clean  brush,  charged 
with  billiard  chalk  and  subsequently  rubbed 
over  a  bone  or  dry  crust  of  bread  ;  be  very 
careful  to  get  the  jewel  holes  thoroughly 
clean  and  bright,  and  leave  no  trace  of  dust 
between  pinion  leaves,  wheel  teeth,  etc. ;  use 
watchmaker’s  tissue  paper  for  holding  parts 
in  to  clean  ;  this  paper  is  for  sale  by  material 
dealers  for  50  or  60  cents  a  box,  contain¬ 
ing  1,000  sheets  ;  it  is  much  better  than  ordi¬ 
nary  tissue  paper,  as  it  lasts  much  longer  and 
there  is  no  “  fluff,”  which  is  an  important  con¬ 
sideration.  When  everything  is  thoroughly 
cleaned,  put  the  movement  together,  oil  the 
mainspring  liberally  but  not  excessively  ;  also 
the  fusee  pivot  holes  and  the  large  center 
hole ;  be  careful  not  to  place  so  much  oil 
that  it  will  run  on  the  plates  or  down  the 
arbor,  or  it  will  be  drawn  off  and  be  of  little 
use  where  it  is  intended  to  be.  In  oiling 
the  balance  jewel  holes,  sharpen  up  a  piece 
of  pegwood  and  insert  in  the  holes  to  insure 
the  oil  running  down  on  the  cap  jewels,  and 
then  insert  a  little  more  oil ;  also  be  very 
careful  in  oiling  scape  teeth  ;  too  much  will 
get  to  the  body  of  the  wheel,  all  over  the 
pallets  and  on  to  the  fork  ;  a  little  on  the  tips 
•  of  the  teeth  is  all  that  is  needed. 

If  the  balance  is  now  inserted  and  pinned 
so  that  the  hairspring  is  flat  and  concentric 
and  plays  evenly  between  the  regulator  pins, 


the  watch  will  start  off  with  a  fine  motion, 
and  will  continue  to  run  well  and  give  the 
customer  the  best  of  satisfaction. 


TO  CLEAN  WATCHES  WITH  CYA¬ 
NIDE  OF  POTASSIUM. 

EFORK  detailing  the  process  of  cleaning 
a  watch  with  cyanide  of  potassium,  the 
Circular  cannot  desist  from  cautioning 
watchmakers  who  use  it ;  while  useful  in  its 
place,  cyanide  is  dangerous  and  must  be  used 
with  great  care — dangerous  to  the  person 
using  it,  to  the  gilding  of  the  parts  put  into 
it,  if  allowed  to  remain  too  long — and  danger¬ 
ous  to  all  steel  articles  around  which  can  be 
reached  by  its  vapors.  If  not  thoroughly 
cleaned  off,  the  trace  of  it  remaining  on  the 
pieces  will  evaporize  on  the  watch  when  put 
together,  and  rust  the  steel  works  of  the 
movement.  With  this  understanding  on  the 
part  of  the  Circular  it  details  the  process 
of  cleaning  a  watch  by  the  use  of  cyanide 
of  potassium.  A  small  piece  of  the  cyanide 
is  dissolved  in  a  common  drinking  glass  filled 
with  water,  or,  what  is  better,  a  wide-mouthed 
bottle  with  ground  stopper.  The  movement 
to  be  cleaned  is  taken  apart,  and  the  balance, 
the  lever,  and  other  steel  parts  are  placed  in 
benzine.  If  the  balance  jewels  are  in  set¬ 
tings,  they  are  removed  and  also  placed  in 
the  benzine.  The  plates  and  wheels  are 
strung  on  a  small  brass  or  copper  wire,  bent 
so  as  to  form  a  catch,  similar  to  a  safety  pin 
with  the  pin  part  extended  to  hold  it  by,  and 
dipped  into  the  cyanide,  then  well  rinsed  in 
clean  water  (warm  water  is  best),  and  then 
in  alcohol,  and  placed  in  sawdust  to  dry. 
When  dry,  brush  only  enough  to  remove  the 
sawdust.  The  parts  in  the  benzine  are 
cleaned  in  the  usual  way. 


REPAIRING  AND  EXAMINING 
WATCHES.— METHODS. 

XPEDITION  and  certainty  in  watch¬ 
making  and  repairing  are  primarily  se¬ 
cured,  says  Claudius  Saunier,  by  proceed¬ 
ing  on  a  definite  system  both  in  the 
preliminary  examination  of  the  watch  and 
in  details  of  construction  or  repairing.  The 
best  watchmakers,  and  practical  men  gener¬ 
ally,  take  their  work  in  a  certain  order,  from 
which  any  departure  is  exceptional.  By  this 
means  they  avoid  the  necessity  of  doing  work 
twice  over  and  of  frequently  taking  up  the 
same  piece  ;  a  circumstance  that  often  occurs 


8 


<CASE,  GLASS,  DIAL,  DOME. 


with  young  watchmakers,  owing  to  forgetful¬ 
ness  and  to  a  want  of  sequence  in  their  ideas. 
They,  should  from  the  first  accustom  them¬ 
selves  to  working  methodically  on  a  definite 
system. 

It  must,  however,  be  understood  that  no 
method  can  be  inflexible,  nor  can  it  be 
equally  advantageous  for  different  individ¬ 
uals,  because  men  differ  in  regard  to  manual 
dexterity,  goodness  of  eyesight  and  of  mem¬ 
ory,  power  of  associating  their  ideas,  etc. 
A  system  that  is  suitable  to  a  person  of  un- 
excitable  temperament  will  have  to  be  modi¬ 
fied  by  one  who  is  oppositely  disposed. 
Every  one  will  be  able  to  decide  for  himself 
as  to  the  best  system  to  adopt  and  the  order 
in  which  to  take  up  his  daily  work.  These 
preliminary  observations  appear  necessary, 
because  the  method  explained  below  of  ex¬ 
amining  a  Geneva  watch  has  been  regarded 
by  some  as  too  long  and  minute.  We  would 
urge  any  young  watchmaker  who  hears  such 
ideas  advanced  to  assure  himself  that  it  is  a 
mistake,  because  the  system  here  explained 
is  only  put  forward  subject  to  the  modifica¬ 
tions  that  experience  suggests ;  and  it  is  to 
be  observed  that  many  of  the  operations 
given  can  be  performed  more  rapidly  than 
they  can  be  described. 

When  a  watchmaker  experiences  a  great 
loss  of  time,  does  it  not  usually  arise  from 
the  fact  that  he  is  obliged  to  take  a  watch 
down,  or  nearly  so,  after  its  repairing  and 
examination  were  thought  to  have  been 
completed ;  or  when  a  watch  that  has  been 
repaired  is  brought  back  to  be  examined  be¬ 
fore  the  ordinary  period  of  cleaning  has 
elapsed  f  Let  him  add  together  the  numerous 
hours  spent  in  this  kind  of  thankless  work, 
let  him  sum  up  the  worries  experienced,  and 
the  discredit,  etc.,  to  which  he  has  been  sub¬ 
jected,  and  he  will  see  that  systematic  work 
would  have  saved  him  both  loss  of  money 
and  loss  of  credit.  _ 

EXTERNAL  EXAMINATION  OF  THE 
WATCH. 

N  the  following  paragraphs,  when  the 
manner  in  which  a  given  fault  is  not  in¬ 
dicated  at  once,  explanations  will  at  a  sub¬ 
sequent  time  be  given. 


CASE,  GLASS,  DIAL,  DOME. 

LANCE  at  the  case  in  order  to  ascertain 
that  it  has  not  received  a  blow  or  been 
subjected  to  pressure  ;  that  the  joints  and  fly- 


springs  work  well ;  and  that  the  hands,  in 
rotating,  touch  neither  the  glass  nor  dial. 
By  laying  the  nail  on  the  surface  of  the 
glass,  it  will  be  easy  to  see  whether  there  is 
sufficient  freedom  between  the  socket  of  the 
hand  and  the  glass.  In  case  of  doubt,  place 
a  small  piece  of  paper  on  the  hand,  close  the 
bezel,  and  tap  the  glass  with  the  finger  while 
the  watch  is  in  an  inclined  position.  If  free, 
the  paper  will  be  displaced. 

The  set-hands  square  should  be  rounded 
at  the  end,  and  a  trifle  below  the  level  of  the 
dome,  in  order  to  avoid  the  possibility  of 
contact  in  case  of  any  accidental  bending  of 
the  back  of  the  watch,  and  the  dome  must 
not  press  on  the  balance-cock  wing  or  the 
central  dust  cap  (if  present).  The  above 
remark  also  applies  to  the  winding  square  of 
a  fusee  watch. 

There  must  be  sufficient  freedom  between 
the  going-barrel  teeth  and  the  banking-pin 
of  the  balance  on  one  hand,  and  the  internal 
rim  of  the  case,  the  fly-springs,  and  the  joints 
on  the  other.  Otherwise  there  is  danger  of 
contacts  when  the  case  is  closed,  which  oc¬ 
casions  irregularity  and  stoppage  often  diffi¬ 
cult  to  detect. 

The  dome  must  be  at  a  sufficient  distance 
from  all  parts  of  the  movement,  more  espe¬ 
cially  the  balance-cock.  If  there  is  any  oc¬ 
casion  for  doubt  on  this  point,  put  a  thin 
layer  of  rouge  on  the  parts  that  are  most 
prominent.  Close  the  case,  and,  holding  it 
in  one  hand  to  the  ear,  apply  a  pressure  at 
all  parts  of  the  back  with  a  finger  of  the 
other  hand,  listening  attentively  in  order  to 
ascertain  whether  the  vibrations  are  inter¬ 
fered  with.  If  the  interval  is  insufficient,  a 
trace  of  rouge  will  be  found  on  the  inside  of 
the  dome.  In  such  a  case,  if  the  dome  can¬ 
not  be  raised  nor  hollowed  slightly  in  the 
mandrel  (when  formed  of  metal),  lower  as 
far  as  possible  the  index  work  and  the  bal¬ 
ance-cock  wing,  and  fix  in  .  the  plate,  close 
to  the  balance,  one  or  two  screws  with  mush¬ 
room  heads  that  will  serve  to  raise  the 
dome. 

Ascertain  that  the  hands  stand  sufficiently 
apart ;  that  the  hour  hand  does  not  rub 
against  the  hole  in  the  dial ;  and  that  the 
minute  hand  does  not  come  nearer  to  the 
dial  in  one  place  than  in  another — a  fault 
which  may  arise  either  from  the  dial  not  be¬ 
ing  flat  or  from  the  center  wheel  being  badly 
planted. 

Remove  the  movement  from  its  case,  after 
making  sure  that  it  is  held  firmly  by  the 


ACTION  OF  THE  ESCAPEMENT. 


9 


locking  screws  ;  take  off  the  hands,  and  see 
that  the  hour  wheel  has  tfie  right  amount  of 
play ;  this  freedom  may  be  diminished  if  re¬ 
quired  by  laying  on  the  wheel  small  discs  of 
tinsel  cut  out  with  a  punch.  If  the  dial 
presses  against  any  part  of  the  movement, 
or  is  not  flat,  or  comes  so  near  to  any  of  the 
pivot  holes  as  to  draw  off  the  oil,  it  must 
be  ground  away  until  a  sufficient  amount 
of  freedom  is  obtained. 


TO  EXAMINE  A  GENEVA  MOVEMENT. 

ALTHOUGH  the  following  remarksr  efer 
.  in  the  main  to  foreign  watches  with  a 
Lepine  movement,  many  are  also  applicable 
to  the  English  or  American  watch. 


THE  MOTION  WORK  AND  HANDS. 

OTATE  the  wheels  connecting  the  hour 
and  minute  hands  by  the  aid  of  a  key, 
and  a  glance  will  suffice  to  show  whether  the 
several  depths,  which  should  be  light,  are 
satisfactory.  The  wheels  should  not  rub  one 
against  the  other,  the  plate  barrel,  or  stop 
work.  The  barrel  should  have  been  pre¬ 
viously  examined  to  ascertain  that  it  is  not 
inclined  to  one  side,  because,  if  it  were,  an 
-error  would  probably  be  made  in  estimating 
the  degree  of  freedom.  , 

The  set-hands  arbor  (the  square  of  which 
should  be  a  trifle  smaller  than  that  of  the 
barrel  arbor)  must  turn  rather  stiffly  in  the 
center  pinion,  and  the  cannon  pinion  must 
be  held  on  the  arbor  sufficiently  tight  to 
avoid  all  chance  of  its  rising  and  thereby  be¬ 
coming  loose ;  for  this  would  alter  the  play 
of  the  hands  and  motion  work.  If  any  fault 
is  found  in  the  adjustment  correct  it  at  once, 
so  as  to  avoid  doing  so  after  the  movement 
has  been  cleaned. 

If  it  has  not  been  done  already,  slightly 
round  the  lower  end  of  the  cannon  pinion 
and  the  steel  shield,  care  being  taken  to 
avoid  forming  a  burr  on  the  pinion  leaves. 
These  two  pieces  ought  to  rest  on  the  ends 
of  the  center-pinion  pivots,  and  at  the  same 
time  be  some  distance  removed  from  the 
plate  And  bar  respectively. 


FREEDOM  AND  END-SHAKE. 

BSERVE  that  there  is  sufficient  clear¬ 
ance  between  the  plate  and  barrel ;  the 
barrel  and  center  wheel ;  the  several  wheels 
in  succession,  both  between  themselves,  their 


cocks,  and  sinks ;  between  the  balance  on 
the  one  hand  and  its  cock,  the  center  wheel, 
fourth-wheel  cock,  the  balance-spring  coils 
and  stud  on  the  other.  The  fourth  wheel  is 
frequently  found  to  pass  too  near  to  the 
jewel  forming  the  lower  pivot-hole  of  the 
escape  wheel. 

The  end-shake  of  the  wheels  may  be  tested 
by  taking  hold  of  an  arm  of  each  with 
tweezers,  and  lifting  it.  This  may  also  be 
done  in  the  case  of  the  escape  wheel,  but, 
when  the  cock  is  slight,  it  will  be  sufficient 
to  press  gently  upon  it  with  a  pegwood  stick, 
then  releasing  it,  and  observing  the  apparent 
increase  in  the  length  of  pivot.  At  the  same 
time  ascertain  that  the  width  and  height  of 
the  passage  in  the  cock  is  enough  to  allow 
the  teeth,  when  carrying  oil,  to  pass  with 
requisite  freedom. 

Holding  the  watch  on  a  level  with  the 
eye,  lightly  raise  the  balance  with  a  pegwood 
point  several  times,  each  time  allowing  it  to 
fall.  The  variation  observed  in  the  space 
between  the  collet  and  cock  will  indicate  the 
end-shake  of  the  balance  staff. 


ACTION  OF  THE  ESCAPEMENT. 

HE  side  play  of  the  balance  pivots  in 
their  holes  can,  with  practice,  be  easily 
estimated  by  touch,  or  this  may  be  done  by 
the  eye,  attentively  watching  the  upper  pivot 
through  the  end-stone  with  a  powerful  glass, 
while  the  watch  lies  flat,  and  the  lower  pivot 
in  the  same  manner  with  the  watch  inverted. 
If  the  end-stones  are  not  clear  enough,  al¬ 
though  such  a  case  is  rare,  remove  first  one 
end-stone  and  examine  the  pivot ;  then  re¬ 
place  it  and  remove  the  other. 

It  should  be  possible  to  rotate  the  bal¬ 
ance  until  the  banking-pin  comes  against 
its  stop,  without  causing  the  escape  wheel  to 
recoil  at  all,  or  allowing  a  tooth  to  catch 
outside  the  cylinder  behind  the  small  lip. 
The  banking-pin  sometimes  passes  too  near 
to  the  fourth-wheel  staff.  The  U-arms 
should  rest  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  the  banking-slot  of  the  cylinder ;  that 
is  to  say,  they  should  be  as  far  from  the  up¬ 
per  as  from  the  under  edge  of  this  slot,  so 
that  the  end-shakes  may  have  free  play  in 
all  positions  of  the  watch.  Ascertain  that 
the  balance  spring  is  flat ;  that  it  coils  and 
uncoils  regularly  without  constraint ;  that  it 
does  not  touch  the  center  wheel,  the  stud 
or  the  inner  curb-pin  (with  its  second  coil). 
The  rapid  examination  of  the  escapement 


IO 


CENTER  WHEEL:  BAD  UPRIGHTING. 


may  now  be  regarded  as  completed,  if  the 
watch  in  hand  is  merely  cleaned  after  hav¬ 
ing  previously  gone  well. 

But,  if  engaged  on  a  watch  that  has  not 
gone  well  previously,  or  if  examining  a  new 
one,  the  action  of  the  escapement  must  be 
thoroughly  tested  in  the  manner  customary 
among  workmen. 


VISIBLE  DEPTHS. 

HILE  the  train  is  in  motion  through  the 
force  of  the  mainspring  or  the  pressure 
of  a  finger  against  the  barrel  teeth,  examine 
with  a  glass  all  the  depths  that  are  visible.  That 
of  the  escapement,  for  example,  can  be  easily 
seen  through  the  jeweled  pivot  hole  when 
this  is  flat,  the  watch  being  laid  horizontal 
and  a  powerful  glass  used.  When  the  action 
cannot  be  seen  in  this  manner  with  sufficient 
distinctness,  hold  the  watch  up  against  the 
light  and  look  through  it.  Depths  that  can¬ 
not  be  clearly  seen,  or  about  which  any 
doubt  exists,  must  be  subsequently  verified 
by  the  touch. 

If  examining  a  new  watch,  it  may  be 
found  necessary  to  form  inclined  notches  at 
the  end  of  the  cocks  or  near  the  center  hole 
of  the  plate,  so  as  to  see  the  action  of  the 
depths.  But  it  is  important  that  the  setting 
of  the  jewels  are  not  disturbed,  and  indeed 
that  enough  metal  is  left  round  these  holes  to 
admit  of  their  being  rebushed,  if  necessary. 


INVISIBLE  AND  DOUBTFUL  DEPTHS. 

HESE  must  be  tested  by  the  touch,  and 
the  requisite  corrections  applied  after 
having  repolished  the  pivots,  etc.,  as  may  be 
necessary.  We  would  observe  that  holes  a 
trifle  large  are  less  inconvenient  than  those 
which  afford  too  little  play,  providing  the 
depths  are  in  good  condition. 

LENGTH  OF  BALANCE  PIVOTS:  CEN¬ 
TERING  THE  BALANCE  SPRING. 

EMOVE  the  end-stone  from  the  chariot, 
and  see  that  the  pivot  projects  enough 
beyond  the  pivot  hole  when  the  plate  is  in¬ 
verted.  Then  remove  the  cock  and  detach 
it  from  the  balance.  Take  off  the  balance 
spring  with  its  collet  from  this  latter,  and 
place  it  on  the  cock  inverted,  so  as  to  see 
whether  the  collet  is  central  when  the  outer 
coil  is  midway  between  the  curb  pins.  Re¬ 
move  the  cock  end-stone  and  end-stone  cap, 
place  the  top  balance  pivot  in  its  hole  and 


see  that  it  projects  a  little  beyond  the  pivot 
hole. 

Place  the  balance  in  the  figure-of-8  caliper 
to  test  its  truth,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to 
see  that  it  is  sufficiently  in  poise ;  it  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  the  balance  is 
sometimes  put  out  of  poise  intentionally. 


PLAY  OF  TRAIN-WHEEL  PIVOTS. 

LLO  W  the  train  to  run  down  ;  if  it  does  so 
noisily  or  by  jerks,  it  may  be  assumed  that 
some  of  the  depths  are  bad  in  consequence 
either  of  the  teeth  being  badly  formed,  or  the 
holes  too  large,  etc.  To  test  the  latter  point, 
cause  the  wheel  to  revolve  alternately  in  op¬ 
posite  directions  by  applying  a  finger  to  the 
barrel  or  center-wheel  teeth,  at  the  same  time 
noting  the  movement  of  each  pivot  in  turn 
in  its  hole ;  a  little  practice,  comparing  sev¬ 
eral  watches  together,  will  soon  enable  the 
workman  to  judge  whether  the  play  is  correct. 

The  running  down  of  the  train  will  also 
indicate  whether  any  pivots  are  bent. 

Now  remove  the  barrel  bar  with  its  sev¬ 
eral  attachments. 


CENTER  WHEEL:  BAD  UPRIGHTING. 

EMOVE  the  third  wheel,  and,  if  neces¬ 
sary,  test  the  uprighting  of  the  center 
wheel  by  passing  a  round  broach  or  taper 
arbor  through  it,  and  setting  the  plate  in 
rotation  about  this  axis,  holding  a  card  near 
the  edge  while  doing  so.  This  will  indicate 
at  once  whether  the  axis  of  the  wheel  is  at 
right  angles  to  the  plate. 

When  a  marked  deviation  is  detected,  or 
the  holes  are  found  to  be  too  large,  they 
must  be  rebushed  and  uprighted  again. 

When,  however,  the  error  is  but  slight,  the 
axes  may  be  set  vertical  by  bending  the 
steady  pins  a  little,  in  doing  which  proceed 
as  follows : 

Set  the  bar  in  its  place  alone,  the  screw  or 
screws  being  a  little  unscrewed,  and  rest  the 
side  of  the  bar  opposite  to  that  toward  which 
it  is  to  be  bent  against  a  piece  of  brass  held 
in  the  vise,  and  strike  the  farther  edge  of  the 
plate  one  or  two  sharp  blows  with  a  small 
wooden  mallet.  Experience  alone  can  teach 
the  workman  to  proportion  the  blow  so  as  to 
obtain  a  given  amount  of  deviation,  and 
must  enable  him  to  ascertain  whether  it  is 
desirable  or  not  to  pass  a  broach  through 
the  steady-pin  holes  before  operating  as 
above  explained.  Some  discretion  is  essen¬ 
tial  in  practicing  the  method. 


WATCH  REPAIRING. 


It  is  important  that  the  center  pivots  pro¬ 
ject  beyond  the  holes  in  the  plate  and  bar. 
A  circular  recess  is  turned  round  the  outer 
end  of  each  of  these  holes  so  as  to  form  res¬ 
ervoirs  for  oil.  Owing  to  the  neglect  of 
these  simple  precautions,  which  are  so  easy 
to  take,  many  watches,  especially  those  that 
are  thin,  come  back  for  repairs  with  their 
center  pivots  in  a  bad  state,  because  the  oil 
could  not  be  applied  in  sufficient  quantity, 
and  has  been  drawn  away  by  the  cannon 
pinion  or  the  steel  shield. 

If  the  watch  has  a  seconds-hand,  ascer¬ 
tain  by  means  of  the  caliper  that  its  wheel 
is  upright.  Finally,  examine  each  jewel  to 
see  that  it  is  neither  cracked  nor  rough  at 
the  edges  of  the  hole. 


THE  BARREL:  TO  TAKE  DOWN  AND 
REPAIR. 

HE  side  spring,  which  must  not  be  too 
strong,  should  reach  with  certainty  to 
the  bottom  of  the  spaces  between  the  teeth 
of  the  ratchet,  and  this  latter  should  be  held 
steadily  in  position  by  the  cap.  The  barrel 
may  be  made  straight  and  true  on  its  axis 
by  known  methods,  the  arbor  having  been 
previously  put  in  order  if  required.  It  is  a 
good  plan  after  making  the  extensive  repairs 
here  spoken  of  to  again  test  the  barrel  and 
center  pinion  depth,  either  by  touch  or  by 
drilling  a  hole  for  observation. 

The  screw  of  the  star  wheel  must  not  pro¬ 
ject  within  the  cover  nor  rub  against  the 
dial ;  it  must  be  reduced  if  either  case  pre¬ 
sents  itself.  The  action  of  the  stop-work 
must  be  well  assured,  especially  when  the 
actual  stop  occurs.  It  is  a  good  plan  to,  as 
it  were,  “  round  up  ”  the  star  wheel  and  fin¬ 
ger  piece,  with  an  emery  stick,  supporting 
them  on  arbors.  There  must  be  no  possi¬ 
bility  of  friction  between  the  finger  and  the 
bottom  of  the  sink. 


TO  TEST  THE  STOP-WORK. 

AKE  up  the  winding  square  of  an  arbor, 
with  the  barrel,  etc.,  in  position,  in  a 
pair  of  sliding  tongs  or  a  Birch’s  key ;  hold 
the  tongs  between  the  last  three  fingers  and 
the  palm  of  the  left  hand,  the  first  finger 
and  thumb  being  applied  to  the  circumfer¬ 
ence  of  the  barrel  so  as  to  rotate  it,  first 
in  one  direction  and  then  in  the  other. 
During  this  movement,  take  a  pegwood  point 
in  the  right  hand,  and  try  to  turn  the  star 


i  r 

wheel  against  the  direction  in  which  it  would 
be  impelled  by  the  finger. 


WATCH  REPAIRING. 

ATCH MAKERS  will  continue  to  re¬ 
pair  the  fourth  pinion  as  long  as  it  can 
be  repaired,  says  Mr.  Ganney,  although  in 
many  cases  it  will  not  only  be  better  but 
quicker  to  replace  it  with  a  new  one,  and  I 
will  briefly  describe  the  method  of  working 
in  a  new  fourth  pinion. 

Having  selected  a  pinion  of  the  correct 
size  for  the  third  wheel,  and  fixed  to  the 
long  arbor  an  old  screw  ferrule,  cut  a  thin 
boxwood  slip  to  a  thin  edge,  and  with  rather 
sharp  red-stuff  and  oil  proceed  to  polish  out 
the  leaves,  resting  the  pinion  on  a  hard  cork 
or  piece  of  soft  wood.  The  screw  ferrule 
on  the  arbor  enables  you  to  press  the  first 
finger  of  the  left  hand  against  it,  and  thus 
the  pinion  is  held  while  polishing ;  the  natu¬ 
ral  elasticity  of  the  cork  or  wood  allows  the 
pinion  to  give  a  little  to  the  motion  of  the 
polisher,  thus  keeping  it  flat.  The  leaves 
having  been  polished  out  with  wet  red-stuff, 
and  finished  with  fine  stuff  or  diamantine, 
the  truth  of  the  leaves  can  be  tested  by  run¬ 
ning  in  the  turns.  (Should  the  centers  of 
pinion  not  be  perfect,  they  must  be  made  so 
before  trying  it,  by  turning  through  a  run¬ 
ner.)  Should  the  leaved  portion  or  pinion 
on  trial  prove  out  of  truth,  it  must  be  cor¬ 
rected  in  the  following  manner,  at  the  same 
time  I  may  caution  those  wdrose  experience 
in  the  work  is  not  great,  that  pinions  are 
occasionally  met  with  which  it  is  impossible 
to  get  true,  owing  to  one  or  two  leaves  be¬ 
ing  cut  deeper  than  the  rest  from  some  fault 
in  the  cutting  engine ;  such  should  unhesi¬ 
tatingly  be  rejected  as  useless. 

If,  while  the  pinion  is  in  the  turns,  a  piece 
of  soft  lead-pencil  is  held  on  the  rest  so  that 
its  point  just  touches  the  top  of  leaves,  those 
that  are  furthest  from  the  corner  will  be 
marked,  thus  forming  a  guide  for  the  correc¬ 
tion  of  the  arbor.  The  marked  side  of  the 
arbor  being  placed  downward ,  in  contact 
with  either  a  soft  steel  or  brass  stake,  the 
upper  or  hollow  side  can  be  stretched  by  a 
few  light  blows  from  the  pane  of  a  small 
hammer ;  the  blows  should  be  distributed  at 
equal  distances  over  the  arbor,  and,  as  these 
pinions  are  usually  rather  soft,  some  care  is 
required  not  to  overdo  it.  Having  by  this 
means  straightened  the  leaves  to  run  true, 
the  arbors  can  be  shortened  to  little  more 


WATCH  REPAIRING. 


I  2 

than  the  ultimate  length  of  the  pinion,  and 
the  centers  turned  true.  Previous  to  com¬ 
mencing  to  work  in  the  pinion,  some  little 
alteration  is  necessary  to  the  following 
points:  In  some  watches  the  banking,  in¬ 

stead  of  being  against  a  steed  in  the  cock, 
is  against  the  arbor  of  the  fourth  wheel ;  in 
this  case  the  diameter  of  the  arbor  is  of  im¬ 
portance,  as  if  too  small  and  the  watch  caused 
to  back  by  external  agitation,  the  pin  would 
jam  against  the  arbor  of  the  fourth  wheel 
and  stop  the  watch.  Again,  in  some  calipers 
of  movements,  the  fourth  pinion  head  comes 
close  to  the  plane  of  the  balance,  and  in 
some  positions,  if  the  pinion  head  is  too 
high,  or  from  excess  of  end -shake  the  bank¬ 
ing  pin  touches  it,  forming  a  cause  of  stop¬ 
page  rather  difficult  to  detect  sometimes. 

The  old  pinion  being  removed  from  the 
wheel,  all  the  measurements  can  be  taken 
directly  from  it.  The  first  thing  will  be  to 
turn  down  the  leaves  to  form  a  seat  for  the 
wheel,  measuring  the  height  from  the  pinion 
face.  Care  must  be  taken  in  fitting  a  pinion 
to  an  old  wheel  that  the  leaves  fit  into  the 
marks  made  by  the  old  pinion,  otherwise  a 
difficulty  will  be  found  in  securing  the  wheel. 
Having  fitted  the  wheel,  try  its  truth  in  round 
in  the  turns,  and,  if  untrue,  shift  its  position 
on  the  pinion  until  it  runs  quite  true,  then 
mark  the  wheel  and  a  leaf  of  pinion,  so  that 
its  position  can  be  found  again.  You  will 
now  shorten  the  leaves,  leaving  just  sufficient 
to  rivet  soundly.  If  too  much  is  left  to  be 
riveted  the  pinion  face  will  be  bulged  and 
split.  If  the  leaves  project  the  thickness  of 
a  sheet  of  paper  (10  millimeters),  it  will  be 
sufficient  (if  the  wheel  fits  properly)  and 
should  be  but  slightly  undercut  to  insure  a 
sound  rivet.  You  will  now  rivet  on  the 
wheel,  using  a  steel  or  bell-metal  stake  to 
support  the  pinion,  and  a  polished  steel 
punch  of  a  size  that  fits  just  freely  over  the 
arbor.  A  piece  of  tissue  paper  between  the 
face  of  pinion  and  stake  will  protect  it  dur¬ 
ing  the  riveting,  and  if  care  is  taken  to  shift 
the  wheel  a  little  every  blow,  the  wheel  will 
be  secured  true  and  flat.  The  face  of  rivets 
can  be  turned  flat  and  glossed  and  the  hol¬ 
low  cut.  'The  arbor  should  now  be  turned 
to  size,  leaving  a  slight  shoulder  close  to  the 
wheel  to  prevent  the  polisher  coming  in  con¬ 
tact  with  it.  The  arbor  can  now  be  pol¬ 
ished,  burnished  and  the  position  of  .the  up¬ 
per  pivot  shoulder  marked  on  it,  measuring 
from  the  pinion  face  with  the  tenth  measure. 
The  pivot  being  turned  down  to  within  three 


degrees  of  its  proper  size,  the  pinion  can  be 
reversed  in  the  centers  and  the  seconds  pivot 
turned  down,  its  position  being  fixed  by 
measuring  from  the  upper  pivot  shoulder. 
The  pivots  being  smoothed  with  red-stuff  are 
burnished  on  the  Jacot  tool  to  size,  leaving 
only  the  rounding  up  and  turning  off  the 
extreme  corners  to  complete  the  work.  I 
may  remark  that  the  size  of  hollow  necessary 
in  the  pinion  face  is  regulated  by  the  length 
of  shoulder  there  is.  Where  this  is  extremely 
short,  a  hollow  of  considerable  depth  and 
breadth  is  required ;  on  the  other  hand, 
where  the  shoulder  is  of  considerable  length, 
a  small  hollow  will  suffice. 


An  excessive  end-shake  to  a  barrel  will 
of  ten.  cause  considerable  trouble  in  more  than 
one  way,  says  British  Hurologist ;  but  with 
the  Geneva  barrel  we  mostly  notice  the  effect 
by  seeing  where  the  center  wheel  has  left  its 
marks  by  coming  in  contact  with  the-  surface 
of  the  barrel  in  some  cases,  while  in  other 
cases  the  teeth  of  the  barrel  have  been  left 
in  such  a  rough  state  that  freedom  is  impos¬ 
sible.  I  think  that  every  barrel  ought  to 
have  the  top  part  of  the  teeth  beveled  off, 
which  would  insure  freedom  in  this  part, 
providing  that  the  height  of  the  center  wheel 
was  above  the  flat  surface  of  the  barrel ;  but, 
as  it  is,  the  barrel  teeth  are  cut  and  the  burr 
is  left  in  its  rough  state,  hence  so  many  foul- 
ings  of  the  center  wheel,  and  all  this  would 
be  avoided  if  the  barrel  teeth  were  properly 
beveled  at  the  time  of  manufacture. 

Of  course,  some  of  the  better  class  of 
watches  are  left  correct  in  this  respect,  but, 
for  the  sake  of  so  little  extra  trouble,  I  think 
the  commonest  watch  might  be  done  so,  as 
the  job  would  not  take  a  minute  to  put  right, 
but  if  it  is  left  for  the  repairer  to  bevel  off,  in 
order  to  free  the  center  wheel  after  it  has  had 
considerable  chafing,  it  not  only  spoils  the 
appearance  of  the  under  side  of  the  center 
wheel,  but  the  gilding  is  taken  from  the  edge 
of  the  barrel-teeth,  therefore  we  have  an  un¬ 
sightly  piece  of  patchwork.  I  am  aware 
that  the  job  may  be  done  without  spoiling 
its  appearance  very  much,  if  we  are  a  little 
careful  in  the  shape  of  the  bevel,  and  polish 
the  part  that  has  been  in  contact  with  the 
graver ;  but  to  do  this  we  should  not  let  the 
graver  go  much  beyond  the  bottom  of  the 
teeth,  only  just  enough  to  make  sure  of  re¬ 
moving  all  the  burr,  then  it  will  look  very 
well  with  its  polished  edge.  I  have  some¬ 
times  really  made  an  improvement  in  the  ap- 


WATCII  REPAIRING. 


13 


pearance  by  this  operation,  for  it  does  not 
look  first-class  to  see  gilding  done  upon  a 
wheel  that  has  such  rough  burr  left  after  the 
cutting  engine. 

Now,  there  are  times  when  this  beveling 
off  will  not  free  the  center  wheel  and  barrel ; 
when  this  is  the  case  we  must  look  for  other 
cures ;  or,  perhaps,  I  should  rather  say,  we 
should  look  for  other  causes.  In  most  cases 
the  cause  that  is  more  frequently  found  than 
any  other  is  the  end-shake  of  the  barrel 
arbor.  There  is  more  than  one  way  to  cor¬ 
rect  this.  We  will  suppose  the  excessive 
end-shake  will  allow  the  barrel  to  get  too 
high  and  foul  with  the  center  wheel  when 
the  inside  shoulder  of  the  barrel  is  in  contact 
with  the  top  shoulder  of  the  barrel  arbor ; 
yet  we  find  that  if  we  press  the  barrel  down 
so  that  the  shoulder  on  the  barrel  lid  is  in 
contact  with  the  bottom  shoulder  of  the  ar¬ 
bor,  there  is  then  sufficient  freedom  for  the 
center  wheel.  Some  would  cure  this  by 
simply  striking  the  center  of  barrel  a  sharp 
blow  on  a  large  round-headed  punch,  which 
would  lessen  the  end-shake  of  the  barrel  ar¬ 
bor,  and  most  likely  correct  the  fault.  But 
suppose  this  blow  also  puts  the  barrel  out  of 
truth,  and  the  workman  will  very  likely  have 
produced  a  greater  evil  than  before,  and  one 
which  is  corrected  with  much  greater  diffi¬ 
culty.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  try  some 
other  method  sooner  than  run  the  risk  of 
ruining  the  barrel.  Suppose  we  plant  a  small 
collet  upon  the  barrel  arbor — in  this  case  at 
the  top  shoulder — this  will  have  the  required 
effect.  Of  course,  we  must  have  the  collet 
a  little  smaller  in  diameter  than  the  barrel 
arbor,  while  the  hole  in  the  collet  should  be 
only  just  large  enough  to  fit  on  the  shoulder  ; 
the  thickness  will  vary  according  to  the  re¬ 
quired  amount  in  order  to  correct  the  end- 
shake.  I  may  say  here  that  a  barrel  end- 
shake  should  never  be  more  than  just  free. 
Just  see  the  detrimental  effects  of,  in  some 
cases,  even  the  least  amount  of  end-shake, 
where  the  fusee  and  chain  are  used.  I  have 
no  doubt  but  that  the  most  of  my  readers 
have,  at  some  time  or  other,  had  a  little 
trouble  in  this  particular.  With  a  very  flat 
fusee  watch  the  least  thing  in  end-shake, 
either  in  the  barrel  or  fusee,  will  cause  the 
chain  to  run  out  of  the  fusee  grooves.  We 
then  know  what  follows.  Now,  there  are 
many  who  try  to  remedy  this  defect  by  clos¬ 
ing  the  holes  in  the  plate,  which  is  done  in 
many  cases  with  a  punch  ;  this  simply  means 
that  the  next  man  who  sees  the  job  will  be 


liable  to  ask  if  there  has  been  a  blacksmith 
at  work.  Yes,  there  are  times  when  these 
punches  are  used,  when  it  is  a  shame  to  use 
them.  Why  hammer  and  bruise  a  plate  when 
the  job  can  be  done  without  any  such  meth¬ 
ods  ?  There  is  nothing  that  looks  so  bad  to 
a  practical  man  as  to  see  a  plate  smashed 
about  with  a  punch.  It  may  be  excusable 
to  use  a  punch  to  close  a  hole  in  an  old 
thirty-hour  clock,  but  even  in  this  it  is  doubt¬ 
ful,  in  these  days  of  bouchons.  I  have  seen 
watches  and  clocks  hammered  about  in  such 
a  style  that  we  are  inclined  to  ask  if  the  man 
had  any  conscience  to  smash  plates  about  in 
such  a  wanton  manner.  Then,  again,  it  is 
not  only  the  look  of  the  butchery ;  but  just 
see  what  kind  of  a  surface  the  hole  has  for 
the  pivot  to  work  in.  Take,  for  instance, 
the  top  hole  of  the  fusee,  it  will  always  near 
toward  the  barrel ;  hence,  if  the  hole  is  closed, 
it  has  to  be  done  on  the  side  nearest  the 
barrel,  in  order  to  bring  the  fusee  upright  to 
its  original  position.  But  when  it  is  punched 
on  this  side,  in  all  probability  there  is  only 
just  one  part  of  the  hole  in  contact  with  the 
fusee  top  pivot,  and  most  likely  this  promi¬ 
nent  part  will  very  soon  become  worn  down 
again,  and  the  whole  job-  be  just  as  bad  as 
before.  In  fact,  in  some  respects,  it  is  worse, 
for  now  the  plate  has  been  made  a  trifle 
thinner  where  it  has  been  punched,  in  ad¬ 
dition  to  the  bad  appearance. 

Now,  all  this  can  be  put  right  without  any 
such  botching.  If  a  top-plate  hole  has  be¬ 
come  worn  somewhat  oblong,  the  proper 
way  to  put  it  right  is  to  put  a  new  hole  in 
the  place  of  the  old  ;  and  this  is  very  readily 
done,  if  we  know  the  proper  way  of  doing 
it.  First  of  all,  we  notice  if  the  fusee  is  per¬ 
fectly  upright,  when  it  is  brought  back  to 
the  side  farthest  from  the  barrel.  If  this 
is  right  while  the  fusee  is  held  in  this  position, 
we  then  know  that  the  hole  will  have  to  be 
filed  with  a  round  file,  on  the  opposite  side, 
until  it  is  as  far  from  the  central  position  as 
the  other  side  has  been  worn.  If  the  hole  is 
opened  with  a  broach  before  this  filing  is 
done,  the  fusee  will  not  be  upright  when  the 
job  is  finished,  simply  because  the  center  is, 
under  such  conditions,  brought  to  the  cen¬ 
ter  between  the  outside  of  the  worn  part 
and  the  opposite  side  that  has  not  been  worn  ; 
and  hence  it  is  half  as  far  out  of  its  original 
center  as  the  amount  the  hole  was  worn.  I 
speak  of  this  particular  here,  because  I  know 
there  are  plenty  who  commence  the  job  by 
simply  broaching  the  hole  from  its  oblong 


WATCH  REPAIRING. 


14 

shape  to  a  round,  regardless  of  the  detrimen¬ 
tal  effect  it  will  bring  in  its  train ;  for  they 
often  find  that  when  they  have  the  hole  fin¬ 
ished,  it  is  just  in  such  a  position  that  the 
square  of  the  fusee  is  making  its  obeisance 
to  the  barrel ;  and  they  wonder  how  that 
could  have  happened,  for  they  have  been 
particular  in  turning  the  hole  upon  a  per¬ 
fectly  true  turning  arbor ;  but  it  seems  that 
they  had  overlooked  the  fact  which  I  have 
just  commented  upon.  It  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  many,  will  do  this  job  without  ever 
thinking  about  such  an  important  item.  But 
I  hope  these  remarks  will  help  them  to  re¬ 
member  it  in  the  future. 

To  resume,  in  this  manner  we  get  the  hole 
filed  on  this  opposite  side  as  nearly  as  pos¬ 
sible  to  the  same  amount.  Of  course,  if 
the  fusee  has  to  be  brought  up  a  little  more, 
we  then  file  this  side  more  in  proportion  to 
such  requirements.  There  are  times  when 
the  teeth  of  the  fusee  wheel  run  too  near  to 
the  center  wheel ;  this  can  now  be  altered  by 
using  the  file  to  open  the  hole  a  little  in  the 
opposite  direction  to  the  center  wheel.  Af¬ 
ter  the  filing  has  been  done,  we  can  then  use 
the  opening  broach,  and  make  the  hole  per¬ 
fectly  round.  We  are  then  ready  to  turn  up 
the  bouchon  to  fit.  See  that  the  turning  ar¬ 
bor  is  perfectly  true.  If  there  is  room  for 
putting  a  deep  hole,  put  it — that  is,  if  the 
fusee  square  has  not  been  squared  down  to 
the  level  of  the  top  plate,  leave  the  hole 
standing  up  above  the  plate.  When  this  is 
done,  the  bouchon  should  be  turned  with  a 
very  nice  shoulder,  so  that  it  rests  firmly 
upon  the  top  surface  of  the  top  plate.  It 
should  also  be  turned  to  a  true  fit  in  the  hole. 
I  should  also  sav  that,  in  this  case,  the  hole 
should  be  opened  with  the  broach  from  the 
top  side,  so  that  the  bouchon  can  be  turned 
to  an  exact  fit.  Before  it  is  riveted  in,  the 
under  side  of  the  hole  should  be  chamfered 
to  receive  the  rivet.  If  we  are  particular  in 
getting  the  exact  length  for  riveting  over, 
we  may  perhaps  finish  it  all  right  without 
having  to  use  the  mandrel  in  order  to  take 
off  the  surplus  brass  so  that  the  end-shake  is 
free.  When  we  have  made  the  hole  secure, 
we  then  have  to  be  particular  in  opening  the 
hole  to  fit  the  fusee  top  pivot.  If  we  let  the 
broach  get  out  of  upright,  we  shall  give  a  very 
queer  shape  to  the  hole,  as  it  will  not  go 
through  the  plate  at  right  angles,  hence  the 
sides  of  the  hole  will  not  touch  the  pivot  all 
along  their  entire  length,  so  that  the  pivot 
would  be  free  when  not  in  position,  but  as 


soon  as  the  bottom  pivot  is  in  its  hole,  the 
top  pivot  binds ;  this  is  all  avoided  if  we 
keep  the  broach  upright  while  getting  to 
size.  When  right,  we  simply  chamfer  the 
top  a  little  for  the  oil,  and  the  job  is  com¬ 
plete.  If  careful  in  riveting,  it  would  take 
a  close  examination  to  tell  that  the  new  hole 
has  been  put  in.  _ 

As  a  guide  to  the  springer  in  selecting  a 
proper  spring,  says  Mr.  Ganney,  in  his  excel¬ 
lent  series  on  repairing,  the  weight  of  the 
balance  is  used.  When  new  work  is  being 
sprung,  the  springer  associates  certain  sizes 
and  weights  of  balances  with  springs  of  a  cer¬ 
tain  number  and  strength,  but  the  repairer  can 
only  gauge  by  lifting  up  the  balance  by  the 
eye  of  the  new  spring,  and  noting  its  elonga¬ 
tion  by  the  weight.  Springs  are  now  too  cheap 
to  make  as  wanted,  and  the  wire  is  not  kept  as 
a  material  as  formerly ;  but  the  old  method 
of  making  a  spring,  by  drawing  the  wire  into 
a  spiral  with  a  point  of  a  joint  pusher,  and 
working  the  spring  and  pusher  entirely  with 
the  thumb  and  forefinger,  is  very  useful  in 
setting  the  outer  coils  of  old  springs  into 
shape  again.  Springing  tweezers  are  made 
with  the  points  concave  and  convex,  so  as  to 
close  or  open  the  turns  of  the  spring,  as  may 
be  required ;  a  spring  blueing-tool  is  also 
very  useful,  or  an  ordinary  blueing-pan,  with 
the  spring  under  a  piece  of  glass,  and  a 
weight  on  it  to  keep  it  flat,  will  do.  After 
blueing  the  spring,  and  letting  it  cool  before 
removal,  it  will  come  out  quite  flat ;  the  other 
operations  connected  with  the  spring,  such 
as  making  a  new  stud,  and  properly  fitting 
the  index  pins,  are  very  simple  and  obvious, 
yet  in  no  point  of  the  watch  is  so  much 
carelessness  exhibited  as  in  these  ;  being  sim¬ 
ple  jobs,  they  are  supposed  to  want,  and,  in¬ 
deed,  do  get  little  alteration. 

The  hairspring  collet  often  gives  'trouble, 
owing  to  bad  fitting,  and  want  of  freedom 
of  the  cock  and  the  scretv  heads  of  index 
piece.  I  usually  put  my  watches  in  beat  by 
moving  the  collet  with  a  fine  screw-driver  or 
drill  in  the  slot,  without  shifting  the  stud  out 
of  the  cock,  resting  the  cock  on  the  board 
paper,  and  simply  drawing  the  balance  a 
sufficient  distance  to  get  at  the  collet.  I  find 
out  of  beat  a  greater  source  of  stoppage 
than  anything  else,  and  suppose  the  trouble 
and  danger  attending  frequent  removal  of 
spring  and  balance  the  reason  it  is  neglected, 
and  devised  this  plan  to  save  trouble,  and 
insure  accuracy  of  beat.  With  English 


WATCH  REPAIRING. 


1  5 


sprung  arbor  watches  it  is  a  very  much  easier 
plan,  as  a  bar  of  the  balance,  when  the  cock 
is  removed,  may  be  held  by  a  stout  pair  of 
tweezers  to  free  the  bottom  hole,  and  the 
alteration  made  at  once  by  moving  the  col¬ 
let.  I  earned  a  good  fee  in  a  minute  or  two 
by  this  plan  of  putting  a  watch  into  perfect 
beat,  which  the  owner  declared  had  never 
gone  a  month  without  an  occasional  stop¬ 
page,  though  he  had  had  it  in  the  hands  of 
all  the  best  men  he  could  find  in  London  for 
a  number  of  years,  who  all  said  it  was  a  first- 
class  made  watch,  but  none  had  been  able  to 
cure  it.  Thinking  it  useless  to  look  for  or¬ 
dinary  faults,  as  the  watch  seemed  in  per¬ 
fect  order,  and  all  that  a  watch  ought  to  be, 
I  simply  wore  it,  as  I  took  it  on  the  no  cure 
no  pay  principle  ;  and  when  it  stopped,  going 
on  again  before  it  could  be  opened,  I  no¬ 
ticed  that  it  had  very  low  angle  pallets  and 
rather  strong  lockings,  and  appeared  very 
slightly  out  of  beat  on  the  second  or  dis¬ 
charging  pallet.  This  was  altered  and  it  was 
put  slightly  out  of  beat  on  the  other  pallet, 
as  the  friction  on  the  second  pallet  is  that 
which  necessitates  the  oil,  and  is  known  as 
engaging-friction,  the  surfaces  opposing  each 
other  as  they  engage  in  work.  The  watch 
has  given  perfect  satisfaction  ever  since,  show¬ 
ing  the  importance  of  slight  errors,  and  that 
one  small  error  may  be  made  to  compensate 
another.  Watches  being  out  of  beat  are  not 
very  noticeable  when  fresh  oiled  and  clean ; 
but  as  the  dirt  and  difficulties  accumulate, 
the  effect  is  very  striking,  and  where  escape¬ 
ments  are  unequal,  the  spring  may  be  shifted 
to  make  the  conditions  more  equal  in  per¬ 
formance. 

The  condition  of  the  jewels  in  Swiss  work 
is  of  some  considerable  importance,  and  if 
the  repairer  aspires  to  be  a  good  jeweler, 
considerable  practice  with  the  lathe  and 
mandrel  will  be  necessary.  If  it  is  only  de¬ 
sired  to  replace  holes  from  a  stock  kept  for 
that  purpose,  the  holes  can  generally  be  re¬ 
placed  without  much  trouble,  raising  the  edge 
of  the  setting  at  one  side,  or  allow  of  the  in¬ 
sertion  of  the  jewel,  and  securing  it  in  posi¬ 
tion  by  rubbing  the  setting  well  over  the  stone 
with  a  well-burnished  rounding-center  in  a 
handle ;  a  strong  and  fine  pointed  arbor  will 
do  to  raise  the  edge  for  the  insertion  of  the 
stone.  Where  a  setting  is  too  badly  injured 
to  hold  a  stone  properly,  an  English  hole 
with  brass  setting  may  be  fitted  in  a  chamfer, 
or  soldered  in  ;  loose  jewels  may  always  be 
tightened  with  a  rounding-arbor  or  center, 


and  should  always  be  tried  for  tightness,  as 
troublesome  variations  of  depth  and  freedoms 
are  caused,  which  often  escape  observation. 

To  make  a  cock  to  the  escape  wheel — 
often  on  account  of  its  being  very  much 
turned  to  free  the  teeth,  it  is  liable  to  acci¬ 
dents — it  is  first  desirable  to  get  a  sound  slip 
of  brass  well  hammered.  Having  drilled  the 
screw  hole  and  filed  it  to  the  proper  shape, 
it  must  be  firmly  screwed  down,  and  the 
steady-pin  holes  drilled  through ;  the  drill 
fitting  the  hole  in  the  plate  easily,  the  open¬ 
ing  of  the  holes  in  cock  and  plate  must  be 
carefully  done,  and  the  steady-pins  well 
fitted,  or  the  cock  is  useless.  The  top  pivot 
hole  must  now  be  made  in  the  mandrel  or 
uprighting  tool ;  then  an  old  upper  plate 
should  have  some  shellac  melted  on  it,  and 
placed  in  the  mandrel ;  the  flame  of  a  spirit 
lamp,  or  other  heat,  applied,  the  cock  is 
placed  on  it,  and  centered  from  the  pivot 
hole ;  the  slide-rest  cutter  is  then  used  to 
turn  the  inside  of  the  cock  perfectly  flat,  and 
the  slot,  to  free  the  wheel  teeth,  is  cut  a 
sufficient  depth.  When  removed,  the  next 
thing  will  be  to  make  the  wheel  the  right 
height  by  filing  away  the  superfluous  brass, 
then  to  free  the  cock  of  the  balance,  and  try 
the  escapement,  and  send  it  for  jeweling.  If 
desired,  the  jeweler  will  do  all  the  turning 
and  mandrel  work.  If  finished  off  with 
water-of-Ayre  stone  or  buff,  the  cock  will  be 
more  durable  than  when  gilt.  If  not  con¬ 
venient  to  bend  the  cock,  the  holes  should  be 
plugged  with  a  fine  wire,  and  a  hole  made 
the  same  as  a  verge  hole,  with  a  fine  drill 
and  a  bottoming  broach,  with  end  well  bur¬ 
nished.  This  kind  of  hole  will  give  better 
results  than  a  common  jewel  hole,  if  prop¬ 
erly  made,  and  is  in  use  in  all  the  original 
escapements  of  the  inventor  of  the  horizon¬ 
tal  (cylinder)  escapement,  George  Graham. 
A  good  inside  chamfer  must  be  made  to  hold 
the  oil ;  this  kind  of  hole  will  also  do  good 
service  for  the  balance  holes,  and  is  prefer¬ 
able  to  making  shift  with  any  cracked  or  bad 
jewel  hole,  if  the  points  are  well  rounded 
and  burnished. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  watch 
jewelers  do  not  contribute  more  to  the  litera¬ 
ture  of  the  art.  There  is  a  good  opportunity 
for  any  enterprising  young  jeweler  to  gain 
fame  and  business  by  descanting  on  the  va¬ 
rious  qualities,  and  means  of  judging  the 
quality  and  value  of  jewel  holes,  and  show¬ 
ing  in  what  way  value  is  imparted,  so  that 
those  who  want  to  patronize  this  art  may  do 


i6 


TOOLS  USED  IN  REPAIRING. 


so  without  discrimination.  To  most  watch¬ 
makers,  one  jewel  hole  is  much  the  same  as 
another,  unless  it  is  cracked,  and  yet  there 
is  as  much  difference  in  watch  jeweling  as 
watch  pivoting ;  the  one,  in  fact,  being  a 
counterpart  of  the  other.  There  seems  to  be 
some  secret  understanding  among  watch 
jewelers  not  to  impart  information,  as  appli¬ 
cations  for  information  by  means  of  contri¬ 
butions  to  literature,  have  been  refused,  on 
the  ground  of  injuring  the  interests  of  that 
branch.  Saunier’s  valuable  work,  though 
very  copious  and  full  on  all  other  subjects, 
gives  very  little  information  on  the  subject ; 
or  is  it  that  very  little  can  be  said  of  cutting 
one  stone  with  the  dust  of  a  harder  one  f 
The  stone-mason  rubbing  marble  ifcto  shape 
with  sand  and  water  illustrates  the  primitive 
idea ;  the  ruby-hole  maker,  cutting  his  hole 
with  the  next  hardest  substance,  diamond  and 
diamond  dust,  shows  the  other  extreme  of 
the  same  process. 


TOOLS  USED  IN  REPAIRING. 

PEAKING  of  centers,  another  center 
made  of  brass  is  called  the  rounding-up 
center,  and  used  for  making  pivots  right 
lengths  and  rounding  on  burnishing  them. 
It  is  simply  a  number  of  holes  round  a  brass 
center,  which  has  been  filed  sufficiently  thin 
to  allow  the  finest  and  shortest  pivots  to 
protrude  ;  the  holes  must  be  of  various  de¬ 
grees  of  fineness,  and  no  more  pivot  allowed 
through  than  necessary,  as  the  file  or  bur¬ 
nisher  will  break  them  off.  Usually,  the 
pinions  to  common  Swiss  works  are  very 
soft ;  this,  though  greatly  facilitating  their 
turning,  when  the  work  is  large,  becomes  a 
troublesome  quality  as  it  gets  fine  ;  and  it 
may  be  asserted  that  a  fine  pivot  cannot  be 
made  from  soft  steel,  as  it  will  not  stand  the 
necessary  pressure  to  turn  or  polish  it  to  any 
degree  of  fineness,  and  no  amount  of  finish 
can  be  displayed  on  soft  steel,  as  it  will  not 
polish  to  advantage.  In  putting  in  a  new 
third  pinion,  it  is  necessary  to  undercut  the 
shoulder  and  leave  a  hollow  in  the  pinion, 
or  the  oil  may  work  into  the  leaves  of  the 
pinion  and  center-wheel  teeth ;  before  the 
wheel  is  riveted  to  the  pinion,  the  balance 
should  be  put  in  to  see  if  it  is  free,  as  in 
some  calipers  the  circle  intersects.  The 
undercutting  of  the  fourth  pinion  at  the  bot¬ 
tom  pivot  is  also  necessary  to  keep  the  oil  in 
the  sink,  and  the  pinion  left  no  higher  than 
the  third  wheel  requires,  or  it  may  foul  the 


balance  or  banking-pin ;  in  polishing  the 
second,  the  best  pivoters  usually  polish  it 
like  any  other  arbor,  but  if  nervous  or  heavy- 
handed,  a  special  brass  center  with  half  of 
its  diameter  filed  away,  and  a  convenient  slit 
for  the  pivot  to  rest  nearly  all  its  length  in 
may  be  used,  but  I  do  not  recommend  it, 
as  a  careless  slip  will  destroy  the  pivot,  which 
otherwise  in  the  turns  would  have  a  certain 
amount  of  elasticity.  The  resting  of  the  lit¬ 
tle  finger  on  a  convenient  part  of  the  turns, 
and  letting  it  move  with  the  polisher,  is  an 
item  in  polishing  pivots,  the  finger  being 
used  to  regulate  the  pressure  of  the  arm  and 
hand ;  the  most  troublesome  pinion  to  pivot 
is  the  Geneva  scape  pinion,  owing  to  its  hav¬ 
ing  no  arbor.  If  a  very  thin  and  small  brass 
ferrule  is  used,  well  chamfered  to  allow  all 
parts  of  the  pinion  at  its  shortest  to  be  * 
turned,  it  may  be  opened  to  fit  the  pinion 
tightly,  and  the  pinion  driven  in  will  hold 
sufficiently  to  pivot,  or  it  may  be  fitted 
loosely,  and  shellac  used  to  secure  it  to  the 
ferrule.  The  value  of  good,  pointed  centers 
will  be  proved  in  pivoting  this  pinion,  as  it 
cannot  possibly  be  done  without  them.  The 
rivet  should  be  well  undercut  and  fitted  to 
the  wheel,  or  the  riveting  will  raise  a  bun- 
in  the  pinion  where  it  acts  in  the  fourth 
wheel ;  a  few  light  blows  must  complete  this 
riveting. 

Good  bows  being  necessary  complements 
to  good  turns,  the  watch  repairer '  cannot 
dispense  with  less  than  four,  varying  in 
length  from  12  to  24  inches,  and  in  strength 
from  that  sufficient  only  to  make  a  balance 
pivot,  with  horse  or  human  hair,  without 
slipping  on  the  ferrule  when  turning  with  a 
fine,  pointed  graver ;  and  the  others  increas¬ 
ing  in  strength  to  what  is  required  in  turning 
barrel  arbors,  stoppings,  and  the  larger  drill¬ 
ing  operations  in  watchwork ;  for  the  ordi¬ 
nary,  every-day  watch  pivots  and  shoulders 
are  sufficiently  well  finished  with  a  cutting 
burnisher,  one  side  of  which  is  rubbed  on  a 
board  or  strip  of  lead  charged  with  emery, 
as  a  few  rubs  on  the  small  stone  used  by 
shoemakers  to  whet  their  knives  for  leather 
cutting  is  a  handy  substitute,  and  gives  the 
requisite  cutting  power,  and  then  a  few  rubs 
with  burnisher,  polished  on  a  well-used  bur- 
nishing-board,  on  which  smooth  emery  has 
been  distributed,  will  give  a  perfectly  smooth 
and  black  pivot.  The  best  English  pivoters 
finish  their  pivots  with  the  smooth  burnisher 
in  this  way  to  harden  them,  though  they 
have  been  previously  highly  polished  with 


TOOLS  USED  IN  REPAIRING. 


*7 


a  soft  steel  polisher,  which  leaves  the 
shoulder  perfectly  square  and  well  polished. 
Using  bell-metal  polishers  to  finish,  though 
putting  on  a  higher  gloss,  destroys  the 
squareness  of  the  shoulder ;  the  shoulders 
are  protected  from  injury  whilst  burnishing 
the  pivot  by  a  small  tissue-paper  collet  on 
the  pivot,  or  by  polishing  the  edge  of  the 
burnisher  with  a  bell-metal  polisher,  and 
burnishing  the  pivot  by  moving  the  burnisher 
down  (not  up)  the  pivot  as  it  revolves. 
Arbors  are  burnished  in  the  same  way,  left 
from  the  steel  polisher,  and  not  too  fine  red- 
stuff  in  preference  to  more  highly  polishing 
bell-metal,  as  a  square  shoulder  on  the  arbor 
is  a  sine  qua  non  in  good  pivoting,  and  a  too 
highly  polished  arbor  will  not  burnish,  but 
rubs  brown  or  foxy  under  the  burnisher ; 
facing  and  rivet  tools  are  simply  pieces  of 
iron  wire,  a  tin  tack,  or  an  old  nail  with  a 
hole  in  it,  in  which  the  arbor  fits  loosely,  and 
these  being  filed  and  charged  with  polishing 
crocus,  the  pinion  is  revolved  against  them 
with  a  very  weak  bow,  until  the  requisite 
finish  is  attained ;  the  finest  finish  on  faces 
is  got  from  a  tool  made  from  a  horse-shoe 
nail,  the  iron  being  a  particular  Swedish 
quality,  and  the  hammering  it  receives  in 
wear  imparting  qualities  that  cause  the 
pivoter  who  finds  one  to  prize  it  like  a 
diamond ;  otherwise,  a  bell-metal  tool  to 
finish  the  face  is  necessary,  but  only  to  give 
a  few  finishing  rubs,  as  it  soon  loses  the  flat¬ 
ness  imparted  by  the  file,  and  makes  the 
face  or  rivet  rounding  ;  a  very  careful  stroke 
of  the  bow  is  necessary,  as  only  a  back  cen¬ 
ter  is  used,  and  the  tool  itself  held  in  the 
hand  forming  the  other  center  for  the  pinion 
to  revolve  in.  The  pressure  of  the  hand  is 
carefully  regulated  to  insure  a  light  and 
equal  pressure  ;  the  progress  of  the  face  may 
be  known  by  the  noise  the  pinion  makes ; 
as  it  works  the  polishing  stuff  dry,  it  begins 
to  sing  or  squeak,  and  this  is  the  signal  for 
ceasing  operations.  If  all  the  parts  of  the 
face  are  well  polished  and  the  extreme  edges 
as  bright  as  the  rest,  it  will  do  ;  if  not,  the 
tool  must  be  refiled  and  fresh  stuff  applied, 
and  the  operation  patiently  repeated.  More 
patience  in  this  job  is  required  than  any 
other  in  watchwork,  and  though  apparently 
most  simple,  and  we  may  add  the  most 
unnecessary  in  watchwork,  there  are  few 
who  excel  at  it.  The  polishing  of  a  square 
shoulder  and  pivot  being  a  work  of  celerity, 
firmness,  and  skill,  those  who  do  the  one 
often  fail  at  the  other,  as  shown  by  escape¬ 


ment  makers,  who  make  good  pivots  and 
bad  faces  to  their  one  pinion,  while  the  fin¬ 
isher  as  often  as  not  produces  better  faces 
than  pivots  to  his  pinions.  The  repairer 
may  emulate  either  or  neither,  but  he  ought 
to  endeavor  to  replace  old.  pieces  with  equally 
good,  or  consign  the  job  to  those  who  can. 
In  large  towns,  he  will  not  gain  or  lose  much 
honor  either  way,  his  business  being  to  get 
satisfactory  performance  from  the  watch,  as 
a  whole ;  but  in  putting  in  pieces  to  jobs, 
there  are  certain  little  numberless  details 
that  give  success  in  action,  and  only  the  one 
who  is  responsible  for  the  performance  of 
the  watch  seems  able  to  appreciate  or  de¬ 
velop  them.  This  is  why  cheap,  subdivided 
watchwork  is  a  failure. 


It  happens  sometimes  that  the  cylinder 
pivots  are  bent,  continues  our  author,  an 
event  which  is  of  frequent  occurrence,  m  the 
remedying  of  which  some  workmen  have 
recourse  to  a  pair  of  smooth  plyers,  made 
just  hot  enough  to  turn  the  color  of  the  pivot 
to  be  straightened  to  a  blue  ;  but  in  this  class 
of  work,  it  is  rare  to  meet  with  a  pivot  so 
hard  as  to  require  this  treatment.  It  will 
generally  be  sufficient,  after  filling  the  body 
of  the  cylinder  with  shellac,  and  at  the  same 
time  fixing  either  a  bone  or  brass  ferrule,  to 
use  a  bell-metal  polisher  on  the  Jacot  tool, 
taking  care  to  select  a  notch  slightly  larger 
than  the  pivot,  which  you  have  previously 
measured  with  the  gauge  that  accompanies 
the  tool  for  that  purpose.  You  will  then 
use  a  smaller  notch,  finishing  with  a  bur¬ 
nisher  expressly  made  for  this  tool,  and  sharp¬ 
ened  No.  i  emery  stone,  or  emery  of  similar 
coarseness  on  zinc  or  lead  block  ;  the  latter 
being  the  better  material,  the  most  conven¬ 
ient  size  being  a  square  block  about  seven 
inches  long  and  one  and  one-quarter  inches 
wide,  got  up  true  on  each  of  its  four  sides. 
The  burnisher  should  be  put  in  a  Swiss 
handle,  similar  to  a  pen-holder  and  nearly 
as  long,  fastened  in  with  shellac  or  sealing- 
wax  ;  it  can  thus  be  set  perfectly  straight 
with  the  handle.  In  sharpening,  the  block 
should  rest  against  the  front  of  the  work- 
board,  pointing  from  you,  and  plentifully 
supplied  with  emery  and  oil,  mixed  not  too 
thickly  ;  the  handle  held  lightly  in  the  right 
hand,  and  the  first  finger  of  the  left  applied 
on  the  top  of  the  burnisher,  the  stroke  should 
be  from  point  to  heel,  lifting  it  from  the 
block  for  the  return  stroke.  For  reducing 


i8 


PIVOTING  A  CYLINDER. 


a  pivot,  the  burnisher  should  be  cut  on  a 
No.  2  stone  or  emery  of  a  similar  grade. 

Should  a  pivot  be  broken  in  this  process, 
a  new  plug  will  be  necessary ;  the  removal 
of  the  old  plug  should  be  done  by  means  of 
a  punch,  of  a  knee  shape,  resting  the  shell 
of  the  cylinder  on  a  brass  stake  for  that 
purpose ;  the  stake  should  have  a  slight 
recess  turned  in  it,  just  large  enough  to 
admit  the  cylinder,  and  the  hole  sufficiently 
large  to  admit  the  plug  when  driven  out ;  a 
slight  tap  with  a  light  hammer  will  remove 
the  plug,  and  a  new  one  should  be  turned 
from  a  piece  of  staff  steel,  which  has  been 
previously  hardened  and  tempered,  let  down 
to  a  full  blue  color.  The  part  which  enters 
the  cylinder  should  be  perfectly  parallel,  not 
tapered,  or  the  shell  would  probably  be 
burst  in  putting  it  in  ;  if  you  have  a  microm¬ 
eter  to  measure  it  with,  it  is  a  simple  mat¬ 
ter.  Having  fitted  the  plug  to  the  shell  (it 
should  enter  about  one-third  of  the  distance 
it  has  to  go),  the  center  has  to  be  cut  off 
and  the  head  made  flat  and  polished ;  this 
can  be  done  in  the  screw-head  or  balance 
tool ;  the  portion  which  is  to  form  the  new 
pivot  and  arbor  you  will  roughly  shape  be¬ 
fore  cutting  off.  _ 

PIVOTING  A  CYLINDER. 

H  E  plug  has  now  to  be  fixed  in  position  in 
the  cylinder  ;  some  workmen  use  a  punch 
similar  to  the  one  used  to  remove  the  plug, 
only  flat  on  the  face,  resting  the  shell  of  the 
cylinder  on  the  punch,  and  tapping  the  plug 
in  with  the  hammer ;  others  press  the  plug 
in  with  the  extreme  end  of  a  thin,  flat  bur¬ 
nisher,  holding  the  plug  in  a  vise  or  a  stake 
for  that  purpose,  the  latter  in  my  opinion 
being  the  preferable  plan.  The  plug  has 
now  to  be  centered ;  you  will  use  for  this 
purpose  a  steel  runner  similar  to  the  one 
used  for  rounding  up  the  end  of  a  pivot,  but 
with  larger  holes ;  these  should  be  loosely 
chamfered  out,  hardened  and  polished ;  the 
extreme  end  of  the  cylinder  will  work  in  one 
of  these  holes,  which  should  be  plentifully 
supplied  with  oil.  The  top  pivot  being  pro¬ 
tected  by  running  in  a  brass  runner,  having 
a  hole  sufficiently  large  to  admit  the  pivot 
freely,  the  shoulder  taking  the  thrust,  you 
can  thus  turn  the  extreme  end  of  the  plug 
true  with  the  body  of  the  cylinder.  Having 
centered  the  plug,  it  only  remains  to  turn 
the  hollow  and  pivot,  leaving  the  latter  three 
degrees  larger  than  it  will  ultimately  be  re¬ 
quired,  burnishing  it  down  this  amount  first 


with  the  rough  and  then  with  the  fine  bur¬ 
nisher. 

If  the  upper  pivot  is  the  one  broken,  it 
will  sometimes  be  possible  with  a  high  cylin¬ 
der  to  do  without  a  new  plug,  by  knocking 
out  the  old  one  sufficiently  to  allow  you  to 
turn  another  pivot  on  it ;  at  the  same  time, 
this  is  not  so  good  as  replacing  the  plug  with 
a  new  one,  as  the  plug  has  a  tendency  to 
draw  oil  away  from  the  wheel  teeth.  It 
will  not  be  necessary  to  describe  the  method 
of  replacing  the  upper  plug,  as  it  is  nearly 
similar  to  the  lower. 

There  is  yet  another  way  of  replacing  a 
pivot  that  is  broken,  viz. :  by  drilling  through 
the  old  plug  and  inserting  a  piece  of  steel 
somewhat  larger  than  the  shoulder  of  the  old. 
The  centering  runner  described  when  speak¬ 
ing  of  the  new  plug  must  be  used,  and  a  re¬ 
cess  turned  in  the  plug  sufficiently  deep  to 
start  the  drill  truly.  Of  course,  before  doing 
this,  the  cylinder  is  to  be  filled  with  shellac 
or  sealing-wax,  to  enable  it  to  stand  the 
pressure.  Having  turned  the  hollow  suf¬ 
ficiently  deep  to  bury  the  angle  of  the  drill, 
the  centering  runner  is  to  be  removed  and 
replaced  with  one  having  a  hole  in  it  to  take 
a  drill,  which,  for  this  purpose,  should  be 
strong  and  short,  and  not  relieved  much  be¬ 
hind  the  cutting  part.  If  ground  to  cut  only 
one  way,  and  tapered  in  thickness  to  the 
point,  it  will  work  quickly  and  well.  Al¬ 
though  the  plugs  of  Swiss  cylinders  are  not 
very  hard,  it  is  not  well  to  use  oil  to  the  drill ; 
spirits  of  turpentine  is  the  best  lubricator  for 
this  purpose.  The  pressure  on  the  drill 
which,  when  cutting,  will  be  considerable, 
should  be  relieved  at  the  return  stroke  of  the 
bow ;  if  the  drill  is  sufficiently  hard  and  not 
driven  too  rapidly,  the  drilling  will  proceed 
pleasantly.  Having  drilled  the  plug  through, 
you  will  insert  a  piece  of  steel,  previously 
hardened,  tempered,  and  polished  down  to 
size,  and  not  too  taper,  or  a  piece  of  a  cut- 
ting-pivot  broach  may  be  blued  and  inserted. 
Previous  to  inserting  you  will  round  up  and 
burnish  the  end  nicely,  and  any  burr  thrown 
up  on  the  plug  by  the  drill  must  be  removed 
by  a  steel  polisher  and  red-stuff,  resting  it  on 
cork,  while  doing  so,  to  keep  it  flat. 

The  new  piece  can  be  tapped  in  with  a 
light  hammer ;  while  resting  the  shell  on  a 
punch  replace  the  shellac  in  the  cylinder, 
and  with  the  centering  runner  turn  the 
extreme  end  of  plug  to  a  center.  You  can 
now  proceed  as  described  in  making  a  new 
plug. 


PIVOTING  A  CYLINDER. 


l9 


To  repair  a  broken  Swiss  balance  staff, 
the  repairer  may  procure  a  rough  one  from 
the  material  warehouse,  or  make  one  by  driv¬ 
ing  a  piece  of  steel  wire  into  a  brass  collet  or 
stopping,  hardening  it  by  heating  it  to  a 
cherry  red,  and  plunging  it  into  oil  or  water ; 
then  it  must  be  tempered  by  brightening  a 
portion  with  Arkansas  stone,  or  otherwise, 
and,  being  held  near  a  flame,  let  down  to  a 
full  blue ;  in  this  condition  the  center  must 
be  filed  in  the  pin  vise,  the  arbor  turned  true, 
and  the  brass  collet  turned  an  approximate 
size.  All  parts  of  the  arbor  and  collet  must 
be  forwarded  in  equal  ratios,  or  it  will  come 
to  grief  if  one  pivot  is  turned  nearly  right 
size  before  the  other  arbor  and  back  hollow 
has  been  turned  sufficiently  small.  The 
douzieme  and  pinion  gauges  should  be  freely 
used  on  the  broken  staff,  and  if  both  pivots 
are  broken,  and  the  staff  otherwise  a  good 
one,  the  broken  staff  will  be  a  good  guide 
for  the  new,  and  show  where  the  shoulder 
must  be  for  each  pivot.  The  douzieme  ap¬ 
plied  outside  of  cock  and  foot  jewels  in  the 
plate,  with  end-stones  removed,  will  give  the 
length  of  arbor  and  pivots,  one  division  of 
the  douzieme  being  allowed  for  end-shake. 
The  arbor  should  be  turned  as  short  as  con¬ 
venient,  as  long  arbors,  besides  giving  un¬ 
necessary  trouble  in  turning,  are  apt  to  get 
bent  in  polishing.  When  the  arbor  has  been 
turned  small  enough,  the  roller  must  be  care¬ 
fully  fitted  in  the  process  of  polishing  with 
cutting  crocus,  and  the  arbor  must  be  only 
slightly  tapered,  as  Swiss  rollers  have  no  pipe 
like  the  English ;  they  must  be  driven  on 
when  fitted  with  a  brass  hollow  punch,  the 
right  distance,  the  last  thing,  when  trying 
the  escapement ;  if  too  tight,  they  will  be 
difficult  to  get  on  or  off,  and  if  at  all  loose, 
will  not  hold.  Taking  them  off  is  not  con¬ 
templated  in  the  ordinary  routine,  and  the 
riveting  clams  and  a  punch  over  the  pivot 
must  be  used  to  remove  them.  A  very  con¬ 
venient  stake  is  made  by  using  a  piece  of 
metal  with  a  hole  large  enough  for  the  roller 
to  go  through ;  a  slot  is  cut  from  this  hole 
some  distance  to  allow  the  arbor  to  pass 
along  it,  and  the  roller  is  thus  supported  all 
over  at  the  back,  and  allows  of  force  being 
used  to  remove  it.  This  tool  is  very  useful, 
also,  for  putting  on  the  hairspring  collet,  as 
the  roller  can  be  passed  underneath,  allowing 
the  seat  for  the  balance  to  rest  on  the  outer 
face,  and  saves  injuring  the  roller,  which 
must  occur  if  the  roller  itself  is  in  contact 
with  a  stake. 


Having  finished  the  arbor,  and  roughly 
formed  the  part  for  the  bottom  pivot,  and 
what  is  called  a  safe,  that  is,  turning  the 
arbor  nearly  through  below  the  pivot,  so 
that  in  case  of  a  slip  or  catch  it  may  break 
there,  we  finish  the  collet,  and  fit  the  balance 
and  hairspring  collet.  The  height  from  bot¬ 
tom  of  brass  collet  to  top  pivot  must  be  care¬ 
fully  noted  by  gauging  or  actual  juxtaposition 
of  the  old  and  new  piece,  as  the  eye  is  apt 
to  be  deceived ;  and  leaving  the  rivet  rather 
high  and  the  collet  a  little  too  long,  the  in¬ 
experienced  will  be  surprised  to  find  that  the 
pivot  and  shoulder  which  appeared  all  right 
is  just  a  pivot  and  shoulder  too  high,  and 
the  pleasure  of  turning  or  breaking  a  new 
pivot  and  shoulder  out  of  the  rough  braes 
and  steel  will  show  the  error  he  has  made. 
The  excellent  practice  of  undercutting  rivets 
and  shoulders  makes  them  appear  as  long 
again  as  they  are,  and  a  good  graver  and 
skill  in  using  it  are  the  sure  roads  to  success 
at  this  job,  the  pivots  being  turned  nearly 
right  size  and  shape  with  a  sharp-pointed 
graver.  Then  a  cutting  burnisher  made  from 
a  piece  of  polished  steel,  hardened  when 
made,  with  a  rounded  edge  to  form  the  con¬ 
ical  shoulder ;  this,  when  sharpened  on  rough 
emery  sticks  to  cut,  and  fine  emery  to  bur¬ 
nish,  will  do  all  that  is  required  for  a  perfect 
job  in  the  ordinary  turns.  If  not  capable 
of  turning  anything  finer  than  an  arbor,  the 
Jacot  tool  and  pivot  files  may  be  used,  and 
a  nick  being  cut  where  the  pivots  are  to  be, 
by  shifting  the  arbor  from  the  large  to  the 
small  nicks  in  the  tool  as  it  is  reduced,  a 
pivot  may  be  worried  out  of  the  arbor  with 
the  pivot  file,  which  will  only  be  good  enough 
for  the  commonest  work.  The  pivots  should 
be  left  full  long  and  rounded  the  least  thing 
after  the  balance  is  riveted,  so  that  a  chance 
is  given  of  improving  the  freedom  of  the  bal¬ 
ance  by  making  the  end-shake  and  height 
right  by  shortening  top  or  bottom  pivot,  as 
may  be  most  desirable.  The  riveting  should 
be  done  by  a  half-round  punch,  with  the 
back  whetted  to  a  sharp  edge  nearly.  This 
will  go  into  the  rivet  and  drive  it  down  as 
well  as  out.  A  blow  at  four  different  parts, 
of  the  rivet  should  tighten  it  flat  and  true, 
and  then  the  hammer  applied  lightly  to  the- 
punch,  whilst  the  balance  is  continually 
moved  with  the  finger,  would  finish  it.  If 
not  flat,  the  rivet  must  be  hammered  at  the 
part  where  the  balance  projects.  If  there 
are  three  arms  to  the  balance,  it  may  need 
flattening  by  striking  them  with  a  light  ham- 


20 


DUST  PIPES. 


mer,  or  the  pliers  may  be  used  with  advan¬ 
tage  ;  resting  the  point  of  the  pliers  near  the 
center  of  the  balance  on  the  arm,  and  using 
the  edge  of  the  balance  as  a  fulcrum ;  or  the 
balance  may  be  held  in  the  fingers  and 
pressed  against  the  edge  of  the  workbench 
to  flatten  it.  A  combination  of  these  plans 
is  sometimes  necessary. 

Escapement  makers  usually  rub  and  bur¬ 
nish  their  balances  on  the  staff  before  turning 
the  pivots,  by  holding  a  pointed  center 
against  the  rivet  whilst  revolving  in  the  turns  ; 
but  repairers  will  find  this  not  so  convenient 
or  safe  as  the  other  plan  of  riveting,  which 
must  be  adopted  in  the  replacing  of  cylinders, 
and  they  will  not  get  enough  practice  at 
both  to  be  very  reliable  at  either. 

Most  of  the  directions  given  for  the  bal¬ 
ance  staff  are  applicable  to  the  pallet  staff, 
though  it  differs  from  it,  being  secured  to  the 
lever  and  pallet  by  screwing.  Working 
usually  in  thorough  jewel  holes  will  require 
a  square-edged  polisher  and  burnisher  to 
finish  the  pivots.  The  arbor  has  usually  a 
very  thick  bottom  arbor  or  shoulder,  which 
is  held  in  the  pliers  when  it  is  desired  to  un¬ 
screw  the  pallets  and  lever. 

In  making  a  new  staff,  a  piece  of  steel 
wire  may  be  turned  whilst  it  is  soft,  and  the 
screw  made  on  it  by  using  the  lever  itself  as 
the  screw  plate ;  when  a  good  thread  has 
been  formed  on  the  arbor  it  should  be  hard¬ 
ened  and  tempered,  and  the  height  from  the 
shoulder,  on  which  the  pallet  rests,  carefully 
gauged,  and  the  bottom  pivot  made  and 
finished.  The  action  of  the  wheel  on  the 
pallets  should  now  be  observed  by  screwing 
lever  and  pallets  together,  and  putting  them 
in,  and  holding  the  arbor  as  upright  as  pos¬ 
sible  ;  or  putting  the  escape  cock  lightly  on 
in  contact  with  the  top  arbor.  If  the  posi¬ 
tion  appears  right,  the  height  should  be 
gauged  from  the  old  arbor,  or  by  filing  a 
piece  of  brass  wire  until  it  fits  between  top 
and  bottom  holes,  and  gauging  that  for  the 
height.  Internal  gauges  may  be  bought, 
which  are  very  useful  for  this  purpose. 

When  the  pivot  is  finished,  the  escapement 
should  be  tried  first  without  the  balance. 
On  moving  the  lever  and  pallets  the  tooth 
should  have  an  equal  amount  of  drop  on  to 
each  pallet ;  this  will  prove  the  correct  sizing 
and  depth  of  the  wheel  and  pallets,  and  an 
equal  amount  of  run  of  the  pallet  after  the 
tooth  drops,  before  the  lever  comes  against 
the  banking  which  limits  its  motion.  If 
there  is  much  run  on  one  pallet  the  other 


may  not  leave  the  tooth  at  all,  or  only  just 
as  the  lever  comes  to  the  rest ;  this  shows  it 
out  of  angle  ;  and  if  the  steady  pins  are  tight 
in  pallet  and  lever  the  hole  must  be  opened, 
or  the  pin  filed  or  bent  to  allow  it  to  be 
shifted  on  the  lever,  so  that  the  pallet  may 
leave  the  tooth  before  the  lever  has  traveled 
the  full  distance.  If  both  pallets  refuse  to 
leave  the  teeth,  it  would  show  that  the  bank¬ 
ings  are  not  wide  enough  ;  but  if  the  watch 
has  ever  gone,  the  fact  proves  the  bankings 
to  be  wide  enough ;  and  the  inability  to 
leave  one  pallet  is  the  same  effect  as  in¬ 
ability  to  leave  both,  and  all  alterations 
which  make  one  pallet  deep  make  the  other 
shallow  in  the  same  ratio.  Common  levers 
have  considerable  drop,  and  run  up  the  pal¬ 
let  as  well  as  variable  draw  or  retentive 
action  of  the  wheel  on  the  pallet.  Fine 
watches  allow  of  these  actions  being  very 
close  if  the  wheel  drops  at  equal  distance  of 
the  lever’s  motion,  and  allows  a  little  more 
motion  of  the  lever  before  it  comes  to  the 
banking  ;  and  then  the  ruby  pin  leaves  freely 
and  the  guard  action  has  a  little  shake  be¬ 
tween  the  banking  and  roller  edge,  without 
danger  of  sticking  in  the  roller  or  allowing 
the  wheel  teeth  to  get  off  the  locking  face 
on  to  the  impulse  plane,  until  being  pulled 
off  by  the  action  of  the  ruby  pin,  the  escape¬ 
ment  being  free  may  be  considered  correct. 


MOUNTING  THE  DIAL. 

HE  pin  holes  in  the  dial  feet  should  be 
drilled  with  a  very  small  drill,  in  such  a 
direction  that  the  pins  will  not  come  in  the 
way  of  anything  and  will  be  easily  gotten  at ; 
they  should  not  be  drilled  below  the  surface 
of  the  plate,  but  broached  until  the  pin 
touches  it.  If  the  hole  should  be  a  little 
below  the  surface  it  is  better  to  lengthen  the 
copper  foot  by  squeezing  it  with  a  pair  of 
blunt  nippers  until  it  is  above  the  plate,  than 
to  leave  it  in  such  a  position  that  no  pin  can 
stop  it.  _ 

DUST  PIPES. 

UST  pipes  are  indispensable  in  a  key¬ 
winding  watch,  and  when  properly 
screwed  on  the  plate  and  fitted  to  the  case 
are  expensive.  This  part  of  the  watch  is  fre¬ 
quently  treated  with  utter  disregard,  and  we 
recently  saw  a  very  bad  case  of  dust  pipe  of 
the  set-hand  square  of  a  three-quarter  plate 
watch.  It  was  so  constructed  that  if  it  was 
made  to  touch  the  case,  it  would  press  upon 


TO  PUT  A  JEWEL  PIN  INTO  AN  AMERICAN  WATCH. 


21 


the  center  pinion  and  stop  the  watch  or  make 
it  go  irregularly ;  to  avoid  this,  the  center 
parts  are  left  with  sufficient  end-shake  to  de¬ 
feat  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  designed.  A 
solid  top  offers  advantages  in  respect  to 
dust,  and  perfects  the  key-winding  watch  to 
an  important  degree. 


THE  BARREL  ARBOR. 

F  the  pivots  of  the  barrel  arbor  are  of  the 

proper  shape  (which  they  generally  now  are 
in  the  best  movements,  and  certainly  ought 
to  be),  the  pivots  and  holes  will  only  require 
smoothing,  and  the  barrel  freeing  on  the 
arbor.  Instead  of  adopting  the  usual  course 
of  turning  away  the  bosses  in  the  barrel  and 
cover  to  reduce  the  rubbing  surfaces,  a  deep 
hollow  should  be  turned  and  a  shoulder 
formed  on  each  side  of  the  arbor  of  a  suf¬ 
ficient  width,  and  the  bosses  should  be  left 
on  the  brass  as  large  as  possible.  It  has 
not  been  the  practice  to  snail  barrel  arbors 
of  fusee  watches,  as  there  was  no  trouble 
with  the  adjustment  of  the  mainspring, 
English  springs  being  tapered  and  generally 
filed  thin  at  the  eye,  but  the  arbor  should  be 
snailed  (and  they  probably  will  be  now  by 
the  movement  makers),  and  the  hook  should 
not  project  beyond  the  thickness  of  the 
spring. 


SHAPE  OF  RUBY  PINS. 

CYLINDRICAL  ruby  pin  cannot  enter 
the  notch  so  deep  as  it  should,  and  the 
driving  side  of  the  notch  will  work  very  mi¬ 
nutely  toward  the  front  part  of  the  pin,  and  at 
the  wheel’s  drop  the  off  side  of  the  notch  will 
be  some  distance  from  the  side  of  the  pin  ;  this 
vacuity  between  the  notch  and  the  pin  is  a 
loss  of  arc  to  the  roller  on  each  side  of  the 
discharge,  and  also  causes  some  small  portion 
of  the  lever’s  arc  to  be  non-effectual  imme¬ 
diately  after  unlocking,  for  directly  after  un¬ 
locking,  the  lever  will  drop  across  the  vacant 
space,  which  is  perhaps  i°  of  the  lever’s  arc 
on  each  side.  This  loss  of  arc  by  notch  and 
pin  often  misleads  persons  in  the  arc  of  the 
pallet  from  drop  to  drop.  When  the  arc  of 
the  balance,  from  drop  to  drop,  is  about  300, 
and  the  roller,  from  staff  to  pin,  is  about  one- 
third  length  of  the  lever,  the  arc  of  the  pal¬ 
lets  is  supposed  to  be  io° — they  are  more 
than  io°,  generally  120 — the  depths  make  a 
greater  arc  in  unlocking  than  watchmakers 
are  aware  of. 


THE  PALLETS  AND  THEIR  FUNC¬ 
TIONS. 

ACH  of  the  two  pallets  is  shaped  for  the 
double  purpose  of  impulse  and  locking ; 
by  turning  the  escape  wheel  forward,  a  tooth 
of  the  wheel  passes  over  one  of  the  impulse 
planes,  and  thereby  turns  the  pallets  and 
lever  together  through  a  small  arc  of  perhaps 
90 ;  and  as  the  roller  and  balance  are  linked 
to  the  lever  by  the  pin  and  notch,  the  bal¬ 
ance  also  is  simultaneously  turned  through 
an  arc,  the  balance’s  arc  always  being  much 
greater  than  the  lever’s  arc,  according  to  the 
ratio  existing  between  the  radii  and  the  small 
roller  and  long  lever.  At  the  extreme  end 
of  the  pallet  plane  the  impulse  action  ceases, 
and  another  tooth  of  the  escape  wheel  drops 
on  to  one  of  the  opposite  lockings,  stopping 
all  the  machinery  of  the  watch  except  the 
balance  and  roller,  for  at  the  instant  of  the 
escape  wheel’s  drop  the  Boiler  jewel  pin 
passes  out  of,  or  away  from,  the  open  notch 
of  the  lever,  and  the  balance  and  roller  re¬ 
volve  by  themselves,  perfectly  detached  from 
the  rest  of  the  mechanism  of  the  watch. 


TO  PUT  A  JEWEL  PIN  INTO  AN 
AMERICAN  WATCH. 

N  putting  in  a  jewel  pin,  the  repairer 
should  always  remove  the  lever  from  the 
movement,  so  as  to  get  at  the  exact  size  of 
the  fork,  selecting  a  jewel  pin  which  has  only 
sufficient  side-shake  to  be  safe.  To  set  a 
jewel  pin,  remove  the  hairspring  and  fill  the 
hole  where  the  jewel  pin  goes  with  cement 
drawn  out  into  filaments  about  the  size  of  a 
large  bristle.  Some  little  skill  is  required  to 
do  this  expeditiously.  The  cement  is  made 
by  mixing  a  little  gum  myrrh  with  the  best 
shellac,  and  melting  both  together  at  the 
lowest  temperature  in  which  they  will  thor¬ 
oughly  unite.  While  the  mass  is  warm,  it  is 
drawn  out  into  threads  of  near  the  size  of 
the  hole  in  the  roller.  Take  the  balance 
(with  the  hairspring  removed)  in  a  pair  of 
tweezers  and  move  it  back  and  forth  through 
the  blaze  of  your  alcohol  lamp,  until  hot 
enough  to  melt  the  cement  when  you  touch 
the  jewel  pole  with  one  of  the  filaments,  and 
it  will  instantly  be  filled  with  cement;  ora 
small  piece  of  one  of  the  cement  threads  can 
be  broken  off  and  inserted  in  the  hole  and 
melted.  At  any  rate  no  great  surplus  of 
cement  should  be  used,  as  it  not  only  makes 
a  smeary  unworkmanlike  job,  but  it  is  liable 


22 


TO  HOOK  IN -THE  MAINSPRING. 


to  get  into  the  passing  hollow  and  interfere 
with  the  guard-pin. 

After  the  hole  is  filled,  and  while  the  roller 
is  hot,  insert  the  jewel  pin  with  an  extra  pair 
of  tweezers,  being  sure  to  keep  the  flat  side  of 
the  jewel  pin  to  the  front  and  keeping  the 
t  jewel  pin  upright.  It  need  not  perhaps  be 
said,  do  not  heat  your  balance  as  to  change 
its  color  or  burn  the  cement.  In  setting 
pallet  stones,  the  same  kind  of  cement  is 
used.  Some  persons  use  shellac  dissolved  in 
alcohol ;  this  cannot  be  recommended,  as  it 
leaves  the  cement  or  shellac  porous  from  the 
bubbles  formed  by  the  alcohol  when  being 
driven  off  by  heat. 

In  order  to  get  at  the  proper  angle  and 
position  of  a  pallet  stone,  the  fork  should  be 
put  in  the  watch  and  the  banking  screws 
turned  so  that  the  guard  pin  will  just  touch 
the  roller;  the  balance  should  now  be  put  in 
without  the  balaftce  spring,  and  revolved  to 
see  if  it  enters  the  fork  properly,  bending 
the  guard  pin,  if  necessary,  until  this  result 
is  obtained.  With  the  fork  and  roller  action 
in  this  condition,  the  tooth  should  just  reach 
the  locking  face  of  the  pallet  engaged.  If 
we  now  remove  the  pallets  and  insert  our 
pallet  stone  to  be  set,  placing  it  as  near  in 
the  correct  position  as  we  can  judge,  trying 
it  with  the  scape  wheel  to  see  if  it  is  too 
dose  outside  or  inside.  Next  place  it  in  the 
watch  and  see  if  a  tooth  resting  against  it 
(the  new  jewel)  just  rests  on  the  locking  face. 
Now  open  the  bankings  until  the  tooth  will 
escape,  and  it  should  be  all  right  if  the  direc¬ 
tions  have  been  complied  with.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  pallet  is  in  too  far,  the  pallet 
should  be  removed  and  heated  and  the  stone 
pushed  back,  trying  it  again  with  the  scape 
wheel  to  see  if  the  teeth  pass  readily  between 
the  pallets  inside  and  outside. 

To  make  the  instructions  still  more  ex¬ 
plicit,  we  will  recapitulate.  If  the  guard  pin 
rests  against  the  roller  and  the  other  parts 
of  the  escapement  are  all  right,  the  following 
conditions  will  exist: 

The  jewel  pin  will  enter  the  fork  freely, 
and  the  fork  will  pass  over  against  the  op¬ 
posite  banking  pin,  where  it  will  rest,  but  as 
both  banking  pins  are  too  close,  the  tooth 
which  just  touched  on  the  locking  face  can¬ 
not  escape,  for  the  just  mentioned  reason,  and 
they  hold  the  guard  pin  against  the  roller. 
But  remember  the  guard  pin  is  in  just  the 
right  place  when,  if  pressed  against  the  roller, 
it  will  barely  permit  the  jewel  pin  to  enter 
the  fork,  and  the  pallet  is  in  just  the  right 


position  (as  far  as  locking  is  concerned)  if 
the  guard  pin  resting  against  the  roller  and 
the  tooth  engaging  the  pallet,  is  as  near  leav¬ 
ing  the  locking  face  of  the  pallet  as  it  can, 
and  not  do  so.  But  if  on  opening  the  bank¬ 
ings  so  as  to  remove  the  guard  pin  free  of  the 
roller,  the  pallets  will  escape,  and  only  a 
good,  fine  secure  lock  is  obtained,  we  may 
feel  sure  that  the  pallet  stone  is  properly  set. 

The  Swiss  club-tooth  escapement  is  not  so 
easily  managed,  as  they  are  frequently,  espe¬ 
cially  in  the  cheaper  grades  of  movements, 
faulty,  both  in  the  pallets  and  in  the  teeth. 


TO  HOOK  IN  THE  MAINSPRING. 

ANY  springs  are  broken  owing  to  the 
hook  in  the  barrel  arbor  being  too  long  ; 
therefore,  this  is  an  important  item  to  be  ex¬ 
amined  by  the  operator,  if  he  knows  that 
springs  in  a  certain  watch  are  liable  to  fre¬ 
quent  breakage.  Some  of  the  closely  made 
English  watches  in  which  a  small  barrel  is 
used,  frequently  get  their  springs  broken  be¬ 
cause  the  arbor  hook  stands  out  too  promi¬ 
nent.  This  hook  should  never  be  left  longer 
than  the  thickness  of  a  coil  of  the  spring ;  this 
is  quite  sufficient  to  hold  firmly,  provided 
the  hole  in  the  spring  is  properly  chamfered. 
The  hole  made  in  this  end  of  the  spring 
should  be  sufficiently  large  to  allow  the  arbor 
hook  plenty  of  room  so  that  it  will  not  raise 
or  lower  the  center  of  the  spring,  if  the  hook 
should  be  a  little  out  of  the  center.  In 
some  of  the  flat  Geneva  watches,  for  which 
a  very  thin  spring  is  used,  we  have  to  be 
very  careful  in  this  particular  ;  for,  with  such 
a  thin — or  low — spring  there  is  not  the  room 
to  make  the  hole  sufficiently  large  for  the 
hook,  without  making  it  a  little  weaker ;  or, 
if  we  are'  not  careful,  we  are  very  liable  to 
get  the  spring  slightly  ruptured  in  this  part. 
Now,  rather  than  run  a  risk  of  this  kind,  we 
had  better  stone  off  a  part  of  the  sides  of 
the  hook.  Or,  if  the  hook  should  be  a  little 
out  of  the  center  of  the  arbor,  we  can  then 
stone  off  one  side  only,  in  order  to  bring  the 
hole  central. 

When  these  little  items  are  attended  to, 
we  are  not  very  likely  to  have  the  center  of 
the  spring  chafing  on  the  cover  or  bottom 
of  the  barrel,  unless  the  spring  has  not  been 
properly  finished,  which  is  frequently  the 
case  with  some  of  the  cheap  springs.  Some 
of  them  have  a  rough  burr  on  the  edge, 
which  will  often  cause  considerable  trouble ; 
for  in  this  instance,  when  the  spring  is  nearly 


TO  MAKE  A  TRUE  STAFF  IN  AN  AMERICAN  LATHE. 


23 


down  and  at  its  weakest  point,  it  is  then  de¬ 
prived  of  part  of  its  strength  by  this  chafing. 
Now,  if  the  outside  of  the  spring  chafes, 
owing  to  its  getting  in  any  way  bulged  by 
riveting  the  hook  on,  this  chafing  is  not  so 
liable  to  affect  the  watch  to  such  an  extent, 
for,  when  this  part  of  the  spring  is  in  action, 
there  are  more  coils  at  work  than  when  the 
spring  is  nearly  exhausted  ;  hence,  its  strength 
is  better  able  to  overcome  the  chafing.  We 
see  from  this  that  the  inner  end  of  the  spring 
should  always  be  carefully  examined  ;  for  we 
had  better  fit  in  a  spring  a  size  too  low  than 
allow  any'  chafing  whatever. 


TOO  MUCH  DROP  IN  LEVER 
ESCAPEMENT. 

IN  correcting  a  lever  escapement  which 
has  too  much  drop,  we  must  put  in  new 
pallet  stones ;  although  generally  in  club- 
tooth  escapements,  if  one  pallet  is  corrected 
it  will  answer — but  don’t  understand  that 
this  will  do  if  both  are  equally  faulty,  be¬ 
cause  this  is  not  what  is  meant.  What  is 
meant  is  that  generally  one  pallet  is  very 
bad  and  the  other  will  answer  after  the  first 
is  corrected.  For  if  we  sought  to  remedy 
all  the  faults  of  many  of  our  cheap  watches, 
the  melting  pot  would  be  the  first  thing  to 
use. 

In  testing  a  watch  for  a  thin  pallet  which 
•can  be  considered  as  causing  too  much  drop 
(although  the  fault  may  be  in  the  tooth,  if  a 
club  tooth,  but  as  it  can  be  remedied  by 
•correcting  the  pallet,  we  call  it  all  the  fault 
of  the  pallet),  we  proceed  as  follows :  We 
put  a  slight  friction  under  the  balance,  and 
revolve  it  so  as  to  unlock  the  escapement, 
and  observe  whether  the  tooth  falls  too  far 
after  being  released  from  the  pallet,  and  also 
notice  from  which  pallet  the  most  drop  takes 
place,  so  as  to  be  able  to  select  which  one 
is  most  in  need  of  correction.  Here,  again, 
we  must  in  a  great  measure  depend  on  the 
judgment ;  but  we  know  that  the  drop  should 
not  be  more  than  i  *4°,  and  here,  again,  the 
eye  has  a  comparative  standard,  that  is,  the 
drop  should  not  be  much  more  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  angular  motion  of  the  tooth 
when  acting  on  the  impulse  face  of  the  pallet, 
or  about  one-fifth  of  the  angular  motion 
(i 20)  ‘from  locking  face  to  locking  face. 
The  way  to  correct  the  thin  pallet  is  to  put 
in  a  new  pallet  stone  which  will  hold  the 
scape  wheel  longer,  and,  of  course,  convey 
more  train  power  to  the  balance. 


TO  SET  JEWELS. 

UPPOSE  we  have  a  watch  that  needs  a 
new  jewel  in  the  bottom  plate,  and  we 
have  no  jewel  that  will  just  fit  the  old  seat 
and  pivot  too,  or  the  bezel  may  be  no  good  ; 
we  must  select  a  jewel  that  will  fit  the  pivot 
and  is  a  trifle  longer  than  the  old  seat,  and 
proceed  to  cut  a  new  seat  and  bezel  for  it. 
Having  the  face  plate  or  universal  head  in 
place,  put  your  plate  up,  and  push  the  pump 
center  into  the  hole  where  you  wish  to  set 
the  jewel.  Now  adjust  the  clamps  to  your 
plate,  but  before  screwing  them  up,  look  in 
at  the  peep  hole  behind  and  see  if  the  pump 
center  is  exactly  in  the  hole.  Now  put  on 
your  top  plate  as  though  you  were  putting 
the  watch  together.  The  jewel  or  pivot 
hole  in  the  top  plate  is  supposed  to  be  in 
the  right  place,  so  we  will  test  the  thing  to 
see  whether  our  work  is  centered.  Take  a 
full-length  pegwood  stick,  and  sharpen  it  to 
a  nice  point,  and  insert  it  into  the  jewel  or 
pivot  hole,  and  let  it  rest  on  the  T-rest,  which 
must  be  slipped  within  about  one  inch  of  the 
plate.  Then,  as  you  run  the  lathe  slowly, 
watch  the  end  of  the  pegwood,  and  if  it 
does  not  stand  still,  but  moves  up  and  down, 
the  plate  is  not  truly  centered,  and  you  must 
center  it  by  that  stick,  or  else  the  wheel  that 
is  put  into  that  place  will  not  stand  upright. 
To  finish  centering  this,  slacken  the  clamp 
a  little,  and  with  the  hammer  in  hand,  run 
your  lathe  slowly,  and  when  the  end  of  the 
pegwood  is  down,  stop  the  lathe  and  tap 
the  top  edge  of  the  plate,  and  start  the  lathe 
again,  noting  what  effect  your  tapping  had. 
It  takes  practice  to  center  this  way,  but  it 
is  “dead  sure.”  After  you  have  centered, 
tighten  the  clamps,  and  take  off  the  plate, 
and  proceed  to  set  your  jewel. 


TO  MAKE  A  TRUE  STAFF  IN  AN 
AMERICAN  LATHE. 

AY  we  have  a  spring  tempered  piece  of 
wire,  No.  44,  Stubb’s  gauge,  which  will  fit 
a  No.  22  chuck.  I  turn  my  staffs  hard,  while 
many  men  blank  the  staff  out,  and  then  take 
it  out  of  the  lathe  and  temper  it,  put  it  back 
and  finish.  Tempered  steel  turns  much 
smoother  than  soft  steel,  although  it  is  harder 
on  gravers.  I  next  place  my  piece  of  wire 
in  the  chuck,  sticking  it  out  far  enough  to 
turn  the  whole  staff,  and  I  finish  the  upper 
end,  balance  seat,  collet  seat,  and  pivot,  then 
turn  the  hub  perfectly  true  with  the  pivot 
and  grind  it  with  oil-stone  dust ;  at  the  same 


24 


TO  PUT  IN  A  NEW  SCAPE  WHEEL. 


time  I  grind  the  pivot,  making  it  smoother 
than  I  have  the  hub,  the  right  length  or 
about  it,  and  proceed  to  turn  as  much  of  the 
lower  part  or  roller  seat  as  I  can  before  cut¬ 
ting  it  off.  All  that  I  turn  before  cutting 
off  the  staff  is  aimed  to  be  perfectly  in  line 
with  the  pivot,  and  the  hub  is  left  perfectly 
straight — not  beveled. 

When  I  next  cut  off  the  staff,  I  grasp  it 
by  the  hub,  and  after  I  get  it  the  right 
length,  I  true  it  up  with  the  graver,  finding 
it  an  easy  matter  to  true  it  up,  as  the  hub  is 
smoother  and  the  lower  part  of  the  staff  was 
turned  in  line  with  the  pivot.  When  I  get 
the  lower  part  to  run  true,  I  know  that  my 
pivots  will  be  in  line,  for  they  were  turned 
in  line  before  the  staff  was  cut  off.  After 
finishing  and  polishing  the  pivot,  I  take  the 
staff  out,  get  another  chuck  that  will  fit  the 
collet  seat,  and  proceed  to  turn  the  slope  on 
the  hub,  and  my  staff  is  finished. 


CENTERING  A  BALANCE  STAFF  OR 
PIVOT. 

VERY  often  use  a  split  chuck  for  a  third 
or  fourth  wheel  pivot,  but  I  generally  pre¬ 
fer  a  brass  taper  cement  chuck  for  a  balance 
staff  or  pivot.  My  method  is  as  follows : 
After  securing  the  brass  taper  in  the  chuck, 
I  turn  off  the  face  perfectly  smooth,  to 
avoid  being  deceived  in  the  center,  then 
with  a  fine  pointed  graver  find  the  center, 
which  I  cut  about  as  deep  as  the  length  of 
the  pivot,  using  a  strong  glass.  To  test  its 
accuracy,  I  take  a  long  pin  tongue,  soften 
it,  and  set  the  pointed  end  in  the  female 
center  just  cut — holding  the  other  end 
against  the  thumb  of  my  right  hand ;  then 
by  setting  the  rest  close  to  the  chuck,  and 
holding  a  thin  slip  of  pegwood  under  the 
pointed  end  of  the  pin,  as  it  rests  in  the 
center,  and  revolving  the  lathe,  the  slightest 
error  will  be  detected  by  the  “  wink  ”  of  the 
pin.  After  being  assured  of  the  accuracy 
of  the  center,  I  next  apply  the  cement.  By- 
the-way,  about  one-sixteenth  of  one  inch 
from  the  end  of  the  taper,  I  have  soldered  a 
small  piece  of  thin  brass  like  a  washer,  which 
holds  the  cement  better  and  requires  less 
heat  to  soften  it.  The  pivot  of  the  staff  is 
then  set  in  the  center,  and  the  cement  heated 
until  it  softens  and  flows  around  the  staff, 
and  then  allowed  to  cool  until  it  will  hold 
the  balance  without  dropping  out.  Set  the 
lathe  in  motion,  and  turn  the  other  end  of 
the  staff  by  holding  a  piece  of  pegwood  at 


rest  under  the  old  stump  of  the  broken  pivot 
or  the  next  shoulder,  the  remaining  part  of 
the  operation  of  drilling,  setting  plug,  end 
turning,  has  often  been  described,  and  which 
I  could  not  improve  upon,  except  by  the 
cautionary  suggestion  that  the  plug  be  fitted 
so  that  it  will  drive  tight  with  the  end  touch¬ 
ing  the  bottom  of  the  hole  drilled. 

A  plug,  when  fitted,  is  of  course  a  little 
tapering,  and  as  the  hole  is  the  same  size 
when  it  is  driven  in,  it  really  binds  only  at 
the  outside,  which  is  the  largest  part ;  and 
for  this  reason,  a  pivot  will  sometimes  work 
loose  when  it  is  being  turned  off,  particularly 
if  the  hole  is  large,  with  little  depth.  This- 
may  sometimes  be  remedied  by  striking  the 
small  end  of  the  plug  lightly  with  the  ham¬ 
mer,  raising  a  slight  burr  on  the  end,  and 
then  driving  it  in  as  before. 


TO  PUT  IN  A  NEW  SCAPE  WHEEL. 

ET  us  suppose  the  case  that  a  new  pinion 
was  put  in  the  scape  wheel,  and  that 
the  workman  did  not  succeed  in  getting  his 
pinion  in  true  (a  very  usual  occurrence),  he 
now  lops  off  the  teeth, — very  likely  rounding 
up  the  points  of  the  teeth  to  avoid  “  friction,” 
until  he  gets  his  scape  wheel  too  small.  If 
our  botch  stopped  here,  the  remedy  would 
be  simple  enough ;  all  there  is  to  be  done  is 
to  put  in  a  new  scape  wheel  of  the  correct 
style.  A  few  words  in  regard  to  scape 
wheels,  and  we  will  go  on  with  our  problem. 

Workmen  who  live  at  some  distance  from 
large  stocks  of  scape  wheels  should  keep  a 
good  supply  of  the  commoner  size  on  hand, 
letting  extreme  size  (either  large  or  small)  be 
in  the  minority.  If  you  have  one  of  the 
correct  size,  all  right,  put  it  in ;  if  not,  select 
one  the  nearest  you  have  larger.  Set  the 
wheel  on  the  pinion  and  true  it  up.  Next 
take  your  depthing  tool,  and  set  the  points, 
so  they  correspond  to  the  holes  in  the  plate. 
Some  little  judgment  is  required  to  set  a 
depthing  tool  to  exactly  represent  the  dis¬ 
tance  between  the  two  holes ;  the  best  way 
is  to  take  the  inside  of  the  top  plate  (if  an 
English  lever),  and  set  the  points  as  nearly 
correct  as  the  judgment  dictates  will  be 
right ;  next,  set  one  of  the  points  in  one  hole 
and  with  the  other  sweep  a  short  circle  cross¬ 
ing  the  other  hole  ;  then  with  a  double  eye¬ 
glass  determine  if  the  line  crosses  exactly 
the  center  of  the  hole ;  if  not,  set  the  depth- 
ing  tool  until  it  does. 

Put  in  your  scape  wheel  and  pallets,  and 


TO  PREVENT  A  WATCH  FROM  OVER-BANKING. 


25 


try  the  depth — first  by  turning  your  scape 
wheel  backward  ;  if  the  wheel  is  entirely  too 
large,  it  will  not  turn.  Judgment  must  of 
course  have  been  exercised  in  not  selecting 
a  scape  wheel  disproportionally  large  ;  still, 
if  the  instructions  here  given  are  observed, 
a  wheel  seemingly  much  too  large  can  be 
used.  The  reader  must  not  imagine  that 
the  writer  considers  this  course  as  the  best. , 
because  he  does  nothing  of  the  kind ;  he 
only  gives  this  as  a  method  by  which  a  fair 
result  can  be  obtained  by  persons  so  situated 
as  to  be  limited  in  their  resources. 

If  the  scape  wheel  will  not  turn  backward, 
and  indicates  that  the  wheel  is  too  large, 
remove  the  lever  from  the  depthing  tool 
(but  be  careful  not  to  change  the  depth), 
and  insert  a  slip  of  Arkansas  stone  so  that 
it  will  be  held  steady,  and  with  the  fingers 
revolve  the  wheel  so  as  to  grind  off  the  ends 
of  the  teeth.  This  should  be  repeated  until 
the  wheel  turns  freely  backward.  Next 
comes  the  testing  for  the  lock,  which  is  a 
delicate  manipulation  not  difficult  to  do,  but 
somewhat  difficult  to  describe. 

Let  us  suppose  we  turn  the  scape  wheel 
backward,  so  that  the  back  of  the  tooth 
acting  against  the  egress  pallet,  which  we 
will  call  B,  will  cause  the  ingress  pallet, 
which  we  will  call  A,  to  advance  the  impulse 
face  of  (ingress)  pallet  A,  inside  of  a  part 
of  circle  or  arc  corresponding  to  the  ends  of 
the  scape  teeth.  The  scape  wheel  does  not 
want  to  be  turned  back  until  the  tooth 
against  pallet  B  passes  the  angle  of  B,  but 
only  enough  so  that  when  the  scape  wheel 
is  turned  forward  a  tooth  will  engage  the 
impulse  face  of  A  somewhat  near  the  mid¬ 
dle,  if  now  the  scape  wheel  is  moved  for¬ 
ward  until  the  latter  tooth  leaves  or  drops 
from  the  pallet  A.  If  everything  is  as  it 
should  be,  the  latter  tooth  will  fall  safely  on 
the  locking  face  of  the  pallet  B  and  draw  it 
inward.  Both  pallets  can  be  tested  by  this 
system,  only  reversing  the  order,  letting  the 
back  of  the  latter  tooth  strike  A  so  as  to  let 
the  tooth  strike  the  impulse  face  of  B ,  and 
bring  the  locking  face  of  A  into  action  in 
the  same  manner  as  we  did  at  B.  This 
process  can  be  repeated  until  every  tooth  is 
tested  as  to  lock  and  drop.  After  the  teeth 
are  stoned  off  to  the  correct  length,  they  can 
be  dressed  up  to  a  point  by  a  slip  of  Arkan¬ 
sas  stone ;  but  only  stone  the  back  of  the 
tooth,  leaving  the  front  intact.  Skill  and 
judgment  must  of  course  be  used  to  preserve 
the  correct  form  of  the  tooth. 


TO  PREVENT  A  WATCH  FROM 
OVER-BANKING. 

HE  banking  pins  have  nothing  whatever 
to  do  with  over-banking.  They  only  regu¬ 
late  the  rwi,  or  in  other  words  the  distance 
the  pallet  jewels  travel  in  toward  the  scape 
wheel.  If  the  banking  pins  are  too  far 
apart,  the  scape  teeth  reach  too  far  up  the 
locking  planes  of  the  pallet  jewels,  and  the 
balance,  having  therefore  to  carry  the  fork 
so  great  a  distance  before  the  scape  teeth 
act  on  the  impulse  planes,  meets  with  so 
much  resistance  that  the  motion  is  very 
much  increased  thereby,  and  often  causes 
the  watch  to  stop  altogether. 

In  a  correct  escapement,  the  fork  should 
bank  against  the  pins,  immediately  the  scape 
tooth  has  dropped  from  one  jewel  to  the 
other.  If  the  watch  over-banks,  the  fork  is 
either  too  short  or  the  roller  is  too  small ;  in 
most  cases  the  trouble  lies  with  the  fork 
unless  the  roller  has  been  tampered  with. 
The  effective  length  of  the  fork  should  be 
such  that,  when  the  power  is  on  the  watch, 
if  the  guard  point  of  the  fork  'is  pressed 
against  the  roller,  it  will,  on  being  released, 
return  to  the  bankings.  In  no  case  should 
the  fork  be  left  so  short  that  it  can  be  wedged 
against  the  roller,  as  the  watch  would  be 
liable  to  stop  at  any  time,  and  if  it  received 
a  jar,  would  in  all  probability  start  off  again 
and  so  cause  a  great  deal  of  trouble  in  lo¬ 
cating  the  stoppage,  in  annoyance  to  cus¬ 
tomers. 

The  fork  in  Swiss  watches  may  be  length¬ 
ened  in  several  ways.  Draw  the  temper,  if 
necessary,  and  stretch  it  with  the  pane  end 
of  the  hammer,  on  the  part  between  the 
notch  and  the  center.  If  done  this  way, 
care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  it  is  not  bent 
by  the  stretching,  and,  if  so,  straighten  it 
before  putting  into  the  watch,  or  else  it 
would  have  too  much  run  on  one  side,  and 
not  escape  on  the  other. 

Another  way  is  to  file  back  the  old  guard 
point  or  edge,  drill  a  hole  and  fit  a  new  one 
having  a  pivot  on  the  bottom  to  go  through 
the  hole.  Rivet  it  in  place,  if  possible ;  if 
not,  solder  it  carefully.  It  can  then  be 
shortened  to  the  correct  length,  and  the  fork 
repolished. 

If  the  watch  is  an  English  one,  the  brass 
guard  pin  on  the  end  of  the  fork  will  have 
to  be  bent  forward  a  little,  and  if  that  won’t 
rectify  it  a  new  fork  must  be  fitted  ;  but  it  is 
necessary  to  examine  everything  in  connec-  ‘ 
tion  first  to  make  sure  that  the  trouble  is  in 


26 


THE  “SETTING”  OF  SCAPE  WHEELS. 


the  fork,  as  the  balance  jewels  might  be 
broken  or  too  large  in  the  holes,  and  thus 
allow  the  roller  to  drop  away  from  the  fork 
sufficiently  to  cause  over-banking,  or  the 
balance  staff  might  be  badly  out  of  true, 
which  would  cause  the  roller  to  be  out  in 
the  round,  and  that  would  cause  it.  In  any 
case  examine  the  escapement  thoroughly, 
and  locate  the  defect  before  making  any 
alterations. 


THE  “SETTING”  OF  SCAPE 
WHEELS. 

T  is  well  known  that  a  large  scape  wheel 

will  set  easier  than  a  small  one,  since  more 
power  is  required  to  propel  a  large  wheel 
than  a  small  one  ;  and  in  case  of  an  anchor 
movement,  the  pallets  are  set  farther  from 
the  center  of  the  wheel ;  mechanics  teach 
that  the  farther  any  part  is  from  a  given 
-center  the  more  force  it  will  require  to  move 
a  given  weight.  We  may  express  it  in  differ¬ 
ent  words  and  say  that  a  less  pressure  will 
stop  a  wheel,  when  it  is  large,  simply  because 
the  contact  is  further  from  the  center.  This 
can  easily  be  demonstrated  by  placing  one’s 
finger  against  any  wheel  in  a  train  of  a 
clock,  or  at  the  tip  of  the  scape  wheel  teeth, 
when  it  will  be  found  that  the  least  touch 
will  cause  a  stoppage.  Should  we  try  to 
hold  the  pinion,  however,  we  will  find  that 
it  requires  much  more  pressure.  It  will, 
perhaps,  be  useful  to  give  the  relative  pro¬ 
portions  of  this  pressure  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  wheels  and  pinions.  It  will  assist  in 
understanding  the  subject.  Let  us  suppose 
that  we  have  a  wheel  three  inches  in  diame¬ 
ter,  and  on  the  same  axis  we  attach  another 
wheel  one  inch  in  diameter,  place  a  piece 
■of  cord  round  the  largest  diameter  and  hang 
a  i -pound  weight  on  the  cord;  now  wind 
another  cord  the  contrary  way  on  the  small 
diameter,  and  it  will  be  found  that  it  requires 
a  3-pound  weight  to  hold  the  other  in  equi¬ 
librium  ;  hence  we  see  that  if  one  wheel  is 
three  times  larger  than  another,  it  will  of 
necessity  require  three  times  more  pressure 
before  it  can  acquire  its  proper  propelling 
force.  Of  course,  we  are  aware  that  the 
scape  wheels  of  watches  do  not  vary  as 
much  as  this,  but  we  simply  make  use  of 
this  illustration  to  be  more  readily  under¬ 
stood. 

Now,  when  we  consider  these  proportions 
from  the  barrel  wheel  to  escape  wheel,  we 
■  an  easily  understand  what  a  vast  difference 


a  slight  variation  in  the  size  of  the  scape 
wheel  will  make  in  its  propelling  force,  and 
this  is  the  reason  why  we  frequently  see  such 
strong  mainsprings  used  in  some  of  the  in¬ 
ferior  grade  watches.  If  the  makers  were  to 
study  well  the  relative  proportions  of  wheels 
and  pinions,  it  is  certain  that  they  would  not 
employ  such  strong  springs. 

After  this  short  digression  let  us  return  to 
the  subject.  We  must  remember  that  a 
wheel,  if  too  small,  Is  also  very  detrimental, 
since,  as  it  were,  it  seems  too  quick  for  the 
other  parts  of  the  escapement,  and  being  so 
much  under  the  control  of  the  other  wheels, 
it  is  rather  obstinate,  and  not  so  willing  to 
make  its  retrograde  motion  at  the  proper 
time.  Of  course,  when  the  balance  revolves 
so  as  to  unlock  the  pallet,  the  wheel  is  forced 
to  make  this  backward  motion,  but  since  the 
pressure  is  much  stronger  in  a  small  wheel, 
when  it  is  extra  small,  it  must  lock  very 
hard,  and  it  is  therefore  very  liable  to  make 
a  bad  action,  the  same  as  would  be  produced 
by  a  deep  depthing.  I  think  I  will  be  un¬ 
derstood  what  I  mean  by  saying  that  the 
wheel  is  too  quick,  for,  with  such  a  pressure 
it  drops  into  the  pallet  jewel  sooner  than  it 
would  otherwise,  and  it  is  therefore  really  in 
advance  of  the  lever  and  balance.  Under 
these  circumstances  it  is  very  liable  to  cut 
the  pallet  jewels  or  get  its  teeth  exceedingly 
worn.  A  short  time  ago  I  had  an  escape¬ 
ment  of  this  description  under  repairs ;  it 
had  a  very  broad  escape  wheel,  and  the 
pallet  jewels  were  very  round,  so  that  only 
a  small  portion  of  it  came  in  contact  with 
the  wheel,  which  was  perfectly  flat,  so  that 
the  jewels  caught  each  tooth  exactly  in  the 
center.  The  watch  had  only  bepn  going 
about  eighteen  months,  but  the  pallets  had 
“  pitted  ”  the  wheel,  owing  to  the  excessive 
force,  that  all  the  front  parts  of  the  teeth 
were  quite  worn  out  of  position. 

This  will  also  occasionally  happen  when 
a  particle  of  oil-stone  dust  or  any  similar 
substance  gets  on  the  wheel  teeth  or  pal¬ 
lets. 

When  the  wheel  has  sufficient  metal,  this 
can  be  remedied  by  carefully  filing  the  front 
part  of  the  teeth  until  the  “  pits  ”  are  taken 
out ;  but  it  requires  care,  as  the  file  must  be 
held  exactly  in  the  same  position  with  the 
angle' of  the  teeth.  If  this  is  not  observed, 
the  wheel  will  most  probably  be  ruined, 
since  no  good  action  can  be  expected  of  a 
watch  when  the  angle  of  its  scape  wheel 
teeth  has  been  disarranged. 


27 


THE  MEANING  “  PITCH  CIRCLE.” 


THE  COMPENSATED  BALANCE. 

COMPENSATED  balance  is  one  which, 
when  expanded  by  heat,  contracts  in 
some  direction  to  neutralize  the  effect  of  that 
change,  and  vice  versa.  The  usual  method  of 
securing  that  result  is  by  forming  the  balance 
rim  of  two  metals,  one  of  which  is  more  af¬ 
fected  by  heat  and  cold  than  the  other,  as  of 
steel  and  brass,  with  the  brass  on  the  outside. 
When  the  steel  center  bar  expands  and  car¬ 
ries  the  entire  rim  outward,  the  brass  portion 
expands  more  than  the  steel,  and  therefore 
curves  the  rim  and  carries  the  free  end  of 
the  section,  or  “  segment,”  nearer  to  the 
center  than  the  other  end,  which  is  attached 
to  the  center  bar.  By  attaching  a  weight  to 
the  free  end  of  the  rim,  the  effect  of  this 
movement  is  increased,  as  the  center  of 
weight  of  the  rim,  as  a  whole,  determines  the 
virtual  working  diameter  of  the  balance,  and 
this  diameter  is  more  rapidly  varied  as  the 
weight  thus  moved  inward  and  outward  be¬ 
comes  greater,  or  nearer  the  free  end  of  the 
segment  of  the  rim.  If  the  weight  is  moved 
too  far,  the  vertical  diameter  of  the  balance 
is  changed  more  by  that  motion  than  by  the 
heat  and  cold,  the  effect  of  the  latter  is  more 
than  neutralized,  and  an  error  of  the  opposite 
kind  is  produced.  In  this  case,  the  balance 
is  said  to  be  over-compensated,  and  the  rem¬ 
edy  is  to  move  the  weight  (or  screws)  back 
from  the  free  end  of  the  rim,  till  its  move¬ 
ments  exactly  neutralize  the  errors  of  time 
caused  by  the  expansion  of  the  balance  by 
heat,  or  its  contraction  by  cold.  When  this 
is  done,  the  balance  is  correctly  compensated, 
and  the  movement  is  adjusted  for  heat  and 
cold. 

It  is  obvious  that  a  balance  may  be  cor¬ 
rectly  made,  but  not  afterwards  compensated. 
It  would  then  be  a  compensation  or  expan¬ 
sion  balance,  but  not  a  compensated  or  ad¬ 
justed  one.  A  balance,  the  rim  of  which  is 
not  cut  through  entirely,  is  certainly  not  ad¬ 
justed,  and  cannot  be  until  it  is  cut.  So, 
also,  a  cut  balance  the  rim  of  which  is  not 
so  made  as  to  be  susceptible  of  adjustment, 
may  be  a  nuisance,  causing  the  watch  to  run 
perfectly  “  wild.”  A  well-made  compensa¬ 
tion  balance,  the  rim  of  which  is  not  cut,  is 
no  better  than  a  plain  gold  balance,  because 
its  rim,  though  capable  of  compensating,  has 
no  chance  to  do  so,  its  rim  being  fastened  at 
all  points.  Consequently  it  expands  and 
contracts  under  the  influence  of  changed 
temperatures  just  as  any  other  solid  balance 
would  do,  whether  made  of  gold  or  any 


other  material.  The  screws  may  be  orna¬ 
mental,  but  they  have  no  function  as  com¬ 
pensation  weights,  and  such  a  balance  is 
merely  a  “screw  balance.” 

From  the  above  will  be  seen  that ’natural 
causes  contend  against  plain  gold,  steel, 
brass,  or  any  other  metallic  balances  keeping 
as  good  time  as  a  good  compensated  balance, 
or,  indeed,  are  at  all  susceptible  of  keeping 
anything  like  correct  time.  A  watch  with  a 
plain  gold  balance  may  be  adjusted  to  posi¬ 
tion,  and  even  this  is  very  rarely  done,  ex¬ 
cept  in  movements  with  adjusted  balances. 
The  most  usual  adjustment  is  that  of  the 
balance  to  temperatures,  and  this,  as  has 
been  shown,  cannot  be  done  with  a  balance 
of  any  single  metal.  The  adjustment  to 
positions  relates  to  the  balance  pivots  and 
their  jewels,  to  secure  equal  vibration  in  all 
positions.  The  adjustment  for  isochronism 
relates  principally  to  the  hairspring. 


RELATION  OF  MAINSPRING  TO 
BARREL. 

F  we  wish  to  have  a  mainspring  theo¬ 
retically  adjusted,  there  is  no  better  method 
than  simply  to  allow  one  third  empty  space, 
one  third  for  the  barrel  arbor,  and  the  re¬ 
mainder  for  the  spring.  When  a  spring  is  at 
rest  on  the  barrel,  it  should  occupy  one-sixth 
of  the  barrel’s  inside  diameter  at  either  side 
of  the  arbor.  If  we  divide  a  barrel  into 
sixty  equal  parts,  we  should  always  see  that 
the  barrel  arbor  is  just  twenty  of  these  parts. 
It  is  a  great  mistake  to  have  a  barrel  arbor 
too  small,  for  when  such  is  the  case,  it  is  al¬ 
most  sure  to  break  the  mainspring,  if  the 
center  is  at  all  stubborn ;  as  is  very  often 
the  case  with  the  cheap  class  of  mainsprings 
in  market.  _ 

THE  MEANING  “PITCH  CIRCLE.” 

N  every  depth  the  curved  portions,  both  of 
the  leaves  and  the  teeth,  which  are  known 
as  the  points  or  curves,  always  project  be¬ 
yond  the  pitch  circles.  In  discussing  any 
depth,  we  start  with  the  supposition  that  if 
these  two  circles  were  to  roll  one  on  the 
other  without  friction,  the  depth  would  be 
perfect  or  primitive.  Hence,  they  are  known 
in  scientific  books  as  primitive,  geometrical, 
or  pitch  circles,  and  their  diameters  and  radii 
are  also  called  geometrical  or  primitive. 
Thus  in  every  wheel  or  pinion  it  is  important 
to  remember  that  the  total  diameter  is  the 
primitive  diameter,  plus  twice  the  height  of 


28 


CORRECT  LENGTH  OF  LEVER,  ETC. 


the  point,  or  curve  portion  of  tooth  and  leaf. 
Thus  in  a  depth  when  it  is  said  that  the  pinion 
radius  is  1.25  inches,  the  geometrical  radius 
is  meant,  which  reaches  from  the  center  of 
the  pinion  to  the  part  of  the  leaf  where  the 
curve  starts.  The  geometrical  diameter  of 
the  pinion  is  the  total  diameter  less  the  thick¬ 
ness  of  a  leaf  measured  at  the  pitch  circle. 
The  study  of  depthing  is  very  interesting, 
and  as  it  is  impossible  to  design  a  correct 
depthing  without  thoroughly  understanding 
the  theory  and  necessary  calculation  in¬ 
volved,  watchmakers,  especially  the  younger, 
should  make  themselves  masters  of  it. 


TO  USE  THE  MAINSPRING  WINDER. 

LTHOUGH  a  mainspring  is  often  put  in 
with  the  fingers,  even  by  good  workmen, 
still  this  way  has  its  objections.  When  using 
the  winder,  the  spring  is  to  be  hooked  upon 
the  arbor  of  the  winder,  then  wound  thereon, 
while  holding  the  coil  flat  by  the  thumb  on 
one  side,  and  the  second  finger  on  the  other 
side,  with  the  first  finger  pressing  on  the  out¬ 
side  of  the  spring  to  retain  the  winding. 
When  fully  wound,  or  very  nearly  so,  the 
barrel  is  carefully  placed  over  the  spring, 
which  is  then  allowed  to  slip  around  within 
the  barrel  until  it  becomes  properly  hooked, 
after  which  the  barrel  itself  is  allowed  to 
slowly  turn  till  it  is  entirely  free,  and  the 
spring  can  be  easily  removed  from  the  arbor. 

The  winder  should  of  course  not  be  used 
when  the  winding  arbor  is  in  the  barrel,  as 
in  watches  having  a  solid  ratchet  screwed  to 
the  bridge,  and  holding  the  barrel  or  barrel 
head  fast  on  the  bridge — otherwise  the  cen¬ 
ter  of  the  spring  would  doubtless  be  badly 
bent.  It  is  also  necessary  to  use  in  the 
winder  an  arbor  of  the  same  diameter  as  the 
collet  of  the  winding  arbor,  as  a  larger  one 
would  open  the  center  of  the  spring,  and  a 
smaller  one  is  very  likely  to  cause  the  spring 
to  snap  off  near  the  center.  Caution  must 
also  be  used  to  avoid  dirtying  the  spring  and 
barrel  with  the  fingers,  especially  if  the  hands 
sweat  much.  That  is  done  by  holding  the 
parts  with  a  piece  of  clean  tissue  paper  be¬ 
tween  them  and  the  skin.  It  hardly  needs  to 
be  said  that  the  winder  can  work  in  either 
direction  by  moving  the  spring  pressing  on 
the  ratchet  pawl — and  that  the  spring  must 
not  be  allowed  to  slip  from  the  fingers  dur¬ 
ing  the  winding,  else  an  inextricable  snarl 
may  result,  damaging  or  breaking  the  spring. 
Many  workmen  do  not  use  the  winder  at  all, 


but  hold  the  barrel  in  tissue  paper,  hook  the 
outer  end  of  the  spring  properly,  then  coil  it 
in  from  the  outside,  pushing  in  a  half-coil 
alternately  on  each  side,  with  the  thumbs. 
For  thin  and  narrow  springs  this  is  as  well 
as  the  other  way,  but  thick  and  wide  springs 
are  less  liable  to  be  bent  when  inserted  with 
the  winder. 


TO  CLEANSE  A  NICKEL  MOVE¬ 
MENT. 

ATCH MAKERS  sometimes  think  that 
nickel  movements  are  more  difficult  to 
clean  than  gilt  movements.  This  is  not  so, 
however,  and  the  former  are  to  be  cleaned  by 
the  same  process  as  the  latter.  It  is  also  gen¬ 
erally  supposed  that  nickel  is  but  little  liable 
to  tarnish.  This  is  a  great  mistake,  as  it  is 
far  more  liable  to  be  affected  by  exposure 
to  moisture,  handling,  etc.,  than  gilding.  In 
fact,  it  is  almost  as  bad  in  this  respect  as 
iron,  to  which  it  is  very  similar  in  its  chem¬ 
ical  reactions.  So  far  as  is  publicly  known, 
the  best  agents  for  cleaning  nickel  are  me¬ 
chanical  in  their  nature — that  is  to  say,  it  is 
best  done  by  the  use  of  polishing  powders. 
These  should  not  be  used  dry,  however,  as 
the  nickel  would  all  be  worn  off  before  a 
polish  is  produced  ;  nor  will  moisture  make 
the  action  any  better.  Either  soap  and  hot 
water,  or,  what  is  better,  a  very  little  oil  on 
a  piece  of  buff  leather,  mixed  with  the  pol¬ 
ishing  powder,  should  be  used,  finishing  with 
the  soap  and  water,  or  the  alcohol  bath.  A 
mere  trace  of  oil  on  the  tip  of  the  finger, 
gently  rubbed  over  the  parts,  will  readily 
loosen  and  remove  the  dirt  and  tarnish,  after 
which  the  oil  can  be  removed  as  usual. 

As  far  as  patent  or  secret  unguents  and 
cleansing  agents  are  concerned,  they  may, 
on  the  whole,  be  looked  on  with  suspicion,, 
and  to  the  watchmakers  at  large  there  is 
really  nothing  more  accessible  or  quick-act¬ 
ing  than  soap  and  water,  or  oily  substances 
and  polishing  powders,  with  gentle  rubbing. 

A  good  polishing  powder  for  polishing  up 
nickel  is  finely  powdered  and  sifted  unslacked 
lime,  used  on  a  buff  wheel  with  a  little  oil. 
It  should  be  kept  in  tightly-corked  bottles 
or  jars  to  exclude  the  air,  and  only  a  little 
of  it  taken  out  and  powdered,  as  wanted. 


CORRECT  LENGTH  OF  LEVER,  ETC. 

T  is  quite  frequently  necessary  to  deter¬ 
mine  the  correct  length  of  the  lever,  size  of 
table  roller,  size  of  the  pallets,  and  depth  of 


TO  OBSERVE  BALANCE  VIBRATION. 


29 


the  escapement  of  lever  watches.  A  lever, 
from  the  guard  pin  to  the  pallet  staff,  should 
correspond  in  length  with  twice  the  diameter 
of  the  ruby-pin  table,  and  if  such  a  table  is 
accidentally  lost,  its  correct  size  may  be 
known  by  measuring  half  the  lever  between 
the  points  above  named.  For  correct  size 
of  pallet,  the  clear  spot  between  the  pal¬ 
lets  should  correspond  with  the  outside 
measure  on  the  points  of  three  teeth  of  the 
scape  wheel.  The  only  rule  that  can  be 
given  without  the  use  of  diagrams,  for  cor¬ 
rect  depth  of  the  escapement,  is  to  set  it  as 
close  as  it  will  bear,  and  still  free  itself  per¬ 
fectly,  when  in  motion.  This  may  be  done 
by  first  placing  the  escapement  into  your 
depthing  tool,  and  then  setting  it  to  the  cor¬ 
rect  depth.  Then  by  measuring  the  distance 
between  the  pivots  of  the  lever  staff  and 
scape  wheel,  as  now  set,  and  the  correspond¬ 
ing  pivot  holes  in  the  watch,  you  determine 
correctly  how  much  the  depth  of  the  escape¬ 
ment  requires  to  be  altered. 


OVER-ACTIVE  COMPENSATION. 

HOULD  a  balance  be  over-actively  com¬ 
pensated,  the  screws  must  be  set  farther 
back  toward  the  balance  arms.  Supposing, 
however,  that  it  is  not  possible  to  remove  the 
screws,  then  their  weight  must  be  lessened, 
in  order  to  reduce  the  compensation.  It  is 
necessary  in  this  case  to  regulate  the  move¬ 
ment  screw,  since  it  will  now  advance  in 
mean  temperature.  This  can  be  effected 
either  by  means  of  the  balance  spring  or  by 
an  increase  of  weight  of  the  two  screws  op¬ 
posite  the  balance  arms.  When  any  correc¬ 
tion  whatever  is  made  to  the  screws,  carefully 
re-establish  the  equipoise  of  the  balance. 


TO  MAKE  A  BURNISHER. 

ROCEED  the  same  way  as  in  making 
pivot  files,  with  the  exception  that  you  are 
to  use  fine  flour  of  emery  on  a  slip  of  oiled 
brass  or  copper,  instead  of  the  emery  paper. 
Burnishers  which  have  become  smooth  may 
be  improved  vastly  with  the  flour  of  emery, 
as  above,  without  drawing  the  temper.  To 
prepare  one  for  polishing,  melt  a  little  bees¬ 
wax  on  the  face  of  the  burnisher.  Its  effect 
then  on  brass  or  other  fine  metals  will  be 
equal  to  the  best  buff.  A  small  burnisher 
prepared  in  this  way  is  the  very  thing  with 
which  to  polish  up  watch  wheels.  Rest  them 
on  a  piece  of  pith,  while  polishing. 


TO  POLISH  STEEL. 

AKE  crocus  of  oxide  of  tin  and  graduate 
it  in  the  same  way  as  in  preparing  diamond 
dust,  and  apply  it  to  the  steel  by  means  of  a 
piece  of  soft  iron  or  bell  metal,  made  of 
proper  form,  and  apply  it  with  flour  of  em¬ 
ery,  the  same  as  for  pivot  burnishers.  To 
iron  or  soft  steel,  a  better  finish  may  be  given 
by  burnishing  than  can  be  imparted  by  the 
use  of  polishing  powders  of  any  kind  what¬ 
ever.  The  German  mode  of  polishing  steel 
is  performed  by  the  use  of  crocus  on  a  buff 
wheel.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  surpassing 
beauty  imparted  to  steel  or  even  cast-iron 
by  this  process.  _ 

POLISHING  BROACHES. 

OLISHING  broaches  are  usually  made 
of  ivory,  and  used  with  diamond  dust, 
loose,  instead  of  having  been  driven  in.  Oil 
the  broach  slightly,  dip  it  into  the  finest  dia¬ 
mond  dust,  and  work  it  into  the  jewel  the 
same  as  you  would  the  brass  broach.  Unfort¬ 
unately,  too  many  watchmakers  do  not  at¬ 
tach  sufficient  importance  to  the  polishing 
broach.  The  sluggish  motion  of  watches 
nowadays  is  more  often  attributable  to  rough 
jewels  than  to  any  othfr  cause. 


OILING  THE  PALLETS  OF  DETACHED 
LEVERS. 

HE  question  is  often  asked  whether  the 
lever  pallets  should  be  oiled.  This  de¬ 
pends  somewhat  on  circumstances.  Very  fine 
movements  are  supposed  to  be  so  highly 
finished  as  not  to  need  any  oil  here,  which 
is  held  to  be  detrimental  to  fine  time-keep¬ 
ing  ;  but  the  more  usual  practice,  especially 
with  ordinary  watches,  is  to  oil  them.  They 
should  not  be  smeared  with  oil,  so  as  to  run 
up  on  the  under  side  of  the  lever  fork,  or  on 
the  top  of  the  escape  wheel,  as  it  will  gather 
dirt  and  lead  to  sticking  and  clogging  the 
wheel,  while  passing  near  or  under  the  fork. 
Only  the  pallet  stones  should  be  oiled,  and 
sparingly.  _ 

TO  OBSERVE  BALANCE  VIBRATION. 

O  observe  the  extent  of  vibration  of  a 
balance,  run  your  eye  around  the  rim, 
and  you  will  see  some  point,  as  a  screw  in  the 
rim,  a  mark  on  it,  or  the  end  of  one  of  the 
balance  arms,  which  can  be  distinctly  ob¬ 
served  when  the  balance  stops  and  begins  to 
turn  the  other  way.  Notice  some  stationary 
part  that  is  exactly  opposite,  or  under  that 


30 


SPEED  OF  DIFFERENT  TIMEPIECES. 


screw  at  the  turning  point  of  the  vibration. 
Now,  whenever  that  screw  fails  to  reach  that 
point  or  goes  beyond  it,  you  will  see  at  once, 
and  see  how  much  it  falls  short  or  goes  be¬ 
yond  it.  By  noticing  how  far  the  screw 
reaches  in  both  directions,  you  have  the  ex¬ 
tent  of  the  vibration  between  these  two 
points.  If  the  screw  reaches  the  same  point 
from  each  direction,  the  vibration  is  “  one 
turn.”  If  it  goes  one-eighth  of  a  turn  fur¬ 
ther  in  each  direction,  that  is  one  and  one- 
fourth  turns  ;  and  if  it  falls  short  one-eighth 
of  a  turn  both  ways,  the  vibration  is  three- 
quarters  of  one  turn.  A  little  practice  will 
enable  the  watchmaker  to  notice  the  extent 
and  variations,  and  to  estimate  the  proportion 
of  a  turn. 


TO  USE  THE  DEPTHING  TOOL. 

AKE  your  depthing  tool  and  set  the  points 
so  that  they  correspond  to  the  holes  in 
the  plate.  Some  little  judgment  is  required  to 
set  a  depthing  tool  to  exactly  represent  the 
distance  between  the  two  holes ;  the  best 
way  is  to  take  the  inside  of  the  top  plate  (of 
an  English  lever)  and  set  the  points  as  nearly 
correct  as  the  judgment  dictates  will  be  right ; 
next,  set  one  of  the  points  in  one  hole,  and 
with  the  other  sweep  a  short  circle  crossing 
the  other  hole  ;  then  with  a  double  eyeglass 
determine  if  the  line  crosses  exactly  the  cen¬ 
ter  of  the  hole ;  if  not,  set  the  tool  until  it 
does. 


THE  SIZE  OF  THE  CYLINDER  PIVOT. 

O  establish  the  size  of  the  pivot  with  rela¬ 
tion  to  its  hole  is  apparently  an  easy  thing 
to  do  correctly,  but  to  an  inexperienced 
workman  it  is  not  so.  The  side-shake  in 
cylinder-pivot  holes  should  be  greater  than 
that  for  ordinary  train  holes  ;  one-sixth  is  the 
amount  prescribed  by  Saunier ;  the  size  of 
the  pivot  relatively  to  the  cylinder  about 
one-eighth  the  diameter  of  the  body  of  the 
cylinder.  It  is  very  necessary  that  this 
amount  of  side-shake  should  be  correctly 
recognized ;  if  less  than  the  amount  stated, 
the  watch,  though  performing  well  when  the 
oil  is  fresh,  fails  to  do  so  when  it  commences 
to  thicken.  The  only  accurate  way  of  get¬ 
ting  at  the  correct  amount  of  shake  is  to 
make  a  pivot  or  two  to  a  jewel  hole  by 
means  of  a  micrometer ;  the  eye  will  soon 
become  capable  of  correctly  estimating  the 
amount  necessary.  If  any  doubt  exists,  a 
round  broach  can  be  used  to  size  the  pivot 


hole,  and  the  micrometer  will  then  decide 
the  question. 


TO  CUT  SCREW  THREADS. 

IT  is  quite  a  knack  to  make  a  nice  screw, 
and  beginners  are  generally  apt  to  use  too 
much  force  when  cutting  the  thread.  If  the 
spindle  has  been  turned  too  large  for  the 
hole  in  the  screw-plate,  there  is  danger  of 
breaking  the  tool,  which  is  very  hard,  and 
pieces  will  chip  off;  again,  the  piece  to  be 
tapped  is  apt  to  break  and  stop  up  the  hole 
in  the  plate,  thereby  entailing  the  tedious  job 
of  drilling  the  piece  out  and  cleaning  the 
thread.  It  is  better  to  begin  with  a  hole 
much  larger  and  w-orking  down  gradually. 
It  is  natural  that  a  certain  amount  of  force 
must  be  employed,  and  a  little  practice  will 
soon  teach  the  beginner  how  much,  to  insure 
a  full  good  thread.  Now,  put  the  screw 
back  in  the  tool,  and  turn  the  head  a  little 
more  than  the  required  thickness,  and  cut 
the  screw  off  by  turning  a  groove  above. 


THE  BALANCE  SPRING. 

THE  study  of  the  balance  spring  must  ever 
be  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the 
watchmaker  ;  because  it  is  the  principal  agent 
with  which  he  is  able  to  control  the  rate  of 
the  watch.  Debating  the  different  kinds  of 
springs,  an  authority  says  that  the  great  ad¬ 
vantage  of  an  over-coil  spring  is  that  it  dis¬ 
tends  in  action  on  both  sides,  and  the  balance 
pivots  are  thereby  relieved  of  the  side  press¬ 
ure  given  with  the  ordinary  flat  spring.  The 
Breguet  spring,  in  common  with  the  helical 
and  all  other  forms  in  which  the  outer  coil 
returns  toward  the  center,  offers  opportuni¬ 
ties  of  obtaining  isochronism  by  slightly  vary¬ 
ing  the  character  of  the  curve  described  by 
the  outer  coil,  and  thereby  altering  its  pow7er 
of  resistance. 


SPEED  OF  DIFFERENT  TIMEPIECES. 

HE  balance  of  a  so-called  18,000  train  vi¬ 
brates  300  per  minute,  18,000  per  hour, 
consequently  432,000  in  24  hours,  12,960,- 
000  in  30  days — so-called  month,  157,680,- 
000  in  365  days. 

A  seconds  pendulum  makes  3,600  oscilla¬ 
tions  in  one  hour,  86,400  a  day,  2,592,000 
in  30  days,  31,536,000  in  365  days. 

A  marine  chronometer,  vibrating  half- 
seconds,  makes  14,400  vibrations  per  hour, 


WATCH  DIALS. 


3i 


345,600  per  day,  10,368,000  in  30  days, 
126,144,000  in  365  days. 

Let  us  suppose  a  watch  vibrating  18,000 
per  hour  were  quietly  laid  down  or  hung  up 
for  about  ten  hours — whereby  it  would  go 
correctly ;  but  in  the  next  succeeding  four¬ 
teen  hours  it  would  be  worn  the  general 
length  of  time,  and  each  vibration  of  the 
balance  were  retarded  only  by  0.0001,  it 
would  be  equal  in  fourteen  hours  to  25.2 
vibrations,  or  5.04  seconds;  by  a  regular 
use,  therefore,  in  one  week,  35.28  seconds, 
and  in  one  month,  2.52,  or  nearly  three  min¬ 
utes.  _ 

KNIFE  SUSPENSION. 

F  a  very  exact  rate  is  expected  from  a 
knife  suspension  of  the  pendulum,  it  starids 
to  reason  that  neither  at  the  polished  edge 
nor  in  the  pan  the  least  rust  must  be  visible, 
and  the  only  way  to  prevent  it  is  by  slightly 
oiling  the  parts.  _ 

NEW  METHOD  FOR  ANNEALING. 

N  the  oil  bath,  in  which  the  annealing  of 
the  tempered  utensils  is  to  be  performed 
lay  a  metallic  ball  of  about  the  size  of  a 
pea,  and  consisting  of  an  alloy  of  2  parts  lead 
and  1  part  tin.  This  alloy  melts  at  23 20  C., 
and  therefore  indicates  the  correct  time 
when  the  small  tools  are  to  be  taken  out  of 
the  bath.  Alloys  of  3  parts  lead  and  1  part 
tin,  and  4  parts  lead  and  1  part  tin,  melt 
at  259°  to  260°  C.,  at  which  temperature 
the  utensils  become  softer. 


TO  MANIPULATE  THE  MAINSPRING. 

HEN  I  take  a  watch  down  that  has  run 
twelve  months  and  more,  I  first  examine 
the  mainspring,  by  taking  off  the  cap  (head) 
of  the  barrel,  carefully  removing  the  arbor  ; 
then,  holding  the  barrel  between  the  thumb 
and  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  with  a  small, 
round-nose  pliers  I  lift  out  the  inner  end  of 
the  spring,  holding  the  thumb  and  fingers  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  allow  the  spring  to  un¬ 
coil  itself  out  of  the  barrel  in  a  gentle  man¬ 
ner  into  the  hand ;  and  if  sound  and  of  the 
right  strength,  I  proceed  to  clean  it  with  a 
piece  of  domestic  (Yankee)  muslin — a  piece 
of  your  old  worn-out  shirt,  if  you  please, 
after  a  thorough  washing,  this  being  soft  and 
free  from  starch  and  all  foreign  matter  cal¬ 
culated  to  injure  steel.  Holding  the  cloth 
or  rag  in  the  left  hand,  the  spring  in  my 
right,  just  as  it  comes  out  of  the  barrel, 


gently  moving  it  back  and  forth,  holding  two 
or  three  of  the  coils  between  the  thumb, 
first  and  second  (middle)  fingers,  pressing 
the  coil  slightly  over  with  the  ball  of  the 
thumb  (not  nails),  so  as  not  to  materially 
change  the  natural  curvature  of  the  spring  in 
any  way  during  the  operation.  In  this  way 
the  entire  spring  can  be  cleaned,  with  the 
exception  of  a  small  portion  of  the  inner 
coil,  which  can  be  cleaned  by  using  a  cor¬ 
ner  of  the  rag,  applied  with  a  piece  of  peg- 
wood,  or  by  a  slight  brushing  with  a  brush 
used  for  a  like  purpose.  A  first-class  spring 
(and  no  watchmaker  should  use  any  other,  if 
he  values  time  and  reputation)  thus  cleaned, 
with  proper  space  in  the  barrel,  and  with  the 
arbor  free,  of  proper  size,  and  a  liberal  ap¬ 
plication  of  good  watch  oil  (but  not  flooded 
with  it)  turned  up  to  its  proper  capacity,  will 
give  out  its  full  force  for  one  or  two  years, 
at  least,  without  breaking,  rusting,  or  becom¬ 
ing  gummy  and  foul. 


WATCH  DIALS. 

HE  dial  of  a  watch,  says  M.  Grossmann, 
though  of  a  material  rather  inconvenient 
to  handle,  is  not  much  open  to  improvements. 
The  liability  to  injury  of  the  enamel  has  led 
to  many  attempts  to  replace  it  by  some  more 
suitable  material.  But  the  principal  consid¬ 
erations  of  a  good  dial,  distinctness,  has 
never  been  attained  in  such  perfection  as 
with  the  enameled.  A  perfectly  white  sur¬ 
face,  with  deep  black  figures  on  it,  cannot 
be  surpassed  for  this  purpose. 

For  these  reasons,  the  enameled  dial,  in 
spite  of  its  fragility  and  thickness,  is  and  will 
be  kept  in  use  by  all  those  who  do  not  leave 
out  of  sight  its  principal  purpose ;  but  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  the  invention  of  a 
metallic  or  other  appropriate  material,  pos¬ 
sessed  of  the  indispensable  qualities,  would 
indeed  prove  a  great  progress  in  practical 
horology.  Here  is  ample  room  for  useful 
inventions.  There  was  a  period  when  in 
England  and  elsewhere  dials  were  preferred 
of  a  yellowish  or  greyish  tint.  These  are, 
of  course,  not  so  fit  for  the  purpose  as  those 
of  pure  white  enamel.  In  the  same  way  the 
slightly  frosted  surface  of  the  English  dials 
is  thought  a  great  improvement,  as  it  is  said 
to  allow  of  looking  at  the  watch  in  any  di¬ 
rection  without  being  disturbed  by  the  re¬ 
flection  of  the  dial  surface.  This  is  a  strange 
mistake,  for  if  the  dial  of  a  watch  does  not 
reflect  when  held  in  an  awkward  direction. 


32 


TO  CORRECT  THE  CENTER  STAFF. 


the  glass  over  it  will  certainly  do  so.  Be¬ 
sides  it  is  so  very  easy  to  look  at  a  watch 
without  any  danger  of  annoying  reflex. 

The  fastening  of  the  dial  in  its  position  is 
effected  by  pins  or  screws.  It  is  not  advisT 
able  to  fix  the  dial  with  unduly  small  screws 
and  holes  drilled  through  it,  because  the  dial 
is  greatly  exposed  to  injury  by  the  slightest 
sideward  pressure  when  shutting  the  case, 
the  holes  being  so  very  near  the  edge  of  the 
dial.  This  method  of  fastening  dials  was 
formerly  preferred  by  the  best  French  and 
Swiss  makers,  and  many  a  fine  dial  has  been 
spoiled  by  it. 

A  dial  fastened  in  this  way  requires  some 
■care  of  the  repairer  when  putting  it  on.  He 
ought  to  screw  both  the  screws  gently  down, 
but  afterward  to  release  each  of  them  by 
about  one-quarter  of  a  turn,  so  as  to  ease  the 
dial  in  its  position. 

Another  way  of  fastening  the  dial  is  with 
pillars,  or  feet,  and  pins.  It  is  quite  effi¬ 
cient,  and  involves  no  danger ;  therefore  it 
has  been  much  in  favor  in  English  watches, 
and  if  the  movement  can  be  gotten  at,  there 
is  nothing  to  be  said  against  it.  But  in  the 
movements  of  the  present  period,  the  greater 
part  of  which  do  not  open  with  a  joint,  the 
fastening  with  pins  would  be  rather  trouble¬ 
some,  because,  for  taking  off  the  dial,  it 
would  be  necessary  to  take  the  movement  out 
of  the  case. 

In  all  movements  cased  in  this  way,  the 
dial  pillars  ought  to  be  held  by  key  screws, 
which  allow  taking  off  the  dial  without  re¬ 
moving  the  movement. 

A  very  good  method  of  fastening  the  dial 
is  to  set  it  in  a  thin  rim  of  silver  or  gold, 
and  adjust  this  rim  nicely  on  the  outer  edge 
of  the  pillar  plate.  Then,  of  course,  the  dial 
requires  no  feet,  and  all  the  difficulties  re¬ 
sulting  of  collision  of  these  feet  with  the 
parts  under  the  dial  of  complicated  watches 
are  done  away  with. 

The  hands,  in  order  to  be  distinctly  seen, 
ought  to  be  of  a  dark  color,  and  the  gener¬ 
ally  adopted  blue  steel  is  far  preferable  to 
gold  for  this  purpose,  and  the  figures  and 
hands  ought  to  be  a  little  more  substantial 
than  the  present  taste  prescribes  for  them. 
The  most  convenient  shape  for  the  purpose 
is  the  spade  pattern  ;  the  Breguet  and  fleurs- 
de-lis  hands  not  being  so  easily  distinguished. 

The  circle  of  seconds  ought  to  have  every 
fifth  degree  visibly  marked  by  a  longer  and 
stronger  stroke,  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
reading  of  seconds. 


Formerly,  all  the  dials  had  flat  seconds, 
but  since  about  thirty  years  it  has  been  quite 
common  to  have  sunk  seconds,  even  for  in¬ 
ferior  watches.  There  is  some  advantage  in 
that,  especially  in  flat  watches,  where  it  af¬ 
fords  accommodation  for  the  seconds  hand, 
but  at  the  same  time  it  weakens  the  dial  con¬ 
siderably.  This  may  be  the  reason  why 
some  makers  have  the  sunk  part  much 
smaller,  and  the  seconds  painted  on  the 
main  dial,  the  lines  extending  inward  to  the 
edge  of  the  sink ;  the  seconds  hand  is  then 
shorter,  and  moves  in  the  sink.  The  dial 
ought  never  to  be  made  larger  than  the  pillar 
plate.  _ 

TO  CORRECT  THE  CENTER  STAFF. 

HE  repairer  will  often  find,  especially  with 
stem-winding  watches,  that  the  center 
staff  moves  too  easily.  He  will  also  find  that 
this  defect  has  been  corrected  by  working 
burr  on  the  staff  by  means  of  a  graver  or  a 
sharp  file ;  it  is  true  that  this  remedy  will, 
for  a  time,  be  quite  efficacious,  as  it  will,  so 
to  speak,  enlarge  the  staff  and  produce  a  stiff 
motion.  This  is  not  of  great  duration,  how¬ 
ever,  since,  by  the  moving  backward  and 
forward  of  the  hands,  the  burr  will  gradually 
drop  off,  and  finally  become  a  good  grinding 
material  by  combining  with  the  oil,  and  in 
due  time  will  aggravate  the  defect  by  wear¬ 
ing  the  center  staff  and  the  hole  of  the  cen¬ 
ter  pinion,  and  the  motion  of  the  hands 
becomes  still  looser.  Should  next  the  loos¬ 
ened  burr  leave  the  pinion  and  combine  with 
the  oil  of  the  pivot,  the  consequence  will  be 
still  graver  than  formerly,  because  the  jewel 
holes  and  pivots  of  the  center  wheel  will  be 
interfered  with  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
watch  must  become  faulty  in  its  rate. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  these  lines  to  acquaint 
my  colleagues  with  another  less  known 
method,  which  is  both  shorter  and  accom¬ 
plishes  the  purpose  much  more  securely  than 
the  above.  Fasten  the  square  of  the  center 
staff  in  the  pin  vise ;  if  the  staff  has  at  some 
previous  time  been  treated  in  the  above  de¬ 
scribed  manner,  go  over  it  with  the  pivot  file 
and  remove  all  traces  ;  then  with  a  fine  rat- 
tail  file  file  in  it  a  so-called  lantern,  in  such 
a  manner  that  it  is  about  one-third  of  the 
length  of  the  center  pinion  away  from  the 
square.  Then  lay  the  staff  flat  upon  an  un¬ 
derlay,  and  gently  tap  it  with  the  hammer  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  upper  part  of  the 
notch  slightly  inclines  to  one  side.  This 
notch,  which  will  now  exert  a  slightly  springy 


LONG  OR  SHORT  FORKS. 


33 


motion,  will  produce  a  greater  tightness  of 
the  staff,  and  if  the  operator  is  careful  not 
to  file  away  more  than  from  one-third  to 
one-half  of  the  staff  the  watch  will  not  be 
exposed  to  the  inconveniences  frequently 
occasioned  by  too  great  a  looseness  of  the 
motion  work. 


LONG  OR  SHORT  FORKS. 

BY  long  and  short  forks  we  mean  to  distin¬ 
guish  those,  the  length  of  which  contains 
the  diameter  or  rather  the  semi-diameter  of 
the  table  roller  a  greater  or  less  number  of 
times.  Thus  we  call  a  short  fork  one  which 
is  3  or  3J/2  times  the  length  of  the  semi¬ 
diameter  of  the  table  roller,  and  we  would 
call  a  long  fork  one  which  is  5  or  6  times 
the  length  of  the  semi-diameter  of  the  table 
roller.  In  both  instances  the  table  roller  is 
to  be  measured  from  the  staff  hole  center  to 
the  radial  center  of  the  jewel  pin,  and  the 
fork  from  staff  hole  center  to  that  point 
in  slot  where  it  comes  in  contact  with  jewel 
pin.  Supposing  the  pallets  acting  with  long 
and  short  forks  having  the  same  impulse 
angles,  say  50  on  each  side,  then  the  short 
fork,  as  stated  above,  vTould  give  from  300 
to  350  impulse  to  balance  and  the  long  fork 
would  give  from  500  to  6o°  impulse  to  bal¬ 
ance.  The  first  point  which  forces  itself 
upon  our  observation  is  the  disparity  be¬ 
tween  the  unlocking  and  impulse  angles  of 
the  two,  as  shown  by  the  balance,  /.<?.,  by  the 
angular  motion  traversed,  for  we  have  to  sup¬ 
pose  that  the  unlocking  angle,  as  between 
wheel  and  pallet,  is  about  the  same  or  as 
short  as  possible  in  both  instances.  Pre¬ 
suming  this  to  be  the  case,  the  unlocking  of 
the  escapement  by  means  of  the  long  fork  is 
easier,  but  of  longer  duration,  while  that  by 
means  of  the  short  fork  is  harder,  but  of 
shorter  duration.  But  as  the  most  acute  re¬ 
sistance  in  unlocking  the  escapement  is  felt 
at  the  beginning,  the  unlocking  by  means  of 
the  long  fork  would  have  an  advantage  over 
that  by  means  of  the  short  fork,  where  the 
stronger  impact  would  make  an  unfavorable 
impression  on  the  balance  pivot  or  pivots, 
and  affect  position  unfavorably  and  very  un¬ 
evenly  in  watches  with  unequal  motive 
power,  or  a  going  barrel  during  the  twenty- 
four  hours  running.  But  if  both  escape¬ 
ments,  with  long  and  short  forks,  are  propor¬ 
tioned  in  their  other  parts,  as  they  should 
be,  there  is  still  a  further  advantage  in  favor 
of  the  long  fork  by  the  pallet-staff  pivots 
having  less  pressure,  and  therefore  less  fric¬ 


tion  on  account  of  the  larger  escape  wheel, 
making  the  unlocking  easier  on  that  account, 
and  this  is  quite  important. 

Another  point  in  favor  of  the  long  fork 
is  shown  by  the  following  argument:  Most 
lever  escapements  can  be  brought  to  a  stand¬ 
still  on  the  unlocking  faces  of  the  pallets  by 
an  immoderate  increase  of  the  motive  power, 
showing  thereby  that  the  unlocking  resist¬ 
ance  of  the  escapement  is  not  in  proportion 
to  the  impulse  force,  and  the  former  is  too 
great.  But  as  the  long  fork  lessens  this  re¬ 
sistance  by  making  the  unlocking  easier  and 
of  longer  duration,  instead  it  shows  a  move 
in  the  right  direction,  which  has  a  tendency 
to  make  the  motion  of  the  balance  more 
uniform  with  a  varying  motive  power  (a  go¬ 
ing  barrel),  and  therefore  more  isochronous, 
regardless  of  any  condition  of  the  balance 
spring. 

Furthermore,  as  the  long  continued  im¬ 
pulse  on  the  balance  by  means  of  the  long 
fork  for  50,  60  or  more  degrees,  has  the 
effect  to  accelerate  the  motion  of  the  balance 
more  and  more  during  the  progress  of  the 
impulse,  the  retarding  of  the  motion  of  the 
balance  by  the  unlocking  resistance  of  the 
escapement  is  more  likely  to  be  neutralized, 
and  we  are  more  likely  to  come  near  a  per¬ 
fect  isochronism  by  means  of  the  hairspring 
in  adjusted  watches.  Adjusters  of  watches 
will  readily  see  this,  as  the  unlocking  of  the 
escapement  is  their  great  bugbear. 

We  will  next  discuss  the  advantages  of 
the  short  fork,  the  advantages  of  the  one  be¬ 
ing  the  disadvantages  of  the  other. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  all  watches 
having  the  lever  escapement  have  a  ten¬ 
dency  to  gradually  go  slow  or  lose  on  their 
rate  on  account  of  the  oil  on  the  escape¬ 
ment,  and  it  is  principally  on  this  account 
that  the  chronometer  escapement  excels  the 
lever  escapement.  This  tendency  is  more 
pronounced  the  longer  the  escape  wheel  lin¬ 
gers  on  the  pallet  faces  during  the  running 
of  the  watch.  Therefore,  watches  with 
lively  motions  are  desirable  and  will  perform 
better  or  keep  their  rate  better  for  a  long 
time  than  those  with  short  motion,  and  it  is 
a  standing  rule  that  the  contact  between  the 
balance  and  the  escapement  should  be  of  as. 
short  a  duration  as  possible  to  avoid  the  oil 
influence  as  much  as  possible.  This  is  in 
favor  of  short  forks  or  a  short  impulse  angle 
and  quick  beat.  But  in  order  to  derive  the 
full  benefit  from  them,  it  is  indispensable 
necessary  to  have  all  the  details  of  the  c ,- 


34 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  PROPORTIONS  OF  A  WATCH  BALANCE. 


capement  executed  in  the  most  perfect  man¬ 
ner,  as  a  deep  locking,  too  much  drop  or 
carelessly  fitted  pivot  holes  (either  any  one 
or  all  of  them)  would  neutralize  any  advan¬ 
tage  which  we  might  have  a  right  to  expect 
from  a  short  impulse  angle  or  a  quick  beat, 
and  a  short  motion  with  a  short  fork  is  no 
better  and  not  as  good  as  a  large  motion 
with  a  long  fork,  where  the  extent  of  vibra¬ 
tion  would  more  than  equalize  matters.  It 
has  always  seemed  to  me  to  be  a  popular 
error  to  assert  that  a  quick  beat,  or,  say,  an 
18,000  beat  train,  should  go  better  on  a 
railroad  than  16,200  beat  train,  as  the  latter 
is  more  easily  isochronized.  Of  course,  a 
good  deal  always  depends  on  the  general 
construction,  extent  of  vibration  and  weight 
of  balance,  or,  as  the  French  would  say,  “  le 
tout  ensemble.” 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  PROPOR¬ 
TIONS  OF  A  WATCH  BALANCE. 

ABOUT  thirty-five  years  ago  fusee  watches 
.  had  the  lead  in  this  country.  Adjust¬ 
ing  watches  to  heat,  cold  and  position  was 
hardly  known  and  not  appreciated,  because 
the  public  had  not  been  educated.  A 
Charles  Frodsham  watch  was  the  ne  plus 
ultra.  The  only  watch  not  having  a  fusee 
and  which  began  to  assert  itself  about  this 
time,  was  the  watch  made  by  Jules  Jurgen- 
sen,  of  Lode,  Suisse.  Of  all  the  Swiss 
watches  I  had  seen  before  the  advent  of  this 
one  or  which  I  have  seen  since,  none  would 
hold  its  rate  for  years  as  well  as  this  one, 
though  during  the  twenty-four  hours’  run¬ 
ning  it  did  not  equal  the  fusee  watch  for 
regularity,  but  it  would  always  show  an  error 
during  the  last  two  hours  of  its  running 
or  before  being  re-wound.  Gradually  the 
competition  between  fusee  watches  and  go¬ 
ing  barrel  watches  became  intensified.  Fi¬ 
nally  it  was  established  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  two  parties  in  this  country,  who  took  op¬ 
posite  views  in  the  matter,  that  it  was  pos¬ 
sible  to  make  a  watch  with  a  going  barrel 
which  would  run  with  the  same  regularity  as 
a  fusee  watch,  and  the  fact  was  clearly  es¬ 
tablished  that  it  could  be  accomplished  by 
proportioning  the  momentum  of  the  balance 
to  the  motive  power  in  such  a  manner,  that, 
should  the  vibration  of  the  balance  be  dis¬ 
turbed  by  local  or  external  influences,  the 
motive  power  stood  in  such  proportion  to 
the  momentum  of  the  balance  and  the  es¬ 
capement,  that  they  would  not  disturb  the 
regularity  of  the  time-keeping,  or,  in  other 


words,  that  the  time  lost  in  the  motion  of 
the  balance  in  unlocking  the  escapement  was 
recovered  by  the  accelerating  effect  of  the 
impulse,  no  matter  what  the  extent  of  the 
vibration  might  be.  Heretofore  the  large 
sized  English  fusee  watches  usually  carried 
balances  weighing  as  much  as  16  grains, 
while  the  weight  of  the  balances  in  our  best 
American  going  barrel  watches  is  probably 
between  8  and  9  grains.  It  is  not  the  weight 
of  the  balance  only,  however,  which  is  our 
guide,  but  it  is  the  momentum  of  the  balance 
with  which  we  have  to  deal. 

A  balance  measuring  1  inch  in  diameter, 
controlled  by  a  balance  spring  which  brings 
it  to  time,  would  have  to  be  four  times  as 
heavy  if  it  were  only  y2  inch  in  diameter,  if 
it  were  to  be  controlled  by  the  same  balance 
spring  as  the  former,  being  1  inch  in  diame¬ 
ter.  But  why  ?  Because  the  rim  of  the 
small  balance  is  only  half  the  distance  from 
the  center,  and  any  given  point  in  the  rim 
would  have  only  half  the  distance  to  travel 
for  an  equal  angular  motion  with  the  large 
balance.  But  the  smaller  balance  would  0 
have  double  the  momentum  of  the  large  bal¬ 
ance,  because  momentum  is  weight  multi¬ 
plied  by  velocity,  and  if  we  multiply  the 
weight  of  the  small  balance,  which  is  four 
times  as  great  as  that  of  the  large  balance, 
by  the  velocity,  which  is  one-half  of  the  large 
balance,  we  have  a  momentum  twice  as 
great, 

or,  1  inch  x  16  grs.  =  16. 

£  “  X  64  grs.  =  32. 

Here,  then,  we  have  the  power  to  regulate 
the  momentum  of  the  balance  and  make  it 
suitable  to  any  watch,  and  here,  also,  we 
have  the  power  to  make  the  momentum 
suitable  to  any  motive  power  and  to  make  a 
watch  run  uniform,  no  matter  how  much 
the  extent  of  vibration  may  vary. 

If  this  is  true,  can  we  wonder  how  some 
watches,  even  with  isochronized  hairsprings, 
run  so  much  poorer  than  some  others.  The 
whole  trouble  in  such  cases  lies  in  the  badly 
proportioned  balances,  if  the  escapement  and 
everything  else  has  been  attended  to.  Long 
and  short  forks,  lockings  and  impulse  angles, 
pivots,  etc.,  all  are  factors  in  the  problem. 

Next:  As  I  understand  it,  the  prevalent 
and  accepted  theory  is  that  the  balance 
spring  must  always  be  made  to  suit  the  bal¬ 
ance  for  isochronism.  But  we  can  also  so 
change  the  momentum  of  the  balance,  as  to 
produce  isochronism  without  ever  changing 


ISOCHRONISM. 


35 


the  spring  one  particle.  Small  and  heavy 
balances  have  a  greater  tendency  to  go  fast 
in  the  short  vibrations,  while  large  and  light 
balances  (both  being  to  time  with  the  same 
balance  spring)  have  a  tendency  to  go  fast 
on  short  motions,  and  all  this  is  owing  to  a 
■different  development  of  the  momentum  be¬ 
tween  the  two.  The  small  and  heavy  bal¬ 
ance  develops  its  momentum  faster  and  over¬ 
comes  the  resistance  of  the  balance  spring 
easier  on  the  long  vibrations,  and  causes  a 
watch  to  go  slow  on  the  long  vibrations. 
The  larger  and  lighter  balance  develops  its 
momentum  slower ;  in  fact,  it  can  never  de¬ 
velop  the  same  amount  of  momentum  under 
any  condition  as  the  small  balance,  because 
the  proportion  between  the  arm  and  the  rim 
.shows  a  less  pronounced  difference. 

A  similar  theory  applies  to  watches  hav¬ 
ing  slow  and  quick  trains.  The  slower  the 
vibrations  of  a  watch  the  less  control  has  the 
balance  spring  over  the  balance,  if  the  latter 
is  of  the  same  proportion  as  the  balance  of 
a  quick  beat  train,  and  the  development  of 
the  momentum  of  the  balance  in  a  slow  beat 
train  is  proportionately  faster  than  the  de¬ 
velopment  of  the  force  of  the  balance  spring, 
the  latter  being,  by  the  very  force  of  cir¬ 
cumstances,  weaker  and  incapable  of  devel- 
cping  the  same  force  as  the  balance  spring 
in  the  quick  beat  train.  The  effect  on  the 
isochronous  condition  of  the  balance  springs 
of  the  two  becomes  at  once  apparent. 


ISOCHRONISM. 

ALTERING  the  length  of  the  balance 
■  spring  brings  a  multitude  of  new  factors 
into  operation,  which  more  justly  claim  and 
are  constantly  quoted  as  being  the  actual 
causes  of  isochronism  and  its  variation  ;  and 
this  may  explain  the  confusion  of  ideas  and 
the  contradictions  so  general  on  this  subject. 
Most  writers  and  practical  men,  who  do  not 
take  the  trouble  to  theorize,  are  quite  sure  of 
the  fact  that  a  variation  of  length  causes  a 
variation  of  isochronism.  Saunier’s  book  on 
horology  quotes  and  indorses  various  au¬ 
thorities  to  show  that  a  certain  length  of 
spring  is  necessary  to  secure  isochronism, 
especially  with  spiral  or  flat  springs.  Mr. 
Glasgow,  in  his  admirable  practical  articles 
on  springing,  contends  for  length  as  a  prim* 
element  in  securing  isochronism,  and  makes 
no  reference  to  the  spring  being  made  ec¬ 
centric  or  small,  except  as  a  matter  of  con¬ 
venience  or  as  a  means  of  altering  the  ad¬ 


justment  for  position.  I  can  find  no  refer¬ 
ence  to  the  eccentric  action  of  the  spring  as 
a  means  of  curing  errors  of  isochronism, 
until  Mr.  Kullberg  gave  me  the  idea,  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  it  is  correct. 

Like  will  cure  like — that  which  causes  the 
disease  will  cure  it.  The  want  of  concen¬ 
tricity  or  truth  in  action  is  the  cause  of  va¬ 
riation  in  long  and  short  arcs,  or  want 
of  isochronism,  and  long  springs,  tapered 
springs,  Breguet  springs  and  double-curve 
springs  are  used  and  proved  to  promote  isoch¬ 
ronism  ;  yet  notwithstanding  the  inferiority 
of  the  flat  spring — a  single  look  at  which  in 
action  shows  its  marked  inferiority — practi¬ 
cal  results  are  obtained  with  it  equaling  the 
more  perfect  springs ;  and  if  acceleration  of 
the  short  arc  is  desired,  to  neutralize  the  re¬ 
tarding  influence  of  oil  in  cold,  is  most  easily 
obtained  by  it.  This  shows  that  the  error 
which  is  incident  to  this  spring,  as  usually 
applied,  causes  the  watch  to  gain  on  the 
long  arcs  and  lose  on  the  short.  By  revers¬ 
ing  this  error,  we  can  utilize  it.  A  spring 
pinned  to  be  quite  true  at  the  collet  and  stud 
when  at  rest,  develops  a  series  of  eccentric 
circles  of  increasing  eccentricity  as  the  arc 
of  vibration  increases.  As  the'  eccentricity, 
so  is  the  errof  in  long  and  short  arcs.  A 
spring  being  most  easily  wound  when  most 
true,  the  eccentricity  causes  a  relative  in¬ 
crease  of  power  or  butting  action,  which  ac¬ 
celerates  the  action  where  it  occurs.  If  we 
fix  the  spring  on  the  collet  and  stud  so  as  to 
throw  the  eccentricity  when  at  rest  near  the 
stud,  we  can  have  all  the  eccentricity  in  the 
short  arcs  of  vibration  causing  their  acceler¬ 
ation,  or,  dividing  it  between  the  long  and 
short  arcs,  secure  a  circulation  of  the  spring 
in  the  middle  of  its  vibration.  The  matter 
may  be  summed  up  as  one  of  convenience, 
and  in  springing  with  the  flat,  the  circularity 
of  the  spring,  with  the  balance  turned  half 
the  distance  it  usually  vibrates,  must  be 
created,  if  it  is  to  be  isochronous.  The  Bre¬ 
guet  and  chronometer  springs  do  not,  when 
perfect,  move  on  the  balance  circle,  but  with 
it ;  the  flat  spring  travels  to  and  from  the 
center  if  pinned  quite  true,  and  the  spring 
circle  is  only  eccentric  when  at  rest,  and  the 
whole  of  its  eccentric  action  is  on  one  side 
of  the  balance,  on  which  it  exerts  a  con¬ 
stantly  increasing  influence.  When  pinned 
out  of  circle  when  at  rest,  the  circle  travels 
with  a  diminishing  eccentricity  to  the  cen¬ 
ter  of  the  balance,  then  becomes  concentric 
with  it,  and  the  increased  motion  creates  in- 


3^ 


TO  POLISH  A  WHEEL. 


creasing  eccentricity  on  the  other  side  of  the 
center  of  the  balance.  By  this  means  the 
eccentricity  of  the  spring  may  be  utilized  to 
secure  or  vary  isochronism  ;  and  this,  doubt¬ 
less,  is  the  basis  of  all  the  changes  that  are 
recognized  as  resulting  from  altering  the 
length  of  spring.  Perfect  truth  in  a  spiral 
spring  being  impossible,  the  spring  is  shifted 
about  until  the  error  it  contains  is  neutralized 
or  balanced.  In  the  face  of  this  fact,  one 
will  be  astonished  at  the  opposite  opinions 
expressed  on  this  point.  Urban  Jurgersen 
states  that  the  taped  spring  will  'give  isoch- 
ronism,  which  is  correct,  and  twice  asserts 
that  the  short  arcs  are  quickened  with  ordi¬ 
nary  springs  by  increasing  the  length  of 
spring.  This  is  contrary  to  what  is  usually 
asserted,  though  some  writers  say,  if  the 
short  arcs  are  not  accelerated  by  taking  up 
the  spring,  let  some  out.  Mr.  Immisch  re¬ 
pudiates  length  as  of  any  consequence  ;  and 
Mr.  F.  Cole,  in  his  treatise,  says  the  altered 
length  of  spring  has  of  itself  no  influence  as 
a  principle  in  counteracting  errors  of  isoch¬ 
ronism,  which  is  chiefly  effected  by  the 
change  of  length,  altering  the  mechanical  re¬ 
lation  of  the  .collet  with  the  stud.  Mr.  Cole’s 
essay,  I  am  inclined  to  think,  is  the  most 
valuable  one  we  have  on  the  subject,  as  he 
proves  that  the  subject  of  isochronism  of  the 
balance  includes  the  whole  art  of  watchmak¬ 
ing,  and  also  shows  that  isochronism,  pure 
and  simple,  is  only  to  be  found  apart  from 
watchworks,  as  a  branch  of  pneumatics  re¬ 
lating  to  vibrating  or  oscillating  bodies, 
though  he  makes  the  singular  mistake  of  as¬ 
serting  that  no  sufficient  test  of  the  isochro¬ 
nism  of  vibrating  strings,  reeds  or  pipes  can 
be  had  in  long  and  short  arcs  of  vibration,  as 
these  only  have  an  extent  of  a  few  seconds 
time  after  any  given  blow  or  impulsion. 

I  will  conclude  with  an  experiment  show¬ 
ing  the  value  of  the  Kullberg  idea  of  putting 
the  spring  close  to  the  stud  or  index.  A 
common 'eight-day  lever  timepiece,  a  con¬ 
stant  eye-sore,  owing  to  its  gaining  some 
three  or  four  minutes  when  fully  wound,  and 
losing  the  same  when  nearly  run  down, 
offered  an  inviting  field  for  experiment ;  and 
making  no  alteration  beyond  setting  its  spring 
well  toward  the  stud,  no  difference  could  be 
detected  between  the  first  and  last  of  the 
eight  days  in  its  time,  which  seemed  perfect. 
I  have  not  succeeded  in  getting  it  to  gain  in 
the  short  arcs,  and  a  recent  experiment  in 
putting  the  spring  very  much  out  of  circle 
toward  the  stud,  seems  to  develop  so  much 


friction  at  the  pivots,  which  are  not  jeweled 
— it  being  a  common  Yankee  with  the  usual 
steel  holes — that  the  original  fault  seems  to 
develop  ;  and  it  may  be  observed  that  bal¬ 
ancing  the  friction  at  the  pivots,  as  shown 
by  increased  arc  of  vibration,  and  observing 
the  circular  appearance  of  the  spring  in 
actual  motion,  is  the  best  practical  guide  for 
success  in  this  direction. 


TO  POLISH  A  WHEEL. 

ASY  as  it  may  seem,  nevertheless  the 
polishing  of  a  wheel  is  quite  a  difficult 
matter — that  is,  to  a  workman  who  is  not 
accustomed  to  polishing — to  insure  success. 
It  is  like  everything  else  in  watch  work,  it 
requires  a  fair  amount  of  practice,  personal 
instruction  and  the  greatest  cleanliness.  If 
the  operator  is  unsuccessful,  he  may,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  trace  his  failure  to  a  want 
of  cleanliness.  Put  a  cork,  cut  flat  on  top, 
in  the  vise,  place  the  wheel  on  the  cork  as 
far  as  the  pinion  will  allow  ;  take  a  bluestone, 
which  was  previously  reduced  to  an  even 
face  by  having  been  rubbed  on  a  stone,  and 
water,  and  stone  the  wheels  smooth  and  flag 
at  the  same  time  keep  turning  the  wheel 
round  with  the  left  hand ;  then  wash  it  out 
and  put  in  a  box  with  some  slaked  powdered 
lime ;  the  object  of  this  is  merely  to  dry  it, 
and  prevent  the  pinion  from  getting  stained 
or  rusty.  Then  brush  it  out  nice  and  clean, 
put  another  cork,  cut  clean  and  flat,  in  a 
vise ;  then  pound  on  a  stake  some  fine  red- 
stuff.  Some  workmen  add  a  little  rouge, 
but  that  is  according  to  fancy.  Take  a  slip 
of  tin,  about  the  size  of  a  watchmaker’s  file, 
only  thicker ;  file  the  end  of  one  side  flat 
and  smooth,  charge  it  with  a  little  of  the 
red-stuff  and  polish  the  wheel,  keeping  it 
turning  all  the  time  with  the  left  hand,  and 
do  not  leave  off  until  the  wheel  and  tin  pol¬ 
isher  are  almost  dry,  so  that  you  can  see  the 
polish ;  and,  if  to  your  satisfaction,  clean  it 
off  with  pieces  of  soft  bread,  and  brush  it 
out.  If  it  has  scratches  on  it  bread  them 
off,  and  clean  off  the  tin  and  charge  it  again 
with  the  red-stuff.  As  said,  cleanliness  is  of 
great  importance,  for  if  there  be  any  grit 
about  the  red-stuff,  polisher,  or  the  fingers 
of  the  workman,  the  work  will  be  full  of 
scratches. 

The  above  system  applies  to  solid  train 
wheels  only. 

Escape  wheels  are  polished  in  the  same 
way,  but  before  they  are  put  on  the  pinion. 


FUNCTION  OF  INERTIA  IN  THE  ACTION  OF  ESCAPEMENT. 


37 


Solid  wheels,  such  as  fusee  and  movement 
wheels,  are  polished  in  the  turns,  using  soft 
wood  or  burdock  pith  instead  of  tin.  There 
is  another  way  for  polishing  them,  however, 
which  is  quite  as  often  employed,  by  which 
they  are  fixed  to  a  small  brass  block.  The 
block  is  heated  in  a  bluing  pan,  and  a  piece 
of  resin  passed  lightly  over  it  so  as  to  leave 
a  very  thin  varnish  only,  which  is  quite 
enough  to  make  the  wheel  adhere ;  there 
should  be  circles  marked  on  the  face  of  the 
block  as  a  guide  for  fixing  the  wheel  as 
nearly  central  as  possible,  or  else  a  small  pin 
in  the  center  of  the  block  to  go  through  the 
hole  in  the  wheel  with  the  same  object.  The 
wheel  fixed  to  the  block  is  first  rubbed  till 
quite  flat  on  a  piece  of  bluestone  having  a 
true  surface,  which  is  kept  moistened  with 
water  ;  it  is  rubbed  with  a  circular  motion  by 
means  of  a  pointer  (generally  a  drill  stock), 
and  pressed  down  on  the  middle  of  the  back 
of  the  block,  which  is  hollow.  The  wheel  is 
thoroughly  cleaned  and  then  polished  on  a 
block  of  grain  tin  with  sharp  red-stuff  and 
•oil  well  beaten  up  previously.  The  block  of 
tin  rests  on  a  leather  pad.  When  one  side 
of  the  wheel  is  finished  it  is  placed  again  in 
the  bluing  pan.  The  old  resin  is  cleaned 
•off,  and  the  finished  side  of  the  wheel  fixed 
to  the  block.  After  both  sides  are  polished, 
the  w’heel  is  placed  in  spirits  of  wine  to  re¬ 
move  any  resin  adhering  to  it. 

Pierced  wheels  are  first  rubbed  flat  on  a 
cork  with  a  bluestone.  After  cleansing  they 
are  polished  with  a  soft  tin  polisher  and 
moderately  sharp  red-stuff,  using  a  slightly 
•circular  stroke.  Instead  of  a  plain  cork 
some  finishers  use  a  half  round  cork  resting 
in  a  notch  cut  in  another  cork.  When  quite 
smooth  the  wheels  are  washed  in  soap  and 
water,  and  burnished  on  a  clean  hard  cork 
with  a  burnisher  well  rubbed  on  a  board  with 
rotten-stone  or  red-stuff. 

Another  method  for  polishing  wheels  is 
also  much  employed :  Grind  the  wheel 
well  upon  a  cork,  and  pay  strict  attention  to 
remove  all  the  burr  from  the  limbs.  Then 
polish  with  a  zinc  file  moistened  with  crocus 
and  alcohol.  After  the  wheel  has  been 
polished  with  it,  take  a  sword  file  and  finish 
polishing  with  it.  Before  using,  the  sword 
file  is  to  be  sharpened  and  rubbed  with  a 
little  wax,  after  which  the  file  is  wiped  off 
upon  a  piece  of  cloth,  so  that  only  a  film  of 
wax  remains  upon  it.  A  brass  wheel  mav 
also  be  polished  in  the  following  manner, 
viz.  :  by  grinding  it  with  slate  stone  and  oil. 


and  polishing  with  diamantine  upon  box¬ 
wood  with  a  few  short  strokes.  For  sharp¬ 
ening  the  sword  file  emery  paper  is  much 
employed,  after  which  the  file  is  in  gradation 
sharpened  upon  decreasing  by  emery. 


INERTIA. 

HE  meaning  of  scientific  terms,  says  a 
contemporary,  is  often  in  part  lost  when 
they  are  employed  by  practical  men.  Thus  the 
word  inertia  is,  with  them,  synonymous  with 
equilibrium  ;  a  balance  of  a  watch,  a  wheel 
or  a  pair  of  pallets  is  in  a  state  of  inertia, 
according  to  the  erroneous  language  of  the 
workshop,  when  that  balance,  etc.,  is  equili¬ 
brated  on  the  horizontal  axis  in  all  the  po¬ 
sitions  we  can  cause  it  to  assume.  Such  an 
employment  of  the  term  is  unfortunate. 

Inertia  is  that  property  by  which  a  body, 
when  at  rest,  remains  at  rest,  and  when  in 
motion  remains  in  motion.  It  is  exemplified 
in  the  excessive  resistance  offered  by  a  body 
to  being  suddenly  set  in  motion  or  brought 
suddenly  to  rest  when  in  motion. 

A  horse,  harnessed  to  a  heavy  wagon, 
strains  violently  and  makes  great  efforts  in 
order  to  set  it  in  motion,  but  draws  it  along 
with  ease  when  this  is  once  accomplished. 
On  the  contrary,  when  the  wagon  has  at¬ 
tained  a  considerable  velocity,  the  horse 
cannot  stop  suddenly  without  receiving  a 
violent  push  forward.  These  two  effects 
are  due  to  the  inertia  of  the  mass  of  the 
wagon. 


FUNCTION  OF  INERTIA  IN  THE  AC¬ 
TION  OF  ESCAPEMENT.  —  HEAVY 
WHEELS. 

VERY  wheel,  however  light  it  be,  must 
have  some  appreciable  weight ;  it  is, 
therefore,  subject  to  the  law  of  inertia. 
Hence  results  that  when  we  wish  to  set  in 
motion  a  wheel  round  its  axis  it  cannot  com¬ 
mence  moving  at  once  ;  there  is  a  transition 
period  of  rest  which,  although  not  always 
perceptible,  is  none  the  less  real,  and  the 
wheel  only  attains  its  maximum  velocity 
after  a  certain  arc  has  been  traversed  by 
any  point  on  its  circumference. 

As  the  effects  of  intrtia  thus  increase  with 
the  weight  of  the  body,  and  its  velocity,  it  is 
important  to  note  the  influence  on  escape¬ 
ments,  especially  during  the  lift  action  ;  the 
wheel  then  travels  during  a  very  short  space 
of  time  with  a  considerable  velocity.  The 


ERRORS  WITH  REGARD  TO  LIGHT  WHEELS. 


following  example  of  the  influence  of  inertia 
has  actually  occurred  in  practice:  In  a  de¬ 
tent  escapement,  with  an  escape  wheel  full 
heavy,  the  motion  of  the  balance  was  slug¬ 
gish  and  the  vibration  was  of  but  moderate 
extent.  The  workman  engaged  on  it  cut 
away  part  of  the  interior  of  the  wheel  and 
reduced  its  arms  ;  in  short,  materially  dimin¬ 
ished  its  weight,  and,  by  this  simple  change, 
very  appreciably  increased  the  extent  of  the 
vibration  of  the  balance. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  explain  that  the 
heavy  wheel,  offering  an  excessive  resistance 
to  motion,  supplemented  the  resistance 
caused  by  friction  and  oil ;  as  the  wheel 
was  longer  in  commencing  its  motion  and 
turned  more  sluggishly,  it  did  not  come  in 
contact  with  the  lever  of  impulse  until  the 
latter  had  traversed  a  considerable  portion 
of  its  angular  path.  The  final  result  was  a 
noise  and  but  slight  impulse.  The  wheel, 
after  being  reduced,  commenced  its  motion 
sooner,  and,  almost  immediately  coming  in 
contact  with  the  lever,  accelerated  its  motion 
to  the  required  extent. 


ERRORS  WITH  REGARD  TO  LIGHT 
WHEELS. 

ROM  observations  analogous  to  that 
above  described,  it  is  generally  assumed 
and  set  down  as  a  mechanical  truth,  that  in 
every  escapement  the  wheel  should  be  as  light 
as  possible.  A  question  which  has  not  received 
sufficient  attention  has  thus  been  decided  in 
a  very  absolute  manner,  and  the  solution  of 
a  particular  problem  has  been  made  binding 
on  all  the  escapements  used  in  horology. 
Would  awheel  entirely  wanting  in  inertia  be 
a  valuable  acquisition  ?  There  seems  to  be 
great  reason  to  suppose  that  it  would  not. 
But  although  such  a  case  could  not  occur, 
since  the  metals  employed  always  have  an 
appreciable  weight,  it  is  none  the  less  useful 
to  point  out  that  the  velocity  of  rotation  to 
be  communicated  to  a  wheel  depends  on  the 
manner  in  which  it  influences  the  lever  of 
the  balance,  and  on  the  amount  of  energy  it 
is  required  to  give  out  while  actually  impell¬ 
ing  the  balance.  The  following  observation 
of  a  clever  watchmaker,  M.  Moinet,  will  do 
more  to  explain  the  subject  than  a  consider¬ 
able  amount  of  argument,  and  will  also  illus¬ 
trate  the  converse  of  the  case  above  cited  : 
A  chronometer  escapement  worked  well 
although  the  wheel  was  somewhat  heavy, 


but  when  this  was  rendered  lighter  it  caused 
the  escapement  to  catch.  The  excessive 
lightness  of  the  wheel  was  evidently  the  cause 
of  this  fault,  as  it  changed  position  more 
rapidly  than  the  balance ;  that  is  to  say,  in¬ 
stead  of  contact  with  the  face  of  the  pallet 
when  it  had  time  to  recoil  to  a  suitable  po¬ 
sition,  the  wheel  commenced  moving  with 
considerable  rapidity  and  struck  the  angular 
extremity  of  the  lever,  producing  a  butting 
action.* 

Every  watchmaker  is  aware  that  a  slight 
displacement  of  the  lever  of  impulse  is  all 
that  is  required  in  order  to  avoid  stoppage, 
and  that  the  above  case  is  only  quoted  as 
an  example  of  the  influence  of  inertia.  Ex¬ 
periment  and  a  consideration  of  the  nature 
of  the  metals  actually  employed  show  with¬ 
out  doubt  that  in  those  watches  in  which  the 
vibrations  are  rapid,  it  is  necessary  to  make 
the  escape  wheel  as  light  as  possible,  but 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  unduly  diminish 
its  solidity.  The  wyord  solidity  does  not 
here  merely  imply  that  the  wheel  must  resist 
certain  causes  of  breakage  or  distortion  ;  but 
an  escapement  wheel  must  be  absolutely 
firm  throughout,  and  this  firmness  can  only 
be  secured  by  care  in  the  choice  of  the 
metal  employed  and  of  the  form  given  to  the 
wheel.  Thus,  an  arm  of  a  wheel  of  rectan¬ 
gular  section  is  less  rigid  when  placed  edge¬ 
ways  than  when  its  broader  face  is  parallel 
to  the  plane  of  the  wheel.  With  regard  to 
such  horological  appliances  as  are  regarded 
by  a  pendulum  or  a  heavy  annular  balance, 
it  remains  for  experiment  to  ascertain  whether 
a  certain  slight  amount  of  resistance  due  to 
inertia  in  the  wheel  is  not  necessary,  since 
the  wheel  must  move  with  a  velocity  deter¬ 
mined  (i)  by  the  greater  or  less  inertia  of  a 
train  of  wheels  of  a  definite  weight  which 
abandons  its  state  of  rest  or  recoil;  and  (2) 
by  the  velocity  acquired  by  the  lever  on 
which  the  wheel  acts,  a  lever  whose  motion 
is  slow  in  comparison  with  the  velocities  met 
with  in  watch  movements.  Inertia  is  pro¬ 
portional  to  the  masses  of  bodies  when  their 
velocities  are  equal,  and  to  the  squares, 
of  their  velocities  when  their  masses  are 
equal. 

*  The  editor  urges  the  following  objection  to  this- 
conclusion  :  This  does  not  appear  a  sound  argument 
against  a  light  wheel.  Evidently  the  heavy  wheel 
moved  slower  on  account  of  its  weight,  and  there¬ 
fore  allowed  the  balance  time  to  travel  far  enough  to 
receive  the  scape  wheel  tooth  on  the  impulse  roller ; 
set  the  roller  back  half  a  degree  and  this  error  could 
not  occur,  no  matter  how  light  the  escape  wheel. 


CLOCK  REPAIRING. 


39 


PIVOTING  A  BALANCE  STAFF. 

INIONS  vary,  so  do  working  methods. 
We  all  may  have  our  peculiar  notions 
how  a  job  should  be  done,  and  it  is  not  well 
for  any  one  to  prescribe  the  way  in  which,  and 
in  no  other,  it  should  be  done.  Let  us  take 
as  an  illustration  the  putting  of  a  pivot  into 
a  staff.  Some  say  it  should  first  be  driven 
out  of  the  balance ;  I  never  do  it,  however, 
and  I  flatter  myself  that  I  do  a  job  not  in¬ 
ferior  to  that  of  many.  I  am  convinced 
that  both  the  staff  and  the  balance  are  liable 
to  sustain  more  injury  by  being  driven  out 
and  put  back  than  by  carefully  drawing  the 
temper.  If  the  watch  is  of  so  fine  a  quality 
that  the  temper  might  not  be  drawn,  then 
for  the  same  reason  a  pivot  should  not  be 
put  into  it,  but  a  new  staff.  In  such  a  case 
I  always  turn  the  rivet  off,  so  that  the  staff 
comes  out  easily,  without  straining  the  bal¬ 
ance. 

Many  years  of  experience  have  taught  me 
to  regard  my  way  of  putting  in  a  staff  or 
pinion  to  be  the  best.  It  is  as  follows  :  Take 
a  slice  of  potato,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  or  so 
thick,  and  another  much  thinner,  place  your 
wheel  or  balance  fairly  in  the  middle  of  the 
hole  between  the  two  slices,  the  thin  slice  on 
the  side  in  which  the  pivot  is  to  be  put.  If 
it  is  the  lower  pivot,  blow  a  jet  of  gas  parallel 
with  the  balance.  This  ought,  not  to  alter 
the  temper  of  the  balance.  If  it  is  a  top 
pivot,  stick  a  piece  of  potato  on  the  other 
pivot  and  blow  a -sharp  jet  of  gas  through 
the  hole.  The  slices  of  potato  must  be 
pressed  firmly  together,  and  fastened  by 
sticking  a  few  pins  obliquely  through  them. 
Now  cement  a  brass  or  ivory  collet  on  with 
beeswax,  place  it  in  the  turns,  with  the 
broken  end  running  on  the  stump  or  shoulder. 
See  that  the  balance  runs  true  and  flat ;  you 
will  probably  find  it  all  right ;  if  not,  make  it 
so  before  proceeding  further. 

I  might  say  here  that  I  do  all  this  kind  of 
work  with  the  bow  and  turns,  and  consider 
it  the  only  correct  way.  I  have  been  fooled 
a  few  times  in  doing  this  kind  of  a  job  with 
a  lathe  and  chuck,  and  found  that  when  I 
supposed  the  job  was  finished,  I  have  dis¬ 
covered  that  the  end  gripped  in  the  chuck, 
instead  of  running  to  its  center,  had  been 
describing  a  small  circle.  Being  satisfied 
that  the  balance  runs  true,  turn  or  reduce 
with  a  file  to  the  shoulder,  whether  it  be 
long  or  short — having  previously  noticed  or 
gauged  the  length  of  it,  down  to  the  part  on 
which  the  spring  collet  fits.  Find  your  cen¬ 


ter  as  near  as  you  can ;  it  is  desirable  to  get 
the  center,  but  not  absolutely  necessary,  with 
the  top  pivot.  Chamfer  it  out  with  a  piece 
of  hard  steel  with  three-sided  point.  Put  it 
into  the  turns,  and  proceed  to  drill  it  with  a 
large  drill,  and  see  to  it  that  the  old  pivot 
in  this  and  all  subsequent  operations  turns 
on  a  brass  center,  clean  and  well  oiled,  or 
you  may  find  to  your  discomfort  by  the  time 
your  job  is  finished,  that  it  is  worn  so  short 
as  to  render  the  staff  useless.  I  have  for 
several  years  made  my  drills  of  piano  wire. 
It  is  very  soft  when  annealed,  and  very 
strong  with  a  hard  temper,  and  in  just  the 
proper  temper  for  pivots,  as  you  buy  it.  Try 
it  once,  and  you  will  never  use  anything 
else. 

Harden  your  small  drills  by  giving  a  red 
heat,  and  a  vigorous  shake  in  the  air ;  large 
ones  by  sticking  them  in  a  potato,  soap  or 
wax.  When  hard,  clean  them  by  holding 
them  loosely  with  finger  and  thumb,  resting 
on  a  cork  in  the  vise,  and  rub  with  pumice 
stone  as  you  would  any  piece  of  steel  work 
for  a  watch.  If  you  use  the  wire  I  have 
recommended,  just  a  tinge  of  straw  color 
will  cut  well.  Having  drilled  the  hole  deep 
enough,  fit  your  pivot  in  by  filing  first,  and 
then  grinding  it  in  with  a  little  oil-stone  dust ; 
when  fitted  well,  cut  the  piece  off  as  long  as 
required,  to  give  room  for  turning,  take  a 
little  off  the  end  that  goes  in  the  staff,  with 
a  slip  of  stone,  put  your  balance  and  staff  in 
the  riveting  stake,  and  drive  your  pivot  with 
a  few  light  taps  of  the  hammer,  moving  your 
job  round  a  bit  between  each  tap.  Point 
the  new  pivot,  and  put  it  into  your  turns ; 
your  balance  will  now  show  any  deviation 
from  the  center.  Alter  the  point  till  the 
balance  runs  perfectly  true,  then  proceed  to 
turn  a  new  shoulder  and  pivot.  All  this  will 
apply  to  a  wheel  and  pinion. 


clock'  repairing. 

CONSIDERABLE  part  of  the  life  of  the 
country  watchmaker,  says  a  correspond¬ 
ent  in  one  of  our  European  exchanges,  is  spent 
in  repairing  and  cleaning  clocks,  so  that  a 
few  practical  remarks  on  this  subject  may 
perhaps  be  of  use  to  some  who  may  not  have 
the  advantage  of  being  able  to  refer  to  an 
experienced  workman  when  in  a  difficulty. 
Occasionally  even  good  workmen  are  non¬ 
plussed,  an  instance  of  which  occurred  only 
a  few  days  before  writing.  A  fine  chime 
clock  by  a  good  maker  was  sent  to  him  with 


40 


CLOCK  REPAIRING. 


a  message  “  that  it  stopped  sometimes,  and 
the  chimes  persisted  in  getting  wrong  ”  ;  it 
had  only  recently  been  in  the  hands  of  a 
good  workman,  who  had  passed  it  as  correct. 
( )n  examination  the  correspondent  found  the 
quarter  gathering  pallet  split  right  through 
Lie  boss,  consequently  when  the  train  was 
stopped  by  the  tail  of  the  gathering  pallet 
engaging  with  the  pin  in  the  rack,  the  pallet 
opened  and  allowed  the  square  on  the  arbor 
to  rotate,  thus  throwing  the  chimes  into  con¬ 
fusion.  On  taking  the  clock  to  pieces  and 
opening  the  barrels,  he  found,  as  he  had 
anticipated,  that  several  of  the  inner  coils 
of  the  springs  were  lying  close  round  the 
barrel  arbors,  proving  that  the  springs  were 
exhausted  or  set ;  this  accounted  for  the 
stopping  which  occurred  toward  the  end  of 
the  week.  The  correspondent  mentioned 
this  instance  simply  to  show  how  easy  it  is 
for  even  an  experienced  workman  to  be  de¬ 
ceived  unless  he  pursues  a  methodical  course 
in  examining  for  faults. 

The  course  that  1  have  always  followed  has 
been  :  After  taking  the  movement  from  its 
case,  removing  the  hands,  dial,  minute  cock, 
and  bridge,  to  try  the  escapement  with  some 
power  on,  and  note  any  faults  there.  Next 
remove  the  cock  and  pallets — putting  a  peg 
between  the  escape  wheel  arms  to  prevent  it 
from  running  down — and  carefully  let  down 
the  spring ;  you  will  meet  with  a  difficulty 
here  sometimes ;  if  the  spring  has  been  set 
up  too  far,  and  the  clock  is  fully  wound  up, 
it  may  not  be  possible  to  move  the  barrel 
arbor  sufficiently  to  get  the  click  out  of  the 
ratchet.  In  many  old  clocks  there  will  be 
found  a  contrivance  to  meet  this  difficulty. 
It  is  simply  a  hole  drilled  at  the  bottom  of 
and  between  the  great  wheel  teeth  directly 
over  the  tail  of  the  click,  so  that  it  is  possible 
to  put  a  key  on  the  fusee  square  and  the  point 
of  a  fine  joint  pusher  through  the  hole,  release 
the  click,  and  allow  the  fusee  to  turn  gently 
back  until  it  is  down.  This  is  a  great  conven¬ 
ience  sometimes,  and  it  is  a  wonder  that  it  is 
not  still  done.  Having  let  down  the  spring, 
try  all  pivots  for  wide  holes,  and  if  it  is  a 
striking  clock,  do  the  same  with  the  striking 
train,  paying  particular  attention  to  the  pal¬ 
let  pinion  front  pivot  to  see  if  it  is  worn,  and 
the  rack  depth  made  unsafe  thereby — also 
seeing  that  none  of  the  rack  teeth  are  bent 
or  broken.  Having  noted  the  faults,  if  any, 
I  take  the  clock  to  pieces,  and  look  over  all 
the  pivots,  and  note  those  that  require  re¬ 
polishing.  Finally  I  take  out  the  barrel 


cover  and  see  to  the  condition  of  the  springs  ; 
as  I  have  already  referred  to  the  appearance 
of  a  spring  when  it  is  exhausted  or  soft,  I 
need  not  do  so  again  here. 

In  most  cases,  some  repairs  will  be  re¬ 
quired  to  the  pallets,  as  these  nearly  always 
show  signs  of  wear  first ;  if  they  are  not 
much  cut,  the  marks  can  be  polished  out 
without  much  trouble — and  for  this  purpose 
you  will  find  that  a  small  disc  of  corundum, 
about  three  inches  in  diameter,  mounted 
truly  on  an  arbor,  and  run  at  a  high  speed 
on  the  lathe,  will  be  of  great  assistance ; 
finishing  off  with  the  iron  or  steel  polisher 
and  sharp  red-stuff.  If  you  have  to  close 
the  pallets  to  make  the  escape  correct,  see 
that  the  pallet  arms  are  not  left  hard,  or  you 
may  break  them. 

If  the  pallets  require  much  alteration,  or 
you  have  to  make  a  new  pair,  use  any  one 
of  the  tools  found  at  the  material  stores. 
After  making  any  alteration  in  the  pallets, 
you  will  generally  find  it  necessary  to  cor¬ 
rect  the  depth.  Should  it  only  require  a 
slight  alteration,  probably  it  will  be  suffi¬ 
cient  to  knock  out  the  steady  pins  in  the 
cock,  and  screw  it  on  so  that  it  can  be  shifted 
by  the  fingers  until  you  have  the  depth  cor¬ 
rect,  then  screw  it  tight  and  broach  out  the 
steady  pin  holes,  and  fit  new  pins.  The  re¬ 
pairer  will  occasionally  meet  with  a  pallet 
arbor  that  has  been  bent  to  correct  the  depth. 
This  is  a  practice  that  cannot  be  too  strongly 
condemned,  as  it  throws  an  unequal  pressure 
on  the  pivots,  and  causes  them  to  cut  rapidly. 
If  much  alteration  in  the  depth  is  required, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  put  in  a  new  .back 
pallet  hole ;  this  can  be  made  from  a  piece 
of  hollow  bushing,  broached  out  and  turned 
true  on  an  arbor,  and  to  a  length  equal  to 
the  thickness  of  the  plate.  It  is  not  safe  to 
rely  on  the  truth  of  this  bushing,  unless  it  is 
turned  on  an  arbor  first.  The  hole  in  the 
plate  is  now  with  the  round  filer  drawn  in 
the  direction  required,  and  opened  with  a 
broach  from  the  inside  until  the  bushing 
enters  about  half  way.  Of  course,  in  finish¬ 
ing  broaching  the  hole,  you  will  roughen  the 
extremities  to  form  rivets.  Drive  the  bush¬ 
ing  in,  and  rivet  it  with  a  round-faced  punch 
from  the  outside,  reverse  it,  and  rest  the 
bushing  on  the  punch,  and  rivet  the  inside 
with  the  pane  of  the  hammer ;  remove  any 
excess  of  brass  with  the  file,  chamfer  out  the 
oil  sink,  and  stone  off  any  file  marks ;  finally 
opening  the  hole  for  the  pivot  to  the  proper 
size.  Of  course,  if  you  have  a  depthing  tool 


CLOCK  REPAIRING. 


4 


that  will  take  in  the  escape  wheel  and  pal¬ 
lets,  it  will  be  quicker  to  put  them  in  the 
tool,  fill  up  both  holes  with  solid  bushings, 
and  replant  them. 

The  repairer  will  also  very  frequently  meet 
with  a  scape  pinion  that  has  become  so  badly 
cut  or  worn  as  to  be  useless,  and  one  can¬ 
not  always  purchase  a  new  one  of  the  right 
size ;  in  this  case,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
make  it  from  the  wire  which  can  be  obtained 
of  every  size  at  the  tool  shops.  In  sectoring 
the  pinion  wire  to  the  wheel,  bear  in  mind 
that  it  will  become  slightly  smaller  in  filling 
up.  As  perhaps  some  workmen  may  not 
have  had  any  experience  in  making  pinions, 
I  will  briefly  describe  the  process ;  but  con¬ 
siderable  practice  is  required  to  make  good 
shaped  pinions  quickly  and  well. 

A  piece  of  pinion  wire  of  a  slightly  greater 
diameter  than  the  pinion  is  to  be  when 
finished  is  cut  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
longer  than  required,  and  the  position  of  the 
leaves  or  head  marked  with  two  notches 
with  a  file.  The  level  portion  of  the  wire 
that  is  not  required  is  now  carefully  filed 
down  on  a  filing  block,  taking  care  not  to 
remove  any  of  the  arbor  in  so  doing ;  a  cen¬ 
ter  is  then  filed  at  each  end  true  with  the 
arbor,  and  these  centers  turned  true  through 
a  hole  in  a.  runner  or  center  in  the  throw. 
If  this  has  been  carefully  done,  the  pinion 
will  be  nearly  true ;  it  is  now  set  quite  true, 
and  the  arbor  and  faces  of  the  pinion  turned 
square  and  smooth.  The  pinion  is  now  filed 
out  true,  using  a  hollow-edged  bottoming 
file  for  the  spaces,  and  a  pinion  rounding 
file  for  the  sides  of  the  leaves.  In  using 
the  bottoming  file,  the  pinion  is  rested  in  the 
gallows  tool  and  held  in  the  fingers  of  the 
leaves,  when  finishing,  to  keep  them  flat. 
The  file  marks  are  now  taken  out  with  fine 
emery  and  oil ;  the  polishers  that  I  always 
have  used  for  this  purpose  are  pieces  of 
wainscot  oak,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
thick,  five  inches  broad  and  six  inches  long, 
used  endway  of  the  grain.  One  end  is  planed 
to  a  V-shape,  to  go  between  the  leaves,  and 
the  other  cut  into  grooves  by  rubbing  it  on 
the  sharp  edges  of  the  pinion  itself,  which 
speedily  cuts  it  into  grooves  to  fit.  The 
pinion  is  rested,  while  being  polished,  in  a 
block  of  soft  deal,  which  allows  it  to  give  to 
the  hand,  and  keep  it  flat. 

When  the  file  marks  are  all  out,  the  pinion 
is  ready  for  hardening.  Twist  a  piece  of 
stout  binding  wire  around  it,  and  cover  it 
with  soap ;  heat  it  carefully  in  a  dead  fire, 


and  quench  it  in  a  pail  of  water  that  has 
been  stirred  into  a  whirlpool  by  an  assistant, 
taking  care  to  dip  it  vertically.  Having 
dried  it,  it  is  covered  with  tallow  and  held 
over  a  clear  fire,  until  the  tallow  ignites ;  it 
is  allowed  to  burn  for  a  moment,  and  then 
blown  out  and  allowed  to  cool.  The  leaves 
are  now  polished  out  with  crocus  and  oil  in 
the  same  way  that  they  previously  were  with 
emery.  Now,  if  the  pinion  is  put  in  the 
centers  and  tried,  it  will  probably  be  found 
to  have  warped  a  little  in  hardening.  This 
is  corrected  in  the  following  manner. ' 

The  routiding  side  of  the  arbor  is  laid  on 
a  soft  iron  stake,  and  the  hollow  side  stretched 
by  a  series  of  light  blows  with  the  pane  of 
the  hammer,  given  at  regular  intervals  along 
the  curve.  Having  got  the  leaves  to  run 
quite  true  by  this  means,  turn  both  arbors 
true  and  polish  them  with  the  double  sticks 
— these  are  simply  two  pieces  of  thin  box¬ 
wood,  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  -wide 
and  three  inches  long — fastened  together  at 
one  extremity  and  open  at  the  other ;  be¬ 
tween  these  the  arbor  is  pinched  with  oil 
and  fine  emery,  and  they  are  traversed  from 
end  to  end,  to  take  out  the  graver  marks. 

The  brass  for  the  collet,  to  which  the 
wheel  is  riveted,  is  now  drilled,  broached, 
and  turned  roughly  to  shape  on  an  arbor. 
The  position  on  the  pinion  arbor  is  marked 
with  a  fine  nick,  and  the  collet  soldered  on 
with  soft  solder  and  a  spirit-lamp,  taking 
care  not  to  draw  the  temper  of  the  arbor 
when  doing  so.  Wash  it  out  in  soda  and 
water,  and  polish  the  arbors  with  crocus, 
turn  the  collet  true,  and  fit  the  wheel  on. 
If  the  pinion  face  is  to  be  polished,  it  is  now 
done,  the  facing-tool  being  a  piece  of  iron 
about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  thick,  with  a 
slit  in  it  to  fit  over  the  arbor  with  slight  fric¬ 
tion,  and  using  oil-stone  dust  first,  and  then 
sharp  red-stuff. 

Generally,  cut  pinions  are  used  for  the 
centers,  and  in  this  case  the  body  of  the  ar¬ 
bor  is  sufficiently  large  to  allow  the  front 
pivot  to  be  made  from  the  solid  arbor ;  but 
in  some  movements,  particularly  those  used 
for  spring  dials,  the  center  pinions  are  made 
from  pinion  wire  in  the  manner  just  de¬ 
scribed  ;  but  for  the  front  pivot  a  hollow 
tube  of  hardened  and  tempered  steel  is  sol¬ 
dered  on  to  the  arbor.  This  piece  should 
always  project  sufficiently  far  through  the 
pivot  hole  to  allow  it  to  be  squared  to  re¬ 
ceive  the  friction  spring  which  carries  the 
motion  work.  In  cases  where  this  pivot  is 


42 


ACCELERATION. 


much  cut,  it  is  best  to  remove  this  piece  and 
substitute  a  new  one,  and  as  these  pinions 
are  very  long  and  flexible,  some  difficulty  will 
be  experienced  in  turning  this  pivot  unless 
some  form  of  backstay  is  used  to  support  the 
arbor,  and  prevent  it  springing  from  the 
graver.  _ 

THE  PENDULUM  CRUTCH. 

HE  clock  repairer  will  occasionally  come 
in  contact  with  a  clock  with  a  crutch  filed 
so  wide  by  some  botch  that  there  is  room 
for  two  pendulum  wires  to  work  freely  in  it, 
and  the  result  is  that  he  must  either  make  a 
new  crutch  or  solder  a  piece  on  each  side  in 
order  to  make  it  fit  properly  again.  It  is 
well  known  by  practical  men  that  many 
make  a  mistake  in  this  particular  ;  an  unduly 
wide  crutch  is  detrimental,  while  one  that  is 
too  narrow  will  soon  stop  the  clock  entirely ; 
it  should  be  just  wide  enough  for  the  pen¬ 
dulum  to  move  freely  in  it,  when  this  is  at 
the  outside  arc  of  oscillation.  Although 
there  is  not  much  difference  between  it  when 
in  this  position  and  when  at  zero,  still  there 
is  a  little  difference,  even  when  the  sides  of 
the  crutch  are  very  thin  ;  but  when  the  sides 
are  a  little  thicker,  it  makes  a  difference  in 
proportion  to  their  thickness ;  therefore, 
when  it  is  a  thickly  made  crutch  we  are 
obliged  to  make  a  little  more  room  for  the 
pendulum,  in  order  for  it  to  act  freely  at 
the  outside  arc  of  oscillation. 

The  reason  of  this  is  the  crutch  is  work¬ 
ing  in  a  circle  around  the  pivots  of  the  tail 
piece  and  pallets,  while  the  pendulum  is 
working  from  a  suspension  string,  which  is 
ever  subject  to  deviation  from  a  circular 
path,  while  the  tail  piece  must  necessarily 
keep  the  same  distance  from  its  central 
action.  Now,  from  this  we  see  that  an  es¬ 
capement  which  requires  a  wide  arc  of  oscil¬ 
lation,  requires  also  a  wider  crutch  in  order 
to  give  the  pendulum  its  proper  play.  The 
performance  of  an  escapement  of  this  kind, 
when  it  runs  to  an  extreme,  is  to  be  regarded 
as  doubtful ;  for  if  a  crutch  must  be  cut  so 
wide  in  order  to  be  at  the  outside  of  the  arc, 
see  what  a  quantity  of  space  there  is  when 
the  pendulum  is  at  zero.  At  every  tick  the 
pendulum  must  cross  this  space  in  the 
crutch,  and  instead  of  the  clock  saying  “  tick, 
tick,”  it  says  “  clink,  clink.”  Take  the  Dutch 
clock  for  an  example.  Let  the  crutch  be 
wide,  and  the  noise  caused  by  the  pendu¬ 
lum  striking  the  side  of  the  crutch  will  be  as 
great  as  the  tick  proper ;  hence,  ‘  clink, 


clink,  clink,”  is  the  monotonous  tones  we 
hear. 

Suppose  a  clock  is  running  in  this  form 
for  a  long  time  without  any  oil,  the  result  is 
both  wire  and  crutch  are  considerably  worn, 
and  there  is  no  measuring  the  extra  friction 
in  consequence.  The  only  proper  way  to 
correct  such  a  job  is  to  fit  a  new  pendulum 
wire  and  crutch,  noticing  that  they  act  cor¬ 
rectly  with  each  other  when  replaced.  Al¬ 
ways  avoid  letting  the  pendulum  wire  ride 
on  the  back  of  the  crutch ;  let  each  hang 
perpendicularly  at  the  required  place,  so  that 
the  wire  touches  nothing  but  the  sides  of  the 
crutch,  and  all  is  well. 


ACCELERATION. 

T  is  noticed  that  new  chronometers  and 
watches,  instead  of  steadily  gaining  or  los¬ 
ing  a  certain  number  of  seconds  each  day,  go 
faster  day  by  day.  There  is  no  certainty  as 
to  the  amount  or  ratio  of  this  acceleration, 
nor  as  to  the  period  which  must  elapse  be¬ 
fore  the  rate  becomes  steady,  but  an  increase 
of  a  second  a  month  for  a  year  may  be  taken 
as  the  average  extent  in  marine  chronom¬ 
eters. 

It  is  pretty  generally  agreed  among  chro¬ 
nometer  makers  that  the  cause  of  accelera¬ 
tion  is  seated  in  the  balance  spring,  though 
some  assert  that  centrifugal  action  slightly 
enlarges  the  balance,  if  the  arc  of  vibration 
is  large,  as  it  would  be  when  the  oil  is  fresh, 
and  that  as  the  vibration  falls  off,  centrifugal 
action  is  lessened,  and  acceleration  ensues 
from  the  smaller  diameter  of  the  balance. 
Though  thin  balances  do  undoubtedly  in¬ 
crease  slightly  in  size  in  the  long  vibrations 
from  centrifugal  action,  this  theory  is  dis¬ 
posed  of  by  the  fact  that  old  chronometers 
do  not  accelerate  after  re-oiling.  Others 
aver  that  the  unnatural  connection  of  the 
metals  composing  the  compensation  balance 
is  responsible  for  the  mischief,  and  that  after 
being  subjected  to  heat  the  balance  hardly 
returns  to  its  original  dimensions  again.  If 
true,  this  may  be  a  reason  for  exposing  new 
chronometers,  before  they  are  rated,  to  a 
somewhat  higher  temperature  than  they  are 
likely  to  meet  with  in  use,  as  is  the  practice 
of  some  makers,  but  then  chronometers  ac¬ 
celerate  on  their  own  rates  when  they  are 
kept  in  a  constant  temperature,  and  also  if  a 
new  spring  is  put  to  an  old  balance,  or  even 
if  a  plain  uncut  balance  is  used. 

When  the  overcoil  of  a  balance  spring  has 


TO  MOUNT  DIAMOND  DRILLS  AND  GRAVERS. 


43 


been  much  bent  or  “  manipulated  ”  in  tim¬ 
ing,  it  is  noticed  that  the  acceleration  is  sure 
to  be  excessive.  This  is  just  what  might  be 
expected,  for  a  spring  unduly  bent  so  as  to 
be  weakened,  but  not  absolutely  crippled, 
recovers  in  time  some  of  its  elasticity.  But 
however  carefully  a  spring  is  bent,  the  ac¬ 
celeration  is  not  entirely  gotten  rid  of,  though 
the  spring  is  heated  to  redness  and  again 
hardened  after  its  form  is  complete.  There 
is  little  doubt  that  the  tendency  of  springs  is 
to  increase  slightly  in  strength  for  some  time 
.after  they  are  subjected  to  continuous  action, 
just  as  bells  are  found  to  alter  a  little  in  tone 
after  use.  As  a  proof  that  acceleration  is 
due  to  the  bending  of  the  overcoil,  an  au¬ 
thority  asserts  that  if  the  spring  of  an  old 
chronometer  is  distorted  and  then  restored  to 
its  original  form,  the  chronometer  will  ac¬ 
celerate  as  though  it  were  new.  Helical 
springs  of  small  diameter  have  been  proposed 
by  some  as  a  means  of  lessening  accelera¬ 
tion,  on  the  ground  that  the  curves  are  less 
liable  to  distortion  in  action  than  when  the 
springs  are  larger.  Springs  elongate  in 
hardening,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that 
they  afterwards  gradually  shorten  to  their 
original  length,  and  so  cause  acceleration, 
but  there  does  not  seem  to  be  much  warrant 
for  this  assumption.  Unhardened  springs 
do  not  accelerate,  but  they  rapidly  lose  their 
strength,  and  are,  therefore,  not  used.  Flat 
springs  do  not  accelerate  as  much  as  springs 
with  overcoil.  Palladium  springs  accelerate 
very  much  less  than  hardened  steel  springs. 


MEM. 

OTHING  proclaims  the  skilful  workman 
as  well  as  the  finish  of  the  new  article.  Al¬ 
ways  make  the  best  finish  possible ;  nothing 
looks  as  well  as  a  good  shine.  Your  custom¬ 
ers  demand  it  in  everything,  and  it  is  a  good 
sign.  Encourage  it  all  you  can  ;  condemn 
the  botch  that  sends  out  work  without  finish. 
A  well  arranged  set  of  polishing  tools  saves 
much  time  ;  keep  them  always  in  good  order, 
and  remember  to  exclude  dirt  and  dust. 


WATCH  OIL. 

HAVE  always  prepared  an  excellent  ar¬ 
ticle  of  watch  oil  from  deer’s  or  elk’s  feet ; 
take  off  the  skin,  prepare  the  feet  with  great 
cleanliness ;  fry  them  out  well,  and  filter  the 
obtained  fat  through  clean  filtering  paper. 
I  have  prepared  my  oil  in  this  manner  for 


twenty-five  years,  and  it  has  kept  well  invari¬ 
ably,  in  jewel  holes  and  cylinders  up  to 
seven  years. 

TO  MAKE  PALLETS,  UNLOCKING 
PALLETS,  ETC. 

HIS  may  either  be  done  on  the  lap  or 
else  by  using  files  of  soft  steel,  copper,  or 
tin.  In  the  first  case  the  stones  are  roughed 
out  while  held  by  the  hand,  and  the  required 
form  is  given  while  holding  them  in  a  small 
carrier  that  fits  into  the  T  rest  support,  but 
the  forms  of  such  stones  are  so  various  that 
no  special  details  can  be  given.  Use  dia¬ 
mond  powders  of  different  degrees  of  fine¬ 
ness,  as  in  making  jewel  holes. 


TO  BLEACH  WATCH  DIALS,  ETC. 

ISSOLVE  one-half  ounce  cyanide  of 
potassium  in  a  quart  of  hot  water,  and 
add  two  ounces  strong  liquor  of  ammonia, 
and  one-half  ounce  spirits  of  wine  (these  two 
may  have  been  mixed  previously).  Dip  the 
dials,  whether  silver,  gold,  or  gilt,  in  it  for  a 
few  seconds,  then  put  them  in  warm  water ; 
brush  well  with  soap,  and  afterward  brush, 
rinse,  and  dry  in  hot  box--wood  dust.  An¬ 
other  good  plan  is  to  gently  heat  the  dials 
and  dip  in  diluted  nitric  acid,  but  this  must 
not  be  employed  for  dials  with  painted  fig¬ 
ures,  as  these  would  be  destroyed. 


OVERBANKING. 

NE  of  the  causes  of  overbanking  is  that 
the  steady  pin  is  too  far  from  the  table 
roller ;  it  may  also  happen  at  times  that  the 
roller  jewel  is  a  trifle  too  short,  and  will 
allow  the  fork  to  spring  under  it ;  if  there 
are  any  forks  at  all — steady  pin  and  roller 
jewel  being  right — there  is  no  danger  of 
overbanking.  It  is  but  seldom  that  the 
banking  pins  will  allow  overbanking,  and 
they  are  mostly  there  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  fork  from  going  so  far  that  the 
jewel  can  strike  inside  of  the  same.  How¬ 
ever,  they  must  be  far  enough  apart  to  allow 
the  pallet  to  drop  the  tooth  freely. 


TO  MOUNT  DIAMOND  DRILLS  AND 
GRAVERS. 

RILL  a  hole  or  fill  a  notch  in  the  end 
of  a  piece  of  brass  wire  to  correspond 
with  the  fragment  of  diamond  ;  heat  the  end 
in  a  spirit  lamp  and  lay  on  it  a  piece  of  good 


44 


TO  TIME  A  WATCH. 


sealing-wax  or  shellac.  When  this  com¬ 
mences  to  melt,  set  the  diamond  in  position 
and  leave  the  whole  to  cool.  Diamond 
drills  are  very  commonly  mounted  at  the 
end  of  a  pin  that  has  had  its  point  filed  off ; 
mark  a  point  at  the  end  with  a  graver  and 
drill  the  hole,  which  should  be  very  shallow. 
Holding  the  pin  in  a  pin-vise,  with  its  point 
projecting  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch,  heat 
the  vise  in  a  lamp  and  proceed  as  above 
explained. 

HOW  TO  REPLACE  A  BALANCE 
STAFF. 

T  is  quite  a  knack  to  select  another  bal¬ 
ance  staff,  when  one  is  either  ruined  or 
lost.  Take  the  watch  partly  down,  that  is, 
remove  the  balance  bridge,  the  lever,  scape 
wheel,  the  hands,  dial,  and  face  wheel,  also, 
remove  the  cap  jewel  plate,  the  regulator, 
and  cap  jewel  from  the  balance  bridge.  Now 
we  will  suppose  there  was  nothing  but  the 
balance  wheel  and  balance  spring  left,  so  re¬ 
move  them  and  screw  the  balance  bridge 
back  into  its  place.  There  are  several  ways 
of  getting  the  measure  of  a  staff.  Some 
watchmakers  will  just  put  a  pair  of  calipers 
on  the  outside  of  balance  bridge  over  the  cen¬ 
ter  of  jewel  hole,  and  get  the  outside  meas¬ 
urement,  and  proceed  to  guess  at  the  rest 
of  the  work.  A  simple  way  to  measure,  and 
perhaps  as  good  as  any  in  use,  is  to  use  a  pair 
of  three-screw  calipers,  at  the  points  they  turn 
outwardly  in  the  form  of  a  T,  when  they  are 
closed.  This  tool  is  made  for  the  express 
purpose  of  getting  the  measure  under  the 
bridges  for  balance  staffs,  or  any  other  pinion 
wished  to  be  replaced.  These  calipers  being 
sharp  at  the  points,  you  will  just  set  them 
into  the  pivot  hole,  which  will  enable  you  to 
get  the  shoulder  measure  of  your  staff.  The 
turning  is  done  in  the  customary  way. 

TO  SHARPEN  CUTTING  TOOLS. 

ARBOLIC  acid  is  recommended  for 
moistening  the  tools  with  which  hard¬ 
ened  steel  is  worked.  The  effect  of  the 
grindstone  is  even  said  to  be  increased  by 
the  use  of  the  acid.  The  dark  and  impure 
acid  can  be  used  for  this  purpose. 


TO  EXTRACT  BROKEN  WATCH 
SCREWS. 

AKE  a  Cl-shaped  cramp  or  bracket 
large  enough  to  reach  across  the  watch 
plates,  very  strong  at  the  bow,  so  as  to  stand 


any  screwing  up  without  springing.  Put  a 
screw  hole  through  each  end  and  provide 
with  two  or  three  sets  of  steel  screws  with 
different  sized  hardened  points,  which  points 
pass  within  the  cramp.  To  use  it,  tighten 
that  screw  of  the  cramp  which  is  against  the 
point  of  the  broken  screw,  and  when  you 
have  a  firm  grip  turn  the  whole  tool  round, 
and  the  broken  screw  will  invariably  be 
drawn  out. 


TO  GILD  STEEL. 

ISSOLVE  a  certain  quantity  of  gold  in 
nitro-muriatic  acid ;  boil  the  fluid  to 
evaporation ;  again  dissolve  the  residue  in 
water,  and  add  three  times  as  much  sulphuric 
ether.  The  fluid  is  then  filled  into  a  bottle, 
in  which  it  is  left  to  stand  quietly  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  after  which  time  it  will  have 
become  fully  settled.  If  the  steel  is  then 
dipped  into  this  fluid  it  will  be  gold-plated 
at  once,  and  if  certain  portions  of  it  were 
covered  with  a  varnish  reserve,  a  handsome 
drawing  upon  the  steel  will  be  produced. 


TO  TIME  A  WATCH. 

N  ordinary  watches  two  positions  are 
taken,  viz.,  pendant  up  or  vertical,  and 
dial  up  or  horizontal.  In  the  finer  grade  of 
work  adjustments  are  made  in  the  quarters, 
that  is,  with  3  up  and  9  up.  This  adjust¬ 
ment  is  a  delicate  and  often  a  difficult  opera¬ 
tion,  and  it  is  only  by  constant  study  and 
application  that  the  watchmaker  can  hope 
for  success.  The  object  of  timing  or  adjust¬ 
ing  to  positions  is  to  ascertain  how  far  a 
change  of  position  modifies  the  compensation 
and  isochronism  and  to  verify  the  poising  of 
the  balance.  Saunier  says  the  balance  can¬ 
not  possibly  be  accurately  poised  in  all  posi¬ 
tions  if  the  pivots  and  pivot  holes  are  not 
perfectly  round,  and  the  poising  will  be 
modified  with  a  change  of  temperature  if  the 
two  arms  do  not  act  identically ;  as  will  be 
the  case  when  the  metals  are  not  homogene¬ 
ous,  when  one  or  both  arms  have  been 
strained  owing  to  want  of  skill  on  the  part 
of  the  workman,  or  careless  work,  etc.  After 
accurately  timing  in  a  vertical  position  with 
XII  up,  make  it  go  for  twelve  hours  with 
VI  up  and  the  same  number  of  hours  with 
III  and  IX  up.  Observe  wfith  care  both 
the  rates  and  the  amplitude  of  the  arcs  and 
note  them  down.  Assuming  the  pivots  and 
pivot  holes  to  be  perfectly  round  and  in 
good  condition,  and  that  the  poising  of  the 


THE  BALANCE. 


45- 


balance  has  been  previously  tested  with  care 
by  the  ordinary  means,  if  the  variations  in 
the  four  positions  are  slight  the  poising  may 
be  regarded  as  satisfactory.  As  a  general, 
but  not  invariable,  rule,  a  loss  in  one  position 
on  the  rate  observed  in  the  inverse  position 
may  be  taken  to  indicate  that  the  weight  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  balance  is  excessive 
when  it  does  not  vibrate  through  an  arc  of 
360°  or  the  lower  part  if  the  amplitude 
exceeds  this  amount.  Independently  of  the 
balance  this  loss  may  be  occasioned  by 
excessive  friction  of  the  pivots  due  to  a  too 
great  pressure  owing  to  the  caliper  being 
faulty,  or  to  a  distortion  of  the  hairspring 
causing  its  center  of  gravity  to  lie  out  of  the 
axis  of  the  balance.  If  these  influences  be¬ 
come  at  all  considerable  their  correction  will 
be  beyond  the  power  of  the  isochronal  hair¬ 
spring,  and  indeed  it  will  be  impossible  to 
counteract  them.  Changes  in  the  rate  on 
changing  from  the  vertical  to  the  horizontal 
position  may  also  arise  from  the  following 
causes:  1.  The  action  of  the  escape  wheel, 
which  is  different  according  as  it  tends  to 
raise  the  balance  staff  or  to  force  it  laterally  ; 
2,  a  hairspring  that  starts  to  one  side  and  so 
displaces  its  center  of  gravity,  a  balance  that 
is  not  well  poised,  pivots  or  pivot  holes  that 
are  not  perfectly  round,  faults  which,  al¬ 
though  of  but  little  importance  in  the  vertical 
position  of  the  balance  staff,  become  serious 
when  it  is  horizontal ;  3,  the  more  marked 
portion  of  the  friction  of  the  pivots  may 
take  place  against  substances  of  different 
degrees  of  hardness  in  the  two  cases,  the  end 
stones  being  frequently  harder  than  the 
jewels.  Saunier  further  says  that  satisfac¬ 
tory  results  will  be  obtained  in  most  cases 
by  employing  the  following  methods,  either 
separately  or  two  or  more  together,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  results  of  experiments  on  the  rates, 
the  experience  and  the  judgment  of  the 
workman : 

1.  Flatten  slightly  the  ends  of  the  balance 
pivots  so  as  to  increase  their  radii  of  friction  ; 
when  the  watch  is  lying  flat  the  friction  will 
thus  become  greater. 

2.  Let  the  thickness  of  the  jewel  holes  be 
no  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  It  is 
sometimes  thought  sufficient  to  chamfer  the 
jewel  hole  so  as  to  reduce  the  surface  on 
which  friction  occurs  ;  but  this  does  not  quite 
meet  the  case,  since  an  appreciable  column 
of  oil  is  maintained  against  the  pivot. 

3.  Reduce  the  diameters  of  the  pivots,  of 
course  changing  the  jewel  holes.  The  resist¬ 


ance  due  to  friction,  when  the  watch  is  ver¬ 
tical,  increases  rapidly  with  any  increase  in 
the  diameters  of  pivots. 

4.  Let  the  hairspring  be  accurately  cen¬ 
tered,  or  it  must  usually  be  so  placed  that 
the  lateral  pull  tends  to  lift  the  balance  when 
the  watch  is  hanging  vertical.  In  this  and  the 
next  succeeding  case  it  would  sometimes  be 
advantageous  to  be  able  to  change  the  point 
at  which  it  is  fixed,  but  this  is  seldom  possible. 

5.  Replace  the  hairspring  by  one  that  is- 
longer  or  shorter,  but  of  the  same  strength ; 
this  is  with  a  view  to  increase  or  diminish 
the  lateral  pressure  in  accordance  with  the 
explanation  given  in  the  last  paragraph. 

6.  Set  the  escapement  so  that  the  strongest 
impulse  corresponds  with  the  greatest  resist¬ 
ance  of  the  balance. 

7.  Replace  the  balance.  A  balance  that 
is  much  too  heavy  renders  the  timing  for 
positions  impossible. 

8.  Lastly,  when  these  methods  are  inap¬ 
plicable  or  insufficient  there  only  remains  the 
very  common  practice  of  throwing  the  bal¬ 
ance  out  of  poise. 


THE  BALANCE. 

HE  size  and  weight  of  a  balance  are  im¬ 
portant  factors  in  the  time-keeping  qual¬ 
ities  of  a  watch,  although  the  dimensions  of  a 
balance  are  not  criteria  of  the  time  in  which 
the  balance  will  vibrate.  The  balance  is  to 
a  pocket  timepiece  what  the  pendulum  is  to 
the  clock  ;  although  there  are  two  essential 
points  of  difference.  The  time  of  vibration 
of  a  pendulum  is  unaffected  by  its  mass,  be¬ 
cause  every  increase  in  that  direction  carries 
with  it  a  proportional  influence  of  gravity ; 
but  if  we  add  to  the  mass  of  the  balance  we 
add  nothing  to  the  strength  of  the  hairspring, 
but  add  to  its  load,  and  therefore  the  vibra¬ 
tions  become  slower.  Again,  a  pendulum 
of  a  given  length,  as  long  as  it  is  kept  at  the 
same  distance  from  the  earth’s  center,  will 
vibrate  in  the  same  time  because  the  gravity 
is  always  the  same ;  but  the  irregularity  in 
the  force  of  the  hairspring  produces  a  like 
result  in  the  vibration  of  the  balance.  Britten 
says  there  are  three  factors  upon  which  the 
time  of  the  vibration  of  the  balance  depends  : 

1.  The  weight,  or  rather  the  mass,  of  the 
balance.* 

*  The  mass  of  a  body  is  the  amount  of  matter  con¬ 
tained  in  that  body,  arid  is  the  same  irrespective  of 
the  distance  of  the  body  from  the  center  of  the  earth. 
But  its  weight,  which  is  mass  x  gravity,  varies  in 
different  latitudes. 


46 


THE  BALANCE. 


2.  The  distance  of  its  center  of  gyration 
from  the  center  of  motion,  or  to  speak 
roughly,  the  diameter  of  the  balance.  From 
these  two  factors  the  moment  of  inertia  may 
be  deducted. 

3.  The  strength  of  the  hairspring,  or,  more 
strictly,  its  power  to  resist  change  of  form. 

Balances  are  of  two  kinds,  known  as  plain 
or  uncut,  and  cut  or  compensation.  The 
plain  balance  is  only  used  in  this  country  on 
the  very  cheapest  variety  of  movements. 
The  compensation  balance  is  used  on  the 
better  grade  of  watches.  The  plain  balance 
is  usually  made  of  brass  or  steel,  while  the 
compensation  balance  is  made  of  steel  and 
brass  combined.  Some  English  makers  use 
gold  for  plain  balances,  it  being  denser  than 
steel  and  not  liable  to  rust  or  become  mag¬ 
netized.  The  process  of  compensation  bal¬ 
ance  making,  as  carried  on  in  our  American 
factories,  is  as  follows :  A  steel  disc,  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick  and  five-eighths  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  is  first  punched  from  a 
sheet  of  metal.  It  is  then  centered  and 
drilled  partially  through,  the  indentation 
serving  as  a  guide  in  the  operations  to  follow. 
A  capsule  of  pure  copper  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  is  then  made,  and  in  the 
center  of  this  capsule  the  steel  disc  is  lightly 
secured.  A  ring  of  brass  one-sixteenth  of 
an  inch  in  thickness  is  then  made  and  placed 
between  the  copper  capsule  and  the  blank, 
and  the  whole  is  fused  together.  It  is  then 
faced  upon  both  sides.  It  is  then  placed  in 
a  lathe  and  cut  away  in  the  center  until  a 
ring  is  formed  of  steel,  which  is  lined  or 
framed  with  brass.  It  then  goes  into  the 
press,  where  two  crescents  are  cut  from  it, 
leaving  only  the  inner  lining  of  the  ring  and 
the  cross-bar  of  steel.  The  burr  is  then  re¬ 
moved  and  the  balance  is  ready  to  be  drilled 
and  tapped  for  the  balance  screws.  This 
method  of  making  balances  is  known  as  the 
“capsule  method.” 

THE  EXPANSION  AND  CONTRACTION  OF 
BALANCES. 

The  American  Waltham  Watch  Co.  use  a 
simple  little  contrivance  for  indicating  the 
expansion  and  contraction  of  balances.  It 
is  composed  of  a  steel  disc,  on  one  side  of 
which  a  scale  is  etched  and  opposite  the 
scale  a  hole  is  drilled  and  tapped  to  receive 
the  screw  that  holds  the  balance.  One  of 
the  screws  of  the  balance  to  be  tested  is  re¬ 
moved  and  the  indicating  needle  is  screwed 
in  its  placp.  The  steel  disc  is  held  by  means 


of  a  pair  of  sliding  tongs  over  an  alcohol 
lamp,  or  can  be  heated  in  any  other  way  and 
the  expansion  will  be  indicated  by  the  move¬ 
ment  of  the  needle  on  the  scale.  With  an 
increase  of  temperature  the  rim#  is  bent  in¬ 
ward,  thus  reducing  the  size  of  the  balance. 
This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  brass  expands 
more  than  steel,  and  in  endeavoring  to  ex¬ 
pand  it  bends  the  rim  inward.  The  action 
is,  of  course,  reversed  by  lowering  the  tem¬ 
perature  below  normal.  Some  adjusters  spin 
a  balance  close  to  the  flame  of  a  lamp  before 
using  in  order  to  subject  it  to  a  higher  tem¬ 
perature  than  it  is  likely  to  meet  in  use. 
The  balance  is  then  placed  upon  a  cold  iron 
plate,  and  afterward  tested  for  poise.  The 
balance  is  then  trued  if  found  necessary,  and 
the  operation  is  repeated  until  it  is  found  to 
be  in  poise  after  heating.  Britten  says  that 
it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  loss  in 
heat  from  the  weakening  of  the  hairspring 
is  uniformly  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of 
temperature.  The  compensation  balance, 
however,  fails  to  meet  the  temperature  error 
exactly,  the  rims  expand  a  little  too  much 
with  decrease  of  temperature,  and  with  in¬ 
crease  of  temperature  the  contraction  of  the 
rims  is  insufficient,  consequently  a  watch  or 
chronometer  can  be  correctly  adjusted  for 
temperature  at  two  points  only.  Watches 
are  usually  adjusted  at  about  500  and  85°. 
In  this  range  there  would  be  what  is  called 
a  middle  temperature  error  of  about  two 
seconds  in  twenty-four  hours  with  a  steel 
balance  spring.  The  amount  of  the  middle 
temperature  error  cannot  be  absolutely  pred¬ 
icated,  for  in  low  temperatures,  when  the 
balance  is  larger  in  diameter,  the  arc  of 
vibration  is  less  than  in  high  temperatures 
when  the  balance  is  smaller,  and  conse¬ 
quently  its  time  of  vibration  is  affected  by 
the  isochronism  or  otherwise  of  the  hair¬ 
spring.  Advantage  is  sometimes  taken  of 
this  circumstance  to  lessen  the  middle  tem¬ 
perature  error  by  leaving  the  piece  fast  in 
the  short  arcs.  To  avoid  middle  temperature 
error  in  marine  chronometers,  various  forms 
of  compensation  balances  have  been  devised, 
and  numberless  additions  or  auxiliaries  have 
been  attached  to  the  ordinary  form  of  bal¬ 
ance  for  the  same  purpose.  Poole’s  auxiliary, 
and  Molyneaux’s,  may  be  taken  to  represent 
the  two  principles  on  which  most  auxiliaries 
are  constructed.  Poole’s  consists  of  a  piece 
of  brass  attached  to  the  fixed  ends  of  the  rim 
and  carrying  a  regulating  screw,  the  point 
of  which  checks  the  outward  movement  of 


THE  BALANCE. 


47 


the  rim  in  low  temperatures.  Molyneaux’s 
is  attached  to  each  end  of  the  arm  by  a 
spring,  the  free  ends  of  the  rim  acting  on  it 
in  high  temperatures  only.  It  illustrates  this 
auxiliary  when  the  temperature  has  been 
raised,  its  free  ends  to  which  the  adjusting 
screws  are  attached,  having  approached 
nearer  the  center  of  the  balance,  carrying 
with  them  the  free  ends  of  the  auxiliary,  so 
that  the  small  projection  no  longer  comes  in 
contact  with  the  short  end  of  the  balance 
rim,  as  it  would  in  a  temperature  of  550. 
This  auxiliary  is  made  of  steel. 

SIZES  AND  WEIGHTS  OF  BALANCES. 

The  size  and  weight  of  the  balance  are 
two  very  important  elements  in  the  timing 
of  a  watch,  and  especially  in  adjusting  to 
positions.  The  rules  governing  the  sizes 
and  weights  of  balances  are  of  a  complex 
nature,  and  though  positive  are  difficult  of 
application  on  account  of  the  impracticability 
of  determining  the  value  of  the  elements  on 
which  we  have  to  base  our  calculations. 
These  elements  are  the  mainspring  or  motive 
power,  the  hairspring  representing  the  force 
of  gravity  on  the  pendulum,  momentum  and 
friction.  The  relation  of  the  motive  power 
or  the  mainspring  to  the  subject  under  dis¬ 
cussion  lies  first  in  the  necessary  proportion 
between  it  and  the  amount  of  tension  of  the 
spring  to  be  overcome,  according  to  the  ex¬ 
tent  and  number  of  vibrations  aimed  at ; 
and,  second,  to  that  of  friction  affecting  the 
motion  of  the  balance  and  incidental  to  it. 
In  an  18,000  train  the  mainspring  has  to 
overcome  resistance  of  the  hairspring  for 
432,000  vibrations  daily.  The  hairspring 
having  its  force  established  by  the  relative 
force  of  the  motive  power  circumscribes  the 
proportions  of  the  mass  called  balance  and 
is  so  co-agent  for  overcoming  friction. 

Momentum  overcomes  some  of  the  elastic 
force  of  the  spring  and  friction.  It  is  the 
force  of  a  body  in  motion,  and  is  equal  to 
the  weight  of  the  body  multiplied  by  _  its 
velocity.  Velocity  in  a  balance  is  repre¬ 
sented  by  its  circumference,  a  given  point  in 
which  travels  a  given  distance  in  a  given  time. 
Weight  is  that  contained  in  its  rim.  A  bal¬ 
ance  is  said  to  have  more  or  less  momentum 
in  proportion,  as  it  retains  force  imparted  to 
it  by  impulsion.  If  a  watch  has  a  balance 
with  which  it  has  been  brought  to  time,  and 
this  is  changed  to  one-half  the  size,  it  re¬ 
quires  to  be  four  times  as  heavy,  because  its 
weight  is  then  only  half  the  distance  from 


the  center,  and  any  given  point  in  its  cir¬ 
cumference  has  only  half  the  distance  to 
travel.  On  the  other  hand,  a  balance  twice 
the  size,  would  have  one-fourth  the  weight. 
In  the  first  case  the  balance  would  have 
twice  as  much  momentum  as  the  original 
one,  because  if  we  multiply  the  weight  by 
the  velocity  we  have  a  product  twice  as 
great.  In  the  latter  case  a  like  operation 
would  give  a  product  half  as  great  as  in  the 
original  balance. 

It  follows  that  the  smaller  and  heavier  a 
balance  the  more  momentum,  and  vice  versa 
the  less  momentum  it  has,  always  on  condi¬ 
tion  that  the  hairspring  controls  both  equally. 
Friction,  affecting  the  vibration  of  the  bal¬ 
ance,  is  that  of  the  pivots  on  which  it  moves 
and  that  of  the  escapement.  It  is  in  pro¬ 
portion  to  the  force  with  which  two  surfaces 
are  pressed  together  and  their  area.  In  a 
balance,  weight  is  synonymous  with  pressure 
area,  and  is  represented  by  the  size  of  its 
pivots  and  the  thickness  of  the  pivot  holes. 
The  first,  pivot  friction,  is  continuous  and 
incidental,  and  is  overcome  by  combined 
forces,  the  motive  power,  the  elasticity  of 
the  hairspring,  and  the  momentum  of  the 
balance.  The  latter,  or  escapement  friction, 
is  intermitting,  and  is  overcome  by  contend¬ 
ing  forces,  the  hairspring  and  the  momentum 
of  the  balance  on  one  side  and  the  motive 
power  on  the  other. 

Having  it  in  our  power,  as  shown  above, 
to  obtain  the  desired  momentum  of  the  bal¬ 
ance  by  differing  relative  pressure  and 
diameter,  we  can  regulate  pivot  friction 
within  certain  limits  and  distribute  the  labor 
of  overcoming  it,  among  the  co-operative 
forces,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  proportions 
of  such  distributions  shall  not  be  disturbed 
during  their  (forces)  increase  or  decrease. 
Incidental  pivot  friction  is  that  caused  by 
the  contact  of  the  balance  with  the  escape¬ 
ment.  Escapement  friction  is  that  caused 
by  the  unlocking  on  the  impulse.  The  first 
causes  retardation,  the  latter  acceleration  in 
the  motion  of  the  balance,  regardless  of 
isochronism.  It  is  easy  to  comprehend  that 
a  heavy  balance  would,  by  its  greater  mo¬ 
mentum,  unlock  the  escapement  with  less 
retardation  than  a  light  one ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  acceleration  by  the  impulse 
would  be  less  also ;  and  with  a  varying 
motive  power  a  disturbing  element  would  be 
introduced  by  a  change  in  the  relative  pro¬ 
portions  of  these  forces,  the  momentum  of 
the  balance  decreasing  or  increasing  faster 


48 


TO  PUT  IN  A  HAIRSPRING. 


than  the  motive  power,  constituting  as  it 
does  relatively  a  more  variable  force.  In 
argument  the  reverse  of  this  might  be  ad¬ 
vanced  in  regard  to  a  balance  which  is  too 
light.  Without,  however,  entering  further 
into  the  subject  it  is  plain  how  the  rate  of  a 
watch  under  such  conditions  might  be  af¬ 
fected  after  being  apparently  adjusted  in 
stationary  positions  by  being  used  on  a  loco¬ 
motive  or  under  conditions  where  external 
disturbances  should  lessen  the  extent  of 
vibration,  and  making  the  contact  between 
the  balance  and  the  escapement  of  less  dura¬ 
tion. 

The  almost  universal  abandonment  of 
watches  with  uniform  motive  power  and  the 
introduction  of  stem-winders  with  going  bar¬ 
rels  invests  the  subject  with  special  interest ; 
and  as  stated  in  the  beginning,  applying  rules 
for  defining  these  desirable  proportions  being 
impracticable,  the  only  solution  of  the  prob¬ 
lem  which  remains  to  us  is  the  study  by  ob¬ 
servation  of  certain  symptoms  which  do  exist 
to  determine  that  which  by  other  means 
cannot  be  done.  During  the  progress  of 
horology  similar  difficulties  had  to  be  met  in 
every  kind  of  watch  which  happened  to  be 
in  use.  The  old  verge  watch  had  its  bal¬ 
ance  proportioned  thus  that  it  could  lie 
inside  in  the  mainspring  barrel,  and  the 
watch,  when  set  going  without  a  balance 
spring,  would  indicate  by  the  hand  on  the 
dial  a  progress  of  twenty-seven  and  one-half 
minutes  during  one  hour  running.  It  was  said 
that  under  these  circumstances  it  would  be 
least  affected  by  inequalities  of  the  motive 
power,  and  the  verge  would  not  be  cut  by 
the  escape  wheel.  The  balance  in  the  cyl¬ 
inder  watch  was  to  be  sized  according  to  the 
proportion  of  the  train,  each  successive  wheel 
to  be  one-half  smaller  than  the  preceding 
one  and  the  balance  to  be  twice  the  size  of 
the  escape  wheel,  the  weight  to  be  deter¬ 
mined  by  the  equal  running  of  the  watch 
during  all  the  changes  of  an  unequal  motive 
power.  The  cutting  of  the  steel  pallets  in 
duplex  watches  or  chronometers  is  caused 
more  by  too  heavy  balances  than  by  any 
other  defect  in  their  parts.  It  might  be  well 
to  note  the  following,  which  is  very  impor¬ 
tant  and  too  often  neglected,  and  that  is  the 
arrangement  of  the  mainspring  in  the  barrel 
so  as  to  avoid  coil  friction,  and  the  smallest 
advantage  of  the  old  fusee  watch  was  not 
the  facility  of  obtaining  five  turns  of  the 
fusee  to  three  or  three  and  one-half  of  the 
mainspring,  but  being  enabled  thereby  to 


arrange  the  latter  around  a  small  arbor  in 
such  a  manner  that  the^coils  never  touched, 
insuring  a  smooth  motive  power  and  lessen¬ 
ing  the  chances  of  breakage  beyond  estima¬ 
tion. 


TO  PUT  IN  A  HAIRSPRING. 

I  HAVE  before  me  an  old  anchor  watch, 
in  which  I  am  about  to  put  a  new  spring. 
The  spring  is  soft.  The  watch  has  been  a 
remarkable  close  time-keeper  for  over  thirty 
years.  The  movement  is  very  large  and  re¬ 
quires  a  large  spring  in  the  round.  On  the 
dial  is  marked  “  Railroad  Time-keeper  ”  in 
red  letters  in  a  circle.  In  my  stock  of  springs 
I  have  none  large  enough  in  the  round.  I 
select  one  for  strength,  which  is  very  closely 
coiled.  To  get  the  desired  size  in  the  round, 
I  lay  it  on  a  flat  barrel  head  and  hold  over 
the  spirit  lamp  until  it  uncoils  to  the  desired 
size  in  the  round.  I  test  the  hole  in  the 
collet  with  broach.  If  not  parallel  with  bal¬ 
ance  I  broach  it  to  bring  it  parallel.  I  put 
the  outer  end  in  the  collet  and  fit  a  pin  with 
flat  side  next  the  spring ;  press  it  in  tightly 
and  mark  the  ends  carefully  and  lay  it  away 
for  future  use,  and  use  it  for  permanent  fas¬ 
tening.  I  now  test  the  spring  in  the  usual 
way  by  counting  the  train  or  by  setting  the 
second  hand  at  sixty  and  moving  the  lever 
back  and  forward,  counting  the  beats  for 
fifteen  or  thirty  seconds,  which  multiplied  by 
two  or  four  gives  the  number  of  beats  in  one 
minute.  I  fit  the  spring  at  the  collet,  with 
coiling  tweezers,  with  proper  curve,  and  fit 
around  the  collet  at  the  proper  distance,  so 
as  not  to  come  in  contact  with  the  collet  in 
vibrating,  leaving  about  the  same  space  as 
between  the  coils.  For  trial,  I  fasten  the 
spring  in  the  collet  with  pegwood  and  take 
hold  of  the  outer  end  of  spring  with  a  pair 
of  tweezers  and  vibrate  the  balance  on  a  flat 
glass  for  fifteen  or  thirty  seconds.  If  too 
strong  move  further  out ;  if  slow  move  back 
until  I  get  the  desired  number  of  beats.  At 
this  point  I  mark  the  spring  with  a  little  red- 
stuff  (English,  you  know).  I  test  the  hole 
in  stud  to  find  if  parallel ;  if  not,  I  broach  it 
to  bring  it  right.  I  now  fasten  spring  in 
stud,  leaving  the  mark  a  little  outside  be¬ 
tween  curb  pins  and  stud.  I  lay  my  spring 
on  the  cock  with  spring  between  pins.  I 
put  pegwood  down  though  the  collet  point 
in  jewel  hole  and  find  if  the  spring  crowds 
at  any  point ;  if  so,  it  must  be  connected  by 
getting  the  coils  equal  all  around.  I  now 
put  the  permanent  pin  in  place  and  manipu- 


TO  FIT  THE  CENTER  BUSH. 


49 


late  the  spring  at  the  collet  to  get  it  right  in 
the  flat.  I  get  the  spring  to  have  the  same 
play  between  the  pins  when  turned  fast  or 
slow.  I  put  the  balance  with  spring  in  the 
calipers  and  ascertain  whether  there  is  any 
wabbling ;  if  so,  it  must  be  corrected.  I 
now  set  the  ruby  pin  in  direct  line  with  bal¬ 
ance  and  pallet  staff  and  mark  on  balance 
directly  opposite  the  stud  hole  and  bring  the 
stud  to  that  point  and  the  watch  will  be  in 
perfect  beat.  The  balance  must  be  carefully 
poised.  Where  there  are  no  screws,  it  must 
be  done  by  adding  or  taking  from  the  rim. 
Balances  with  screws  can  be  poised  by  using 
washer  if  light,  or  reducing  the  weight  by 
turning  the  screws  out  if  too  heavy.  About 
two  years  ago  I  cleaned  an  American  full- 
plate  watch.  In  a  few  weeks  the  watch  was 
brought  back  with  the  inside  coil  over  the 
•curb  pin.  The  watch  was  carried  by  an 
•engineer.  The  jumping  of  the  engine  made 
the  spring  overlap.  It  set  me  to  reflecting. 
I  came  to  the  conclusion  that  by  shortening 
the  pins  so  that  the  spring  working  at  the 
■ends  of  the  pins  and  beveling  the  outside  pin 
and  polishing  it  smooth,  if  it  did  occur  it 
would  slip  back  again,  which  proved  to  be 
correct,  as  it  has  not  occurred  since.  The 
new  spring  has  to  be  tested  for  isochronism. 
A  spring  is  isochronal  when  it  causes  any 
point  in  the  balance  rim  to  pass  through 
equal  and  unequal  spaces  in  equal  time. 
The  moment  a  balance  receives  an  impulse, 
that  moment  does  it  begin  to  wind  up  the 
hairspring,  and  continues  to  wind  it  until  it 
reaches  the  extreme  point  of  its  tension. 
But  the  first  ten  degrees  of  the  return  motion 
of  the  balance  should  be  neither  quicker  nor 
slower  than  the  last  ten,  and  would  not  be  if 
the  spring  were  isochronal.  By  making  the 
spring  isochronous  the  watch  is  made  to 
maintain  the  same  rate  in  the  long  as  in  the 
short  motions  of  the  balance.  Rate  the 
watch  (fully  wound)  for  six  hours  in  the 
hanging  position,  then  rate  it  the  same  length 
of  time  in  a  lying  position.  Wind  it  full  for 
both  trials.  Should  it  go  slower  in  the  lying 
than  in  the  hanging  position  it  shows  that 
the  spring  is  too  long  for  its  strength,  and 
must  be  taken  up.  When  the  watch  is  made 
to  keep  the  same  rate  in  both  positions  the 
spring  is  isochronous.  The  principle  of 
isochronism  consists  in  the  length  of  the 
spring  being  in  exact  proportion  to  its 
-strength,  consequently  if  a  spring  be  too 
strong  for  its  length  there  is  no  point  that  is 
isochronous,  but  if  the  spring  be  sufficiently 


long  for  its  strength  the  isochronal  point 
may  be  found.  I  do  not  advise  the  use  of 
soft  springs.  In  American  watches  I  use 
tempered  springs  in  all  cases.  I  do  use  soft 
springs  in  lower  grades,  where  they  have  run 
close  to  time  with  soft  springs.  In  my  ex¬ 
perience  I  have  found  that  soft  springs  for 
low-grade  watches  are  not  affected  by  ex¬ 
treme  heat  and  cold  to  the  same  extent  as 
hard  springs.  In  conclusion,  if  there  are 
any  points  in  the  above  that  will  be  appre¬ 
ciated  by  the  craft,  let  them  “  make  a  note 
of  it,”  as  Captain  Cuttle  says. 


TO  FIT  THE  CENTER  BUSH. 

IN  the  two  plates  together  and  put  them 
in  universal  face  plate  or  head,  centering 
by  the  center  hole  in  top  plate,  and  turn  the 
old  bush  out  and  traces  of  soft  solder  off  the 
bottom  plate.  Turn  up  a  new  bush,  and 
leave  it  as  long  as  possible,  so  as  to  better 
support  the  pivot,  and  retain  the  oil. 

Saunier  says,  “  There  is  no  advantage  to 
be  gained  by  diminishing  the  extent  of  the 
surfaces  of  contact  in  depths,  in  liftings  and 
even  in  rests  of  escapements,  as  is  too  often 
done  under  the  impression  that  friction  is 
thereby  reduced.  Since  the  same  blow  or 
pressure  is  withstood  by  a  smaller  number  of 
elements,  it  will  act  with  a  greater  force  on 
them,  and  will  distort  the  surface  more  rap¬ 
idly  ;  the  accuracy  of  their  forms  will  thus  be 
destroyed  in  a  less  time.  Also  when  the 
bearing  surfaces  are  not  of  sufficient  extent, 
any  excess  of  pressure  expels  the  oil,  causing 
a  destruction  of  the  surfaces  and  increased 
friction.”  Therefore  it  is  plain  to  be  seen 
what  a  bad  effect  a  thin  bush  will  occa¬ 
sion. 

A  bush  should  support  the  pivot  for  three- 
fourths  of  its  length,  and  also  have  a  suffi¬ 
ciently  deep  oil  sink  to  retain  enough  oil  to 
keep  the  pivot  moist  for  a  year  or  a  year 
and  a  half.  Bushes  should  always  be  fitted 
in  from  the  side  the  shoulder  of  pivot  rests 
against,  and  the  other  end  should  be  well 
undercut  and  turned  to  a  knife  edge  that 
will  just  project  through  the  plate,  and  then 
one  or  two  taps  will  be  sufficient  to  rivet  it 
firmly.  The  center  wheel  should  have  very 
little  end-shake,  as  it  runs  so  close  to  both 
the  3d  wheel  and  great  wheel  and  barrel, 
and  the  end-shake  should  always  be  tested 
with  the  plates  pinned  together  with  all  the 
pins. 


5° 


TO  CLEANSE  POLISHING  LEATHERS. 


FITTING  THE  RUBY  PIN. 

BRASS  pin  having  been  inserted  in  table 
roller,  it  will  be  necessary  to  replace  it 
with  a  jewel,  and  by  that  I  don’t  mean  the 
glass  “  ruby  pins  ”  to  be  bought  for  about 
twenty-five  cents  a  gross,  but  the  genuine 
garnet  and  ruby  pins  that  cost  about  one 
dollar  a  gross  ;  they  are  in  all  certainty  suffi¬ 
ciently  low-priced,  and  any  watch  that  is 
worth  having  a  ruby  pin  fitted  at  all  is  worth 
having  one  costing  a  cent,  notwithstanding 
which,  we  frequently  find  glass,  steel,  brass 
and  even  copper  ones  inserted.  It  is  a  dis¬ 
grace  that  such  work  should  be  done,  and 
as  it  most  certainly  is  done,  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  any  who  have  been  in  the  habit  of  so 
doing,  either  from  the  want  of  proper  instruc¬ 
tion  or  otherwise,  will  turn  over  a  new  leaf 
and  in  future  use  proper  materials  in  all  cases. 

Knock  out  the  brass  pin,  pick  out  a  jewel 
that  fits  the  slot  in  the  fork  with  very  slight 
shake,  the  less  shake  the  better,  freedom  be¬ 
ing  insured.  Sometimes  ruby  pins  are  fitted 
that  do  not  fill  more  than  half  the  slot,  and 
as  a  consequence,  about  half  the  impulse 
that  would  be  communicated  to  the  balance 
by  the  fork  if  the  ruby  pin  fitted  the  slot,  is 
lost,  and  a  small,  struggling  motion  is  the 
result.  Insert  the  jewel  in  the  roller  and  set 
it  with  shellac,  using  one  of  the  several  de¬ 
signs  of  ruby  pin  setters  in  the  market. 
After  the  pin  is  firmly  and  correctly  set,  fit 
the  roller  on  the  balance  staff  and  test  the 
action  of  ruby  pin  and  fork  in  the  depthing 
tool  to  see  that  the  pin  enters  the  slot,  and 
does  not  enter  so  deeply  as  to  touch  against 
the  back  of  it.  _ 

TO  FIT  THE  DIAL  FEET. 

RIND  away  the  enamel  where  the  feet 
are  broken  off  with  emery  lap,  and  turn 
up  two  new  feet,  shaping  them  the  same  as 
a  plate  screw,  the  part  corresponding  to  the 
head  being  large  enough  to  get  a  strong  job 
when  soft  soldered  to  the  copper  plate  of 
dial,  solder  them  on  so  that  when  fitted  on 
plate  the  center  of  seconds  hole  will  corre¬ 
spond  with  the  hole  in  fourth  or  second  wheel 
jewel,  mark  the  points  to  drill  for  the  dial 
pins  so  that  when  the  pins  are  inserted  they 
will  touch  the  plate  and  thus  keep  the  dial 
from  rattling.  _ 

TO  FIT  NEW  BANKING  PINS. 

NOCK  out  the  old  pins  and  insert 
Waltham  banking  studs,  if  the  old  bank¬ 
ing-pin  holes  are  too  far  apart.  By  fitting 


Waltham  banking  studs  you  can  turn  the 
pins  around  to  the  proper  position  at  will. 
Turn  them  so  that  at  all  points  the  shake 
between  the  fork  and  pins  at  the  one  end 
and  guard  pins  and  roller  at  the  other  will 
be  the  same,  and  reduce  the  shake  as  much 
as  possible.  When  the  pins  are  adjusted  to 
suit  the  fork  and  roller,  put  the  movement 
together  and  see  that  the  banking  pins  are 
sufficiently  far  apart  to  allow  the  scape  wheel 
to  escape.  Should  the  wheel  escape  on  one 
side  and  not  on  the  other,  the  pin  binding 
the  pallets  and  fork  together  will  have  to  be 
knocked  out  and  the  pallets  moved  suffi¬ 
ciently  to  allow  the  scape  wheel  teeth  to 
escape  on  the  other  side.  If  they  require  to- 
be  moved  very  slightly,  the  pallets  and  fork 
can  be  firmly  held  in  hand  vise  and  the  holes 
broached  out  in  line  with  each  other,  or  else 
the  hole  in  fork  must  be  filled  up  and  a  new- 
one  drilled.  _ 

TO  REPAIR  CENTER  PIVOT. 

HE  pivot,  if  cut  so  that  it  is  smaller 
than  the  cannon  arbor,  or  part  the 
cannon  fits  on,  will  have  to  have  a  pipe  fit¬ 
ted.  Chuck  the  center  pinion  in  a  lathe,, 
and  turn  what  remains  of  the  pivot  flush  with 
the  cannon  arbor,  take  a  piece  of  Stubb’s 
wire  of  requisite  thickness,  and  drill  it  so 
that  it  will  fit  down  over  arbor  snugly,  turn 
the  ends  flat  and  square,  leaving  it  of  suffi¬ 
cient  length  so  that  the  cannon  pinion  will 
rest  against  it  and  be  clear  of  scraping  against 
the  plate,  as  would  be  the  case  if  cut  off  too 
short,  fit  it  in  position,  using  a  speck  of  soft 
solder  if  necessary,  in  which  case  do  it  care¬ 
fully  and  without  discoloring  the  rest  of  the 
pinion,  and  then  boil  out  in  alcohol  to  de¬ 
stroy  the  bad  effect  of  the  soldering  acid  (I 
wish  it  understood  right  here  that  I  am  no- 
advocate  of  soft  solder  in  any  shape  or  form, 
except  when  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  use 
it,  and  occasionally  it  is,  but  even  then  it 
may  be  done  so  that  it  is  not  noticeable). 
Then  turn  the  pipe  true  and  to  the  desired 
size,  and  grind  and  polish  with  oil-stone  dust 
and  crocus  on  bell-metal  slip. 


TO  CLEANSE  POLISHING  LEATHERS. 

CORRESPONDENT  complains  that 
his  polishing  leathers  have  shrunk  to¬ 
gether  after  washing  them,  as  directed  by 
us.  This  can  only  have  been  caused  by  the 
use  of  very  hot  water,  which  should  hardly 
be  lukewarm.  Wash  your  leathers  with 


THE  MARINE  CHRONOMETER. 


51 


ordinary  soap  which  contains  much  potash, 
and  renew  the  water  as  often  as  necessary, 
until  perfectly  clean.  Then  beat  soap  to 
froth,  and  meanwhile  mix  a  little  olive  oil, 
using  barely  a  tablespoonful  per  leather. 
Next  rinse  the  leather  well,  and  wring  dry, 
stretch  it  to  all  sides,  and  for  the  purpose  of 
thoroughly  drying,  hang  it  in  a  place  free 
from  dust,  but  not  near  a  stove.  The  oil  is 
for  the  purpose  of  making  the  leather  soft 
and  supple,  and  no  fears  need  be  entertained 
that  the  oil  will  make  it  smeary.  The  leath¬ 
ers  can  also  be  washed  in  benzine ;  they 
must  then  be  wrung  out  in  a  soft  linen  rag 
or  handkerchief,  and  rubbed  with  it  until 
thoroughly  dry,  otherwise  they  would  shrink 
together  and  become  hard. 


THE  MARINE  CHRONOMETER. 

ROBABLY  no  piece  of  human  mech¬ 
anism  represents  more  brain  labor,  or 
a  greater  amount  of  unyielding  endeavor, 
to  overcome  obstacles  than  we  find  embodied 
in  a  first-class  marine  chronometer.  And 
yet  the  instrument  is  far  from  the  state  of 
perfection  which  “  theory  ”  would  promise. 
We  are  beset  with  difficulties  on  every  hand, 
which,  although  purely  mechanical,  are  still 
serious  enough  to  be  perplexing.  These 
mechanical  imperfections  beset  us  the  instant 
we  enter  the  workshop  and  seek  to  realize 
our  theories;  and  these  imperfections  will 
impede  our  operations,  and  stand  a  barrier 
to  our  progress  to  perfection  forever ;  yet 
patience  and  skill  will  remedy  many,  and 
modify  other  of  those  difficulties,  until,  like 
the  problem  of  squaring  the  circle,  although 
perfection  can  never  be  reached,  still,  an 
approximation  to  it  can  be  attained,  which 
will  leave  little  to  be  desired.  I  do  not  pro¬ 
pose  to  follow  the  development  of  the  instru¬ 
ment  up  to  its  present  state  of  perfection 
through  all  its  modifications,  but  rather  to 
call  notice  to  inherent  faults  which  exist  and 
admit  of  remedy  to  a  certain  extent.  First 
and  foremost  among  the  imperfections  stands 
compensation  for  heat  and  cold,  as  counter¬ 
acted  by  the  composite  curb,  or,  as  it  is 
usually  called,  the  chronometer  balance.  It 
is  unnecessary  to  describe  this  appliance  to 
readers  of  The  Circular,  as  it  is  supposed  to 
be  thoroughly  understood  in  all  its  actions  by 
them  from  articles  hitherto  published  in  its 
columns.  But  certain  features  exist  in  it  not 
generally  known  and  appreciated — first,  its 
imperfections  in  extreme  temperatures  ;  sev¬ 


eral  devices  exist  to  remedy  this  defect  to  a 
limited  extent ;  second,  its  elasticity  begets  the 
trouble  to  a  great  extent  of  “  shop  rate,”  and 
“'sea  rate”;  third,  its  susceptibility  to  cen¬ 
trifugal  action.  I  will  waive  the  first  count 
of  the  indictment  and  proceed  to  the  second 
and  third,  which,  in  reality,  grow  out  of  the 
same  cause,  i.e.,  the  springy  nature  of  the 
compound  curbs  or  segments  of  the  balance 
rim.  It  is  a  well-known  feature  of  a  curved 
spring  that  it  is  more  easily  bent  outward 
than  inward,  or,  in  other  words,  it  requires 
less  force  to  straighten  a  curved  spring  than 
it  does  to  increase  the  curve ;  hence,  any 
motion  or  disturbing  influence,  like  the  sway 
of  a  vessel,  will  tell  in  the  line  of  least  resist¬ 
ance  ;  this  proposition  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  the  “  sea  rate  ” 
of  a  chronometer  is  slower  than  the  “  shop 
rate.”*  The  exceptions  to  this  rule  is  with 
inferior  chronometers  having  unsteady  rates. 
In  regard  to  the  effects  of  centrifugal  action, 
it  is  more  serious  than  at  first  would  seem 
probable.  It  is  impossible  to  construct  a 
balance  in  which  both  segments  are  exactly 
alike  in  elasticity  or  resilient  power ;  but  we 
will  suppose  we  can  seize  and  comprehend 
the  exact  conditions  of  a  balance  just  at  the 
instant  it  pauses  on  a  return  vibration ;  we 
will  conceive  it  to  be  in  a  perfect  condition 
of  repose  in  all  its  particles — a  condition 
we  will  see  does  not  and  cannot*  exist  with 
this  form  of  balance — the  tension  of  the  bal¬ 
ance  (pendulum)  spring  causes  the  return 
vibration  to  set  in,  our  segment  with  its 
adjustable  weight  yields  to  the  centrifugal 
action  first,  the  center  of  gravity  (poise)  is 
disturbed,  and  the  pivots  thrown  to  one  side 
of  the  hole  jewels  ;  the  opposite  segment  and 
its  weight  follows,  and  if  we  could  see  the 
pivots  in  such  a  way  as  to  take  cognizance 
of  their  action,  we  would  find  them  taking 
advantage  of  the  side-shake  in  the  jewel 
holes  at  the  rate  of  several  shakes  a  second  ; 
I  say  several,  for  it  is  much  to  be  doubted 
if  those  shakes  are  a  constant  number,  and 
if  not  constant  they  must  in  some  degree 
affect  the  performance  of  the  instrument.. 
It  is  a  well-known  test  with  old  and  experi¬ 
enced  adjusters,  that  a  chronometer  must,, 
in  its  “  tick,”  give  out  a  pure  musical  tone ; 
or  in  other  words,  the  vibrations  in  its  com¬ 
ponent  parts  must  be  synchronous — in  har¬ 
mony.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  if  two 
springs  whose  vibrations  represent  certain 
musical  tones,  if  not  exactly  harmonious,  will 
compromise  if  near  each  other,  and  produce 


52 


TO  HARDEN  PINIONS. 


a  tone  intermediate  to  both.  So  probably, 
to  a  certain  extent,  a  compromise  takes 
place  in  the  balance  of  a  chronometer,  and 
a  synchronous  harmony  is  established  ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  discord  can  also  set  in, 
which  would  tell  irregularly  on  the  chro¬ 
nometer’s  rate.  It  must  be  evident  to  all 
minds  which  give  the  problem  careful  atten¬ 
tion,  that  centrifugal  action  on  the  segments 
must  beget  a  train  of  unequal  resistances, 
which  tell  unequally  on  the  balance  and  all 
its  belongings.  I  wish  the  reader  to  under¬ 
stand  that  I  have  no  axe  to  grind,  nor  do  I 
propose  any  better  form  of  balance,  but  I 
wish  to  bring  the  facts  to  the  attention  of 
the  thinking  portion  of  our  expert  mechanics, 
and  see  if  there  is  no  better  way  to  counter¬ 
act  the  effects  of  heat  and  cold  on  movable 
time-keepers.  But  I  would  beg  to  say  that, 
practically,  up  to  the  present  time,  the  com¬ 
pound  curved  segments  (in  some  form)  give 
the  best  results.  A  few  suggestions  may  not 
be  displaced— not  my  own,  understand,  but 
such  as  have  been  thrown  out  during  the 
development  of  the  expansion  balance  as  it 
now  exists.  What  is  required  in  a  balance 
for  correcting  heat  and  cold  effects  are : 
perfect  and  equitable  compensation  through 
all  ranges  of  exposure  ;  rigidity  of  form  ex¬ 
cept  by  caloric  effects.  To  produce  these 
results  various  devices  have  been  offered ; 
many  with  merit,  some  with  varied  points  of 
excellence,  which  are  worthy  of  considera¬ 
tion.  The  prominent  ones  of  interest  are 
based  on  two  principles :  first,  keeping  the 
timepiece  exposed  to  an  exalted  temperature 
above  anything  it  would  be  exposed  to,  and 
maintaining  this  temperature  to  constantly 
exactly  the  same  degree  ;  second,  a  mechan¬ 
ical  arrangement  of  levers  operated  some¬ 
thing  similar  to  a  gridiron  pendulum.  The 
problem  is  open,  and  will  yet  be  solved  by 
the  ingenuity  of  some  person,  who  will  con¬ 
fer  a  great  favor  on  humanity,  and  if  prop¬ 
erly  managed,  result  in  a  financial  return  to 
the  inventor.  I  am  aware  that  I  am  vent¬ 
uring  on  a  ground  which  has  been  carefully 
gone  over  by  deep  thinkers  and  skillful  men 
— yet,  twenty  years  ago,  if  a  man  had  fore¬ 
told  the  success  of  breech-loading  guns,  the 
very  men  who  were  supposed  to  know  the 
most  about  such  things  would  have  treated 
the  suggestion  with  contempt — but  one  small 
idea  established  or  made  practicable  breech- 
loading  guns,  and  this  was  the  metallic  car¬ 
tridge.  Now,  in  our  case,  may  not  some 
idea  be  thrown  up  by  discussing  the  subject, 


which  will  happily  solve  the  question  ?  A 
balance  free  from  dilation  by  centrifugal 
force  would  be  much  easier  to  match  with 
an  isochronal  spring.  There  is  another 
point  deserving  of  consideration,  which  is,  a 
compound  segment  is  always  liable  to  de¬ 
terioration,  like  a  hairspring  or  mainspring, 
but  even  more  rapidly ;  there  is  a  constant 
antagonism  between  the  two  metals  which 
can  never  be  reconciled.  I  think  that  my 
experience  will  agree  with  others  when  I  say 
that  chronometer  balances  will  show  some 
queer  freaks.  A  chronometer  which  has 
been  under  one’s  care  for  years,  and  showing 
a  marvelous  fine  rate,  will  all  at  once  fly  off 
on  a  tangent  (“  kick  up  ”  is  a  better  phrase), 
and  vary  more  in  one  day  than  it  previously 
did  in  a  month.  Now,  generally,  the  trouble 
lies  in  the  hairspring,  but  sometimes  a  new 
balance  is  required— some  latent  defect  has 
existed  in  the  balance,  and  all  at  once  it  is 
developed  in  full  force. 


TO  POLISH  STEEL. 

F  the  steel  is  of  moderately  good  tem¬ 
per,  use  a  zinc  polisher  with  diaman- 
tine  ;  for  soft  steel  a  tin  polisher  is  better. 
The  diamantine  should  be  mixed  on  glass, 
with  very  little  watch  oil.  Diamantine 
mixed  with  ordinary  oil  becomes  gummy,  and 
is  quite  unfit  for  use  in  a  day  or  two,  and  if 
brought  into  contact  with  metal  in  mixing, 
turns  black.  _ 

TO  HARDEN  PINIONS. 

VERY  watchmaker  knows  that  heated 
steel  dipped  into  water  becomes  hard. 
When  heating  the  steel,  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  let  the  steel  burn,  but  simply  bring  it 
to  a  red  heat.  For  hardening  pinions  or 
other  large  steel  objects,  do  as  follows,  to 
prevent  the  ruinous  warping :  Make  a  box  of 
sheet  iron  with  a  well-fitting  cover  upon  it, 
and  heat  it  to  a  white  heat  before  using. 
Then  fill  it  one-half  with  bone  black,  place 
the  piece  of  steel  into  it,  fill  it  entirely  with 
bone  black,  put  the  lid  on,  and  secure  the 
box  with  binding  wire.  Then  put  the  box 
into  a  charcoal  fire  until  white  hot,  withdraw 
and  immerse  it  in  cold  water,  leaving  it  im¬ 
mersed  until  cold  ;  the  color  of  the  steel  will 
be  gray,  it  has  no  scale,  and  is  not  warped. 
Steel  hardened  in  this  manner  must  not  be 
annealed  quite  as  much  as  is  done  with 
other — instead  of  dark  blue,  make  it  dark 
yellow. 


TO  RENEW  OLD  FILES. 


53 


FLAT  POLISH. 

O  polish  such  parts  as  rollers  and  col¬ 
lets,  first  get  a  flat  surface,  by  rubbing 
with  fine  emery  on  a  glass  plate  or  a  bell- 
metal  block,  and  afterward  finish  .off  on  a 
zinc  block  with  diamantine ;  but  for  levers, 
you  must  use  a  long,  flat  bell-metal  or  zinc 
polisher,  and  press  the  lever  into  a  piece  of 
soft  wood  (willow  is  the  best)  in  the  vise, 
moving  the  polisher  instead  of  the  work. 
For  large  articles,  such  as  indexes  or  repeater 
racks,  which  are  not  solid  and  spring,  it  will 
be  found  best  to  wax  them  on  to  a  small 
brass  block  and  polish  them  underhand,  in 
the  same  manner  as  rollers. 


TO  TEMPER  GRAVERS. 

RAVERS  and  other  instruments  larger 
than  drills  may  be  tempered  in  quick¬ 
silver,  or  you  may  take  lead  instead  of  quick¬ 
silver.  Cut  down  into  the  lead,  say  half  an 
inch,  then,  having  heated  your  instrument  to 
a  bright  cherry-red,  press  it  firmly  into  the  cut. 
The  lead  will  melt  around  it,  and  an  excel¬ 
lent  temper  will  be  imparted. 


TO  DRAW  TEMPER. 

HE  following  method  is  said  to  be  ex¬ 
cellent  for  drawing  the  temper  from 
delicate  steel  pieces,  without  springing  them. 
Place  the  article  from  which  you  desire  to 
draw  the  temper  into  a  common  clock  key. 
File  around  it  with  brass  or  iron  filings,  and 
then  plug  up  the  hole  with  a  steel,  iron,  or 
brass  plug  made  to  fit  closely.  Take  the 
handle  of  the  key  with  your  pliers,  and  hold 
its  pipe  into  the  blaze  of  a  lamp  till  nearly 
hot,  then  let  it  cool  gradually.  When  suf¬ 
ficiently  cold  to  handle,  remove  the  plug, 
and  you  will  find  the  article  with  its  temper 
fully  drawn,  but  in  all  other  respects  as  it 
was  before.  You  will  understand  the  reason 
for  having  the  article  thus  plugged  up  while 
passing  through  the  heating  and  cooling 
process,  when  you  know  that  springing 
always  results  from  the  action  of  changeable 
currents  of  atmosphere.  The  temper  may 
be  drawn  from  cylinders,  staffs,  pinions,  or 
any  other  delicate  pieces  by  this  mode  with 
perfect  safety.  _ 

TO  STRAIGHTEN  SCAPE  WHEEL. 

HE  Traite  de  V Horlogerie  Modern e  con¬ 
tains  a  method  of  truing  a  cylinder 
escape  wheel  that  has  been  cockled  in  the 


hardening ;  the  following  is  a  modification 
of  the  process  there  described:  In  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  a  square  plate  that  is  moderately 
thick,  fit  a  strong  screw  with  a  large  and 
long  head ;  this  screw  must  pass  freely 
through  a  disc  that  is  perfectly  flat  and  fits 
easily  into  the  upper  side  of  the  escape 
wheel.  Now  fix  the  plate  between  the  jaws 
of  a  bench  vise,  and  placing  the  wheel  be¬ 
tween  this  plate  and  the  disc  with  a  mod¬ 
erate  pressure  applied  to  the  screw,  hold  a 
lamp  to  the  under  side,  gradually  tightening 
the  screw  as  the  steel  changes  color,  so  as 
to  obtain  a  maximum  pressure  when  a  blue 
temper  is  reached.  Leave  the  whole  to  cool 
in  position. 


FINE  LUBRICATING  OIL. 

Y  putting  pure  olive  oil  into  a  clear 
glass  bottle  with  a  few  strips  or  pieces 
of  sheet  lead,  and  exposing  to  the  sun  for 
two  or  three  weeks,  an  exceedingly  fine 
lubricating  oil  may  be  obtained  that  will  not 
gum  or  corrode.  Only  that  part  should  be 
poured  off  which  is  perfectly  clear. 


TO  RENEW  OLD  FILES. 

HE  process  of  cleaning  and  renewing 
old  files  will  be  found  useful,  whenever 
there  is  a  lot  of  apparently  worthless  files 
lying  around  the  shop.  Very  often  they  do 
not  need  recutting,  but  are  merely  clogged 
up  with  dirt  and  grease  and  are  of  little 
service.  To  restore  them,  take  the  following 
advice  of  a  correspondent :  Some  time  ago 
I  gathered  together  a  lot  of  old  worn-out 
files,  both  large  and  small,  coarse  and  fine, 
and  boiled  them  for  half  an  hour  in  saleratus 
water  (4  oz.  saleratus  to  1  quart  water).  I 
then  washed  them  in  clean  water  and  placed 
them  in  a  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
water  (4  oz.  of  sulphuric  acid  to  1  quart 
water).  I  removed  the  smaller  and  finer 
files  at  the  end  of  forty-five  minutes,  but  the 
larger  and  coarser  I  let  remain  for  two  or 
three  hours,  looking  at  them  occasionally  to 
see  that  they  didn’t  cut  too  much.  I  then 
washed  them  thoroughly  with  a  stiff  brush 
and  plenty  of  clean  water,  then  dried  and 
oiled  them  a  little  to  prevent  their  rusting. 
I  have  used  them  for  several  months  and 
think  they  cut  as  well  as  new  files,  and  have 
lasted  almost  quite  as  long. 


54 


TO  EASE  AN  INDEX. 


BROKEN  SCREWS. 

1HAVE  two  methods  for  taking  broken 
plate  screws  out  of  American  watches : 
i.  When  it  can  be  done,  I  turn  them  out 
with  the  sharp  point  of  a  graver.  When 
this  cannot  be  done,  with  a  thin  screw  file  I 
file  into  the  end  of  the  post  until  the  broken 
screw  is  reached,  and  a  slot  made  in  it  by 
which  it  can  be  easily  raised.  Some  may 
be  disposed  to  call  it  botch-work,  but  I  can¬ 
not  see  that  it  injures  the  post,  and  when 
the  upper  plate  is  on  and  the  screw  in,  the 
place  cannot  be  seen. 


TO  APPLY  WATCH  OIL. 

ATCH  oil  should  be  conveyed  to 
the  watch  only  with  an  absolutely 
clean  medium,  and  steel  is  to  be  preferred 
by  all  odds.  Many  use  brass,  but  this  can¬ 
not  be  kept  as  clean,  nor  is  it  as  easily 
cleaned  as  steel,  and  we  would  recommend 
to  our  fellow- workmen  to  use  steel  exclu¬ 
sively.  _ 

TO  FASTEN  SPRING  ON  COLLET. 

HEN  the  spring  is  firmly  fastened 
on  the  collet,  the  first  turn  cannot  be 
too  close  to  it,  but  it  must  not  touch  it,  and 
must  form  a  true  or  slightly  expanding  circle 
with  it.  It  must  then  be  placed  in  the  turns, 
or  an  arbor,  and  revolved  with  the  bow,  and 
looked  at  with  the  glass  to  see  that  the  spring 
revolves  truly  with  the  collet,  and  that  there 
is  no  jumping  action  in  it.  If  the  eye  of 
the  spring  is  much  larger  than  the  collet,  it 
will  be  difficult  to  make  it  revolve  truly,  but 
in  repairing  a  bad  spring  many  judicious 
touches  with  the  tweezers  may  be  given  while 
it  is  on  the  arbor,  and  anything  like  a  crank 
action  of  the  spring  and  collet  must  be  cor¬ 
rected. 


TO  RESET  THE  RUBY  PIN. 

[HAVE  so  often  seen  watch  repairers, 
every  time  they  wished  to  tighten  or 
reset  a  ruby  pin  in  a  lever  movement,  re¬ 
move  the  roller  from  the  staff,  heat  it  in  the 
alcohol  lamp  until  the  shellac  was.  softened, 
and  perhaps  the  roller  blued  and  disfigured, 
beside  losing  the  entire  adjustment  and  in¬ 
juring  the  time-keeping  qualities  of  the 
watch,  by  replacing  the  roller  without  the 
aid  of  a  beat  block,  that  I  offer  a  simple  little 
device  which  may  be  useful  to  some  of  your 
readers,  'lake  a  piece  of  medium  sized  pin 


wire,  about  two  and  a  half  inches  long ; 
anneal  about  one-half  or  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  of  each  end,  then  bend  into  the 
shape  of  a  shepherd’s  hook,  hammering  the 
open  end  flat,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  Hold¬ 
ing  the  balance  with  the  roller  table  upper¬ 
most,  now  heat  the  hook,  and  place  it  care¬ 
fully  around  the  staff  body  underneath  the 
roller  table.  You  will  find  it  will  communi¬ 
cate  sufficient  heat  to  the  roller  to  soften  the 
shellac,  and  no  other  part  of  the  balance 
staff  or  spring  will  be  sufficiently  heated  to 
damage  them  in  the  least,  while  the  ruby  pin 
may  be  readily  and  easily  adjusted  to  its 
proper  position. 


THE  WATCH  TRAIN. 

HEN  examining  a  watch  handed  you 
for  repairs,  examine  the  train  of  wheels. 
If  the  scape  depth,  as  often  happens,  is  shal¬ 
low,  as  shown  by  much  side-shake,  drive  the 
scape  cock  by  pressure  from  behind,  if  free¬ 
dom  allows,  the  second  pivot  hole  being 
always  very  shallow.  A  pivot  broach  pressed 
by  the  finger  underneath  in  opening  the  hole 
will  cut  away  one  side  of  the  hole,  into 
which  a  French  bouchon  or  stopping  is  being 
inserted  and  riveted,  Ave  have  a  new  depth 
as  the  result  of  a  few  minutes’  work. 


TO  REDUCE  DIAL. 

ESTING  the  dial  in  an  inclined  po¬ 
sition  against  a  block,  file  its  edge 
with  a  smooth  or  half  smooth  file,  which 
must  only  be  allowed  while  advancing,,  and 
is,  at  the  same  time,  displayed  sideways  and 
turned  so  as  to  follow  the  contour  of  the 
dial.  The  file  should  be  dipped  occasion¬ 
ally  in  turpentine,  and  when  sufficient  enamel 
has  been  removed,  pass  a  new  emery  stick 
over  it  to  remove  the  file  marks. 


TO  EASE  AN  INDEX. 

IT  is  a  common  but  bad  practice  among 
watchmakers,  says  Saunier,  to  scrape  the 
inside  of  the  ring  of  the  index  or  cut  it 
through.  A  better  method  is  as  follows : 
Resting  the  index  on  a  cork,  cover  the  in¬ 
side  of  its  ring  with  oil-stone  dust,  and  make 
the  cap  rotate  in  its  seat  by  means  of  a 
pinion  caliper,  the  two  points  of  which  are 
inserted  in  the  screw  holes.  The  operation 
is  repeated  as  often  as  may  be  required. 


TO  TAKE  OUT  TEMPER  OF  STAFF. 


55 


MAGNITUDE  OF  PALLET  IMPULSE. 

HE  average  magnitude  of  pallet  im¬ 
pulse  angles  is  io°.  It  is  a  matter 
which  depends  greatly  on  the  quality  of  the 
work.  If  a  pallet  with  an  impulse  angle  of 
j}4°  has  much  side-shake  on  its  pivots,  then 
the  ruby  pin  becomes  the  center  of  motion 
where  the  impulse  should  commence,  and 
hence  a  greater  part  of  the  moment  would 
be  lost.  Though  a  large  impulse  angle  gives 
less  moment,  nevertheless  it  will  neutralize 
the  evil  of  badly  fitting  holes  ;  hence,  pallets 
with  small  impulse  angles  should  always 
have  jeweled  holes,  and  brass  pallet  holes 
require  larger  impulse  angles.  This  appears 
so  self-evident  that  diagrams  are  not  neces¬ 
sary  to  prove  it. 

TO  REMOVE  A  BROKEN  SCREW. 

CORRESPONDENT  of  The  Jewel¬ 
ers’  Circular  complains  that  he  has 
.a  bad  case  of  broken  screw  in  a  wratch 
plate,  and  asks  for  information  how  to  ex¬ 
tract  it.  Our  columns  have  heretofore  con¬ 
tained  practical  recipes,  to  which  we  refer 
him,  adding  another  one.  With  a  screw- 
head  file  cut  a  slit  in  the  top  of  the  broken 
screw  deep  enough  for  a  screw-driver  to 
have  a  firm  hold.  Then  pressing  the  screw¬ 
driver  firmly  in  the  slit,  turn  it  to  the  left, 
and  in  most  cases  the  screw  will  give  way. 
After  turning  it  once  or  twice  it  is  advisable 
to  file  off  the  top  of  the  screw  nearly  level 
with  the  watch  plate  and  recut  the  slit.  If 
this  method  does  not  answer,  place  the  plate 
Avith  the  top  of  the  broken  screw  over  one 
•of  the  holes  in  the  riveting  stake  correspond¬ 
ing  to  the  size  of  the  screw,  and  with  a  joint 
pusher  placed  on  the  bottom  of  the  screw, 
give  a  sharp  blow  with  a  hammer  or  mallet, 
which  generally  breaks  the  thread  and  partly 
■drives  it  through  the  plate,  after  which  it  can 
be  pulled  out  Avith  a  pair  of  pliers.  Re-tap 
the  hole  and  fit  in  a  new  screw. 


TO  WRITE  UPON  STEEL. 

GOOD  fluid  with  which  to  write  upon 
steel  is  prepared  by  mixing  one  part 
of  nitric  acid  with  about  one-sixth  part 
•of  hydrochloric  acid.  Cleanse  the  part  to 
be  operated  on  with  oil  and  cover  it  with  a 
-coating  of  beeswax.  With  a  pointed  tool 
write  upon  the  wax,  letting  each  stroke 
penetrate  down  to  the  metal ;  then  with  a 
fine  brush,  dipped  into  above  said  acid 


mixture,  follow  the  strokes  of  the  writing. 
When  these  strokes  have  been  filled  with  this 
mixture,  let  the  work  stand  for  about  five 
minutes,  and  then  dip  it  into  water  to  inter¬ 
rupt  the  further  operation  of  the  acid. 


TO  SOLDER  BROKEN  BROACHES. 

TEEL  broaches  and  other  tools  are  sol¬ 
dered  by  cleaning  well  the  parts  broken, 
then  dipping  them  into  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper,  and  soldering  them  Avith  ordinary 
soft  solder.  The  joint  is  a  good  one,  and 
will  stand  ordinary  hard  wear. 


TRANSPARENT  BLUE  FOR  STEEL. 

AMAR  varnish,  y2  gallon  ;  finely  pul¬ 
verized  Prussian  blue,  ]/2  oz.  ;  mix 
thoroughly.  Makes  a  splendid  appearance. 
Excellent  for  bluing  hands. 


HOW  TO  SUPPLY  OIL. 

E  very  careful  in  lubricating.  The 
manner  of  doing  this  is  much  more 
important  than  many  imagine,  and  has  a 
greater  influence  upon  the  duration  of  the 
good  performance  and  timing.  To  single 
out  the  escapement :  Many  watchmakers 
put  too  much  oil  into  the  cylinder,  under 
the  impression  that  when  the  wheel  passes 
through  each  tooth  will  take  its  required 
amount.  This  is  a  bad  method,  because  it 
stands  to  reason  that  those  teeth  Avhich  pass 
through  first  will  take  so  much  oil,  that 
instead  of  adhering  to  the  lifting  faces  of  the 
tooth  Avhere  it  belongs,  the  oil  will  run  down 
the  tooth  pillars  and  swim  upon  the  bottom, 
acting  there  as  a  dirt  trap.  It  is  more  advis¬ 
able  to  place  only  a  small  quantity  of  oil  in 
the  cylinder,  then  pass  the  teeth  through, 
and  additionally  lubricate  the  lifting  face  of 
each  third  or  fourth  tooth. 


TO  TAKE  OUT  TEMPER  OF  STAFF. 

N  taking  the  temper  out  of  hard  staffs  in 
order  to  drill  without  injury  to  adjacent 
parts,  the  following  method  has  been  found 
to  work  very  nicely :  Take  a  small  piece  of 
charcoal,  as  large  as  a  pea,  or  larger,  accord¬ 
ing  to  size  of  staff ;  make  a  hole  in  it,  into 
which  the  end  of  the  staff  is  to  be  inserted ; 
then  holding  the  staff  with  the  pliers,  direct 
the  flame  of  the  lamp  upon  the  coal  until  it 
is  ignited,  when  it  can  be  kept  in  a  red-hot 


56 


'  TO  SHARPEN  FINE  FILES. 


glow  by  the  blowpipe  alone,  until  all  is  con¬ 
sumed.  This  will  not  even  blue  the  rest  of 
the  staff,  and  will  usually  take  out  the  tem¬ 
per  sufficiently  to  drill.  If  once  will  not  do, 
it  may  be  repeated  several  times  till  the  end 
is  accomplished. 

TO  BROACH  A  HOLE  VERTICALLY. 

HOLE  in  a  plate,  as,  for  instance,  that 
in  a  barrel,  is  seldom  maintained  at  right 
angles  to  the  surface  by  young  watchmakers 
when  they  have  occasion  to  employ  a  broach. 
By  adopting  the  following  very  simple 
method  success  may  be  assured :  Take  a 
long  cork  or  a  diameter  rather  less  than  that 
of  the  barrel  or  other  object  operated  upon, 
and  make  a  hole  in  the  length  of  the  cork 
through  which  the  broach  can  be  passed. 
When  the  cork  has  been  turned  quite  true 
on  its  end  and  edge,  the  broach  is  pushed 
through  and  used  to  enlarge  the  hole ;  by 
pressing  against  the  back  of  the  cork  it  is 
always  kept  against  the  barrel,  and  the  ver- 
ticality  of  the  broach  is  then  maintained. 


THE  USE  OF  SHELLAC  IN 
HOROLOGY. 

HELLAC,  says  J.  Beau,  in  the  Revue 
Chronometrique,  is  used  in  two  forms,  in 
rolls,  and  dissolved  in  alcohol  or  phenyl,  as 
will  be  specified  farther  on.  Solid  shellac  is 
suited  best  for  fastening  parts  that  either 
have  much  shake  between  each  other  or  are 
badly  fitted  together,  while  the  fluid  is  used 
for  cementing  closely  fitted  pieces ;  for  in¬ 
stance,  anchor  pallets,  because,  owing  to  its 
fluid  condition,  it  can  penetrate  better  into 
smaller  interstices. 

When  shellac  in  rolls  is  used  it  is  advisable 
to  draw  it  out,  an  operation  that  should  not 
be  performed  with  the  fingers ;  it  is  to  be 
warmed  over  an  alcohol  flame,  and  drawn 
out  with  two  pair  of  tweezers,  in  which 
manner  it  can  be  drawn  out  as  thin  as  de¬ 
sired,  at  the  same  time  protecting  it  against 
the  perspiration  of  the  hand. 

This  drawing  out  is  really  not  the  best 
method,  although,  perhaps,  the  large  major¬ 
ity  of  watchmakers  employ  it ;  the  roll  of 
shellac  loses  thereby  part  of  its  rigidity,  and 
will  no  longer  give  results  as  perfect  as  those 
obtained  by  the  following  method :  The 
shellac  is  to  be  heated,  and  a  part  of  it  is 
taken  upon  the  point  of  a  pegwood  suffi¬ 
ciently  strong  to  manipulate  the  shellac,  with 


which  it  is  placed  upon  the  pieces  to  be 
cemented. 

Again,  the  pieces  to  be  cemented  should 
never  be  warmed  directly,  but  they  are  to 
be  placed  into  a  chuck  or  other  suitable 
utensil,  which  is  heated,  the  shellac  placed 
upon  the  point  until  it  becomes  soft ;  when 
in  this  condition,  a  small  quantity  is  taken 
away  with  the  pegwood  ;  in  this  way,  there 
will  never  be  any  danger  of  overheating. 

Shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol  would  comply 
with  all  the  demands  of  horology,  if  the 
solutions  were  not  open  to  the  following 
objections :  If  a  drop  of  the  solution  is  only 
for  a  few  seconds  exposed  to  the  air,  a  pelli¬ 
cle,  analogous  to  boiling  milk,  will  form  on 
its  surface  and  prevent  the  spreading  of  the 
drop,  so  that  it  can  enter  into  the  interstices, 
especially  if  very  small,  as  in  the  case  of 
pallets.  For  this  reason,  I  preferably  have 
used  for  some  time  the  solution  effected  in 
phenyl.  Phenyl,  also  called  phenylic  alco¬ 
hol,  has  properties  placing  it  between  alcohol 
and  acid;  it  exerts  no  injurious  effect  upon 
the  metals  used  in  horology,  and,  therefore,, 
no  objections  to  its  employment  exist.  The 
only  disagreeable  characteristic  is,  that  it 
etches  the  skin  when  coming  in  contact  with 
it.  The  watchmaker  may  therefore  use  it  to 
advantage,  guarding,  of  course,  against  its, 
cauterizing  action. 


TO  SHARPEN  FINE  FILES. 

AFTER  the  files  have  been  liberated  from 
the  adhering  dirt  and  filth  with  a  fine 
wire  scratch-brush,  and  a  hot,  fairly  dilute 
solution  of  crystallized  soda,  or,  what  is  stilt 
better,  warm  soapmakers’  waste  lye,  place 
them  alongside  each  other  in  an  earthen 
vessel,  upon  the  bottom  of  which  two  strong 
wires  were  laid,  so  that  the  files  can  come  in 
contact  from  below  with  the  following  fluid. 
'Phis  fluid  consists  of  a  careful  mixture  of  8 
parts  of  cold  water  and  i  part  concentrated 
nitric  acid,  to  be  prepared  in  another  vessel. 
Sufficient  of  this  is  poured  upon  the  files  that 
they  are  just  covered.  The  acid  is  left  te 
operate  upon  the  files  for  about  twenty-five 
minutes.  After  the  lapse  of  this  time,  they 
are  taken  out  of  this  bath,  treated  with  the 
scratch-brush  in  clean  water,  similar  to  the 
first  time ;  they  are  then  immersed  a  second 
time  in  an  acid  bath  of  the  same  strength  (8 
parts  water  and  i  part  nitric  acid),  for 
twenty-five  minutes,  during  which  time  they 
are  occasionally  changed  about.  The  files 


CARE  OF  THE  BRUSH. 


57 


are  then  again  treated  with  the  scratch¬ 
brush,  and  returned  to  the  same  bath,  to 
which  one-half  part  of  English  sulphuric  acid 
has  been  added.  The  bath  heats,  and  red¬ 
dish-brown  vapors  escape,  during  which 
time  the  sharpening  of  the  files  by  corrosion 
progresses.  Care  must  be  had  to  keep  the 
vessel  (the  best  is  an  earthen)  in  a  rocking 
motion,  so  that  the  acid  operates  equally 
upon  the  files,  which  are  not  to  be  left  longer 
than  five  minutes  in  this  bath.  They  are 
then  withdrawn,  again  treated,  as  above 
stated,  with  the  scratch-brush  and  clean 
water,  and  again  placed  in  a  new  bath  of 
the  same  composition,  in  which  they  must 
not  remain  longer  than  five  minutes. 

This  ends  the  operation.  They  are  then 
treated  with  the  scratch-brush,  first  with 
clean  water,  and  finally  they  are  for  a  few 
minutes  laid  in  a  bath  to  which  a  little  lime 
water  was  added ;  this  is  for  the  purpose  of 
neutralizing  every  trace  of  acid.  They  are 
then  well  rinsed  in  clean  water,  wiped  with 
a  dry  rag,  and  heated  to  dry  the  moisture. 
Finally,  rub  a  little  oil  on  them. 


IMPROVED  BENZINE  JARS. 

I.  Take  a  circular  piece  of  finely  per¬ 
forated  metal — a  copper  strainer  answers 
well.  Then  fit  it  inside  your  benzine  glass, 
rivet  in  five  or  six  wire  feet,  not  more  than 
one-quarter  of  one  inch  long,  so  that  you 
will  have  a  small  space  between  the  perfo¬ 
rated  metal  and  the  bottom  of  the  benzine 
jar ;  half  fill  the  jar  with  the  purest  of  benzine 
— the  spirit  must  be  at  least  one-quarter  of 
one  inch  above  the  perforated  metal ;  lay  the 
watch  plates,  etc.,  on  the  perforated  metal, 
and  the  benzine,  which  holds  the  thick  oil 
and  other  impurities  in  solution,  will  speedily 
precipitate  them  to  the  bottom,  and  their 
further  contact  with  the  work  is  prevented 
by  the  perforated  plate,  and,  when  dried, 
they  are  perfectly  clean. 

II.  Take  a  small  wide-necked  bottle,  fit 
in  a  cock,  and  insert  a  brass  wire ;  turn  up 
the  end  like  a  fish-hook,  so  that  it  will  dip 
half  an  inch  into  the  benzine,  hook  on  the 
wheels,  balance,  and  small  pieces,  and  im¬ 
merse  them  in  the  spirit,  which  will  operate 
as  before  described.  A  little  attention  to 
small  tools  is  often  the  difference  between  a 
quick  workman  and  a  slow  one.  Workmen 
of  equal  industry  and  ability  often  produce 
widely  differing  results  from  the  neglect  of  a 
small  outlay  in  useful  tools. 


THE  FOOT  WHEEL. 

I  HAVE  a  40-pound  Webster  foot  wheel,. 

says  a  correspondent  in  an  exchange, 
which  runs  true  and  perfectly  noiseless.  I 
altered  my  wheel,  balancing  it  by  putting  shot 
in  the  hole  left  in  the  inside  of  the  rim.  This 
hole  was  left  so  as  to  make  the  wheel  heavy¬ 
sided,  so  that  it  should  not  stop  on  centers. 
For  my  part,  I  do  not  want  a  heavy-sided 
wheel  that  will,  every  time  I  stop  my  lathe 
and  take  my  foot  out  of  the  stirrup,  run 
backward  and  forward  several  times  before 
remaining  at  rest.  I  can  run  my  lathe  very 
slow  and  it  will  not  stop  on  me  like  a  heavy¬ 
sided  wheel  does,  unless  you  are  on  your 
guard.  Sometimes,  one  wants  to  slow  up 
to  examine  work,  and  a  heavy-sided  wheel 
will  stop  on  you  sometimes  as  the  heavy  side 
starts  up.  A  heavy-sided  wheel  will  run 
with  a  jerking  motion.  My  wheel  now  oc¬ 
casionally  stops  on  centers,  and  when  I  go- 
to  start  and  find  that  such  is  the  case,  I 
simply  touch  the  rim  of  the  wheel  with  my 
foot,  and  it  is  easily  thrown  off.  Poise  your 
wheel,  and  if  you  do  not  like  it  better,  1  will 
pay  for  the  time. 


CARE  OF  THE  BRUSH. 

WATCHMAKER’S  brushes  are  a  con¬ 
stant  utensil  in  his  hands  and  on  the 
workbench ;  nothing  except  pliers,  screw¬ 
drivers,  and  tweezers  being  in  more  con¬ 
stant  use ;  and  how  few  treat  them  prop¬ 
erly,  or  rather,  how  few  keep  them  in 
proper  use.  A  soft  brush  for  rough  work  is 
quite  useless,  a  hard  one  for  fine  work  is 
ruinous,  and  a  dirty  brush  of  either  kind  is 
a  nuisance.  The  methods  adopted  for 
cleaning  them  are  nearly  as  varied  as  the 
workmen  that  use  them,  and  there  are  some 
who  never  even  make  the  attempt.  Some 
clean  the  brush  with  dry  bread ;  some  lay 
a  piece  of  tissue  or  other  paper  across 
the  wide  open  bench  vise,  the  sharp  corners 
formed  by  the  jaws  taking  off  on  the  paper 
a  little  of  the  dirt ;  others,  brush  a  piece  of 
clean  cork  vigorously,  and  one  man  we 
knew  who  used  his 'knuckles  for  the  same 
purpose.  All  these  various  methods  are 
imperfect,  while  some  of  them  can  be  called 
slovenly.  The  only  good  way  to  clean  a 
brush  is  with  soap  and  water — warm  water, 
if  convenient,  being  preferable.  Wet  two 
brushes,  soap  them,  and  rub  them  together 
in  plenty  of  water,  and  the  job  is  done. 
The  only  objection  to  this  way  is  the  delay 


58 


BROKEN  PILLAR  SCREW. 


by  drying ;  but  this  need  not  be,  for  six 
brushes  assorted  will  give  you  three  clean 
ones  to  use,  while  the  other  three  are  dry¬ 
ing  ;  and  the  workman  who  cannot  afford 
half  a  dozen  of  brushes  had  better  seek 
some  more  lucrative  occupation.  More 
damage  to  the  appearance  of  the  movement 
is  done  by  injudicious  brushing  than  by  any 
other  means.  The  watch  may  not  be  in¬ 
jured  in  its  quality  as  a  timepiece,  but  it 
grows  prematurely  old  in  looks  by  such 
severe  treatment. 


TO  MAKE  A  GOOD  DRILL. 

F  we  wish  to  make  a  drill  that  will  act 
to  satisfaction,  we  must  be  particular 
about  getting  the  point  exactly  in  the 
center;  but  this  is  just  what  is  often  neg¬ 
lected.  Now,  it  will  not  be  difficult  for  the 
youngest  reader  to  understand  that  when 
the  point  is  out  of  the  center,  one  side  of 
that  point  has  to  cut  a  larger  share  of  the 
metal  under  operation  than  the  other  does ; 
hence,  the  side  that  is  cutting  its  smaller 
share  does  not  do  all  it  might  and  could, 
if  working  under  different  circumstances. 
This,  of  course,  is  detrimental  to  the  speedy 
action  of  the  drill,  and  if  the  reader  would 
verify  this  statement,  he  should  make  two 
drills  alike  in  every  respect,  except  that  one 
shall  have  its  point  central  and  the  other 
not,  and  temper  both  alike.  Then  let  him 
drill  through  a  sheet  of  brass,  and  notice 
the  time  it  takes  in  each  case,  when  he  will 
find  that  the  result  will  be  considerably  in 
favor  of  the  centrally  pointed  drill. 


THE  TEMPERING  OF  SMALL  DRILLS. 

UCH  has  been  written  on  this  subject, 
and  still  it  is  never  exhausted ;  new 
methods  for  hardening  this  small  tool,  so 
useful  to  the  watchmaker,  are  recommended 
every  little  while. 

Small  drills  for  drilling  holes  in  arbors, 
staffs,  etc.,  which  are  frequently  very  hard 
and  difficult  to  be  perforated,  are  tempered 
in  the  following  manner :  After  the  drill  has 
been  filed  to  its  proper  size  (the  cutting 
face  must  tiot  be  flattened  with  the  ham¬ 
mer),  it  is  only  moderately  warmed ;  avoid¬ 
ing  that  it  does  not  become  red  when  it  is 
run  into  borax.  The  drill  is  thereby  coated 
over  with  a  crust  of  borax,  and  secluded 
from  the  air.  It  may  now  be  hardened  by 
heating  it  only  cherry-red,  after  which  it  is 


inserted  into  a  piece  of  borax,  or  what  is 
still  better,  plunged  into  mercury ;  care  is  to 
be  taken  in  the  latter  case,  however,  not  to 
breathe  the  mercury  fumes.  The  borax 
accommodates  itself  to  the  heat  of  the  drill, 
melts,  and  cools  it  off.  Various  experiments 
made  by  cooling  in  water,  petroleum,  etc., 
after  the  drill  had  been  coated  with  borax, 
were  not  followed  by  results  as  favorable  as 
when  the  drill  was  plunged  into  borax  or 
mercury  ;  it  becomes  exceedingly  hard  with¬ 
out  being  brittle,  and  the  watchmaker  is  able 
to  drill  articles  which  cannot  be  perforated 
with  a  drill  tempered  in  the  ordinary  manner. 


GOOD  STEEL  FOR  DRILLS. 

ANY  watchmakers  make  use  of  broken 
broaches  for  their  small  drills,  in  the 
belief  that  they  are  made  of  the  best  steel, 
which  is  not  always  the  case,  however,  be¬ 
cause  the  steel  used  for  them  is  frequently 
burned,  and,  of  course,  the  steel  is  thereby 
rendered  unfit  for  such  small  tools.  In  order 
to  be  certain  of  the  quality  of  their  drill,  let 
them  take  a  new  piece  of  round  steel. 


TO  TEMPER  A  DRILL. 

ELECT  none  but  the  finest  and  best 
steel  for  your  drills.  In  making  them, 
never  heat  the  steel  higher  than  a  cherry-red, 
and  always  hammer  until  nearly  cold.  Do 
all  your  hammering  in  one  way,  for  if,  after 
you  have  flattened  out  your  piece,  you  at¬ 
tempt  to  hammer  it  back  to  a  square  or 
round,  you  will  ruin  it.  When  your  drill  is 
in  proper  shape,  heat  it  to  a  cherry-red,  and 
thrust  it  into  a  piece  of  resin  or  into  mercury. 
Some  use  a  solution  of  cyanide  of  potash 
and  rain  water,  but  the  resin  or  mercury  will 
give  better  results. 


TO  TEMPER  STEEL. 

PREPARATION  is  used  for  the  pur¬ 
pose,  consisting  of  one-half  a  teaspoon¬ 
ful  wheat  flour,  i  do.  salt,  2  do.  water.  The 
steel  to  be  hardened  is  to  be  heated  suffi¬ 
ciently,  dipped  into  this  mixture,  to  be  coated 
therewith,  then  raised  to  a  red  glow,  and 
thrown  into  cold  soft  water. 


BROKEN  PILLAR  SCREW. 

HOULD  a  broken  pillar  screw  be  so 
rusty  that  it  cannot  be  taken  out  with 


DRILLING  BOWS. 


59 


a  graver  or  other  tool,  use  a  countersink. 
Make  a  center  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  pil¬ 
lar,  take  a  drill  a  little  smaller  than  the  screw, 
so  as  not  to  weaken  the  pillar  too  much,  and 
drill  a  hole,  until  the  broken  screw  is  reached ; 
then  make  a  punch  to  go  through  in  the  hole, 
and  drive  out  the  screw  with  a  hammer,  by 
laying  the  pillar  by  its  shoulder  on  a  stake. 


CARE  OF  CHUCKS. 

HE  watchmaker  who  values  true  chucks 
must  never  force  a  wire  into  a  chuck  that 
is  too  small  to  receive  it,  as  it  will  spring  the 
chuck  open,  and  when  it  is  drawn  into  the 
mouth  of  the  spindle,  it  is  liable  to  be  sprung 
at  the  cone  or  shoulders.  It  is  just  as  liable 
to  be  damaged  at  some  point  by  holding  a 
piece  of  wire  that  is  too  small  for  the  chuck. 
Keep  your  chucks  in  a  block  under  glass 
cover,  or  in  a  box  kept  in  your  drawer ;  and 
occasionally  brush  them  out  with  a  stiff 
brush,  dipped  in  benzine.  A  couple  of  stiff 
tooth-brushes  are  nice  things,  say  one  for  al¬ 
cohol  and  the  other  for  benzine. 


ISOCHRONISM. 

T  will  have  happened  to  the  repairer  and 
adjuster  that  when  a  ruined  or  badly 
mounted  balance  spring  was  straightened 
and  set  in  order  by  him,  the  rate  of  the 
watch  differed  materially,  and  the  spring  had 
to  be  reset ;  a  proof  that  a  spring  of  equal 
length  and  thickness,  but  of  another  curve, 
requires  another  adjusting;  the  power  of  re¬ 
sistance  or  tension  of  the  spring  is  virtually 
altered.  Generally,  when  a  watch  retards  it 
is  presumed  that  its  spring  is  too  weak,  or, 
xvhat  is  the  same,  too  long,  and  every  watch¬ 
maker  knows  that  by  further  drawing  through 
the  spiral  stud,  its  vibrations  are  accelerated. 
The  cause  of  the  acceleration,  however,  does 
not  lie  in  the  immediate  shortening  and  ap¬ 
proach  of  its  two  ends,  but  in  the  alteration 
of  its  curves,  whereby  the  proportion  of  the 
curve  dimension  to  the  length,  and  thereby 
to  the  weight  of  the  balance,  becomes 
another,  and  favors  a  greater  power  of  resist¬ 
ance.  If  the  proportion  of  length  alone 
were  to  decide,  then  the  same  quantity  or 
shortening  of  the  balance  spring  would  pro¬ 
duce  the  same  effect,  which,  as  every  one 
knows,  is  not  so.  By  shortening  the  spring 
on  its  inner  end,  its  power  of  resistance  is 
sensibly  augmented,  because  the  operating 
power  of  the  balance  upon  the  spring  is  less 


ened  by  the  change  from  the  center  of  the 
inner  curve.  For  this  self-same  reason,  the 
inner  curve  should  be  treated  with  all  possi¬ 
ble  consideration. 


TO  MAKE  A  DIAMOND-POINT  TOOL. 

USEFUL  little  tool  for  the  repairing 
watchmaker  is  a  diamond-point  tool, 
which  he  can  easily  make  himself.  In  bort ' 
such  as  he  buys  for  jewel-grinding,  he  will  find 
small  splinters  of  diamond,  which,  by  careful 
setting,  will  form  a  point  by  which  the  pallet 
stone  itself  can  be  marked  with  a  fine  scratch. 
But  in  grinding,  the  scratch  must  be  cut 
away,  as,  if  left,  it  would  be  constantly  cut¬ 
ting  the  teeth  of  the  scape  wheel.  In  break¬ 
ing  up  old  diamond  cap  jewels,  it  is  quite 
easy  to  select  a  fragment  which  can  be  set 
up.  For  such  a  tool,  take  a  bit  of  steel  wire 
about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
turn  it  up  to  a  conical  point,  and  drill  a  hole 
in  the  end  to  match  the  size  of  your  diamond 
splinter ;  into  this,  the  fragment  can  be  bur¬ 
nished  in,  and,  if  necessary,  can  be  still  fur¬ 
ther  secured  by  brazing.  That  is,  if  brass  fil¬ 
ings  and  borax  be  applied  at  and  around  the 
diamond  splinter,  the  brass  can  be  fused 
without  injury  to  the  bit  of  diamond.  Such 
a  diamond  splinter  can  be  used  to  reduce 
the  size  of  hole  jewels. 


TO  CLEAN  WATCH  CASES. 

ERY  dirty  or  oxidized  silver  or  gold 
watch  cases  can  be  restored  by  brush¬ 
ing  them  with  a  soft  brush  and  a  little  rouge 
and  oil.  The  case  is  afterwards  cleaned 
with  another  brush  and  a  little  (best  is  luke¬ 
warm)  water  and  soap,  and  finally  laid  in 
alcohol  to  remove  all  traces  of  the  soap. 
The  case,  after  being  taken  from  this  bath, 
is  dried  with  a  clean  rag.  It  is  evident  that 
the  movement,  and,  if  possible,  also  the  case 
springs,  have  been  taken  out.  Clean,  dry 
sawdust  may  be  used  in  place  of  alcohol ; 
leave  the  case  in  them  until  thoroughly  dry. 


DRILLING  BOWS. 

OOD  bows  are  necessary  complements 
to  good  turns,  and  the  watch  repairer 
cannot  dispense  with  less  than  four,  varying 
in  length  from  12  to  24  inches,  and  in 
strength  from  that  sufficient  to  make  a  bal¬ 
ance  pivot,  with  horse  or  human  hair,  with¬ 
out  slipping  on  the  ferrule,  when  turning 


6o 


TO  SOLDER  A  STAY  SPRING. 


with  a  fine  pointed  graver ;  and  the  others 
increasing  in  strength  to  what  is  required  in 
turning  barrel  arbors,  stoppings,  and  the 
larger  drilling  operations  in  watch  work. 


TO  POLISH  PIVOTS. 

THERE  are  a  number  of  ways  to  polish 
pivots.  After  turning  the  pivot  down 
about  to  size,  it  is  ground  with  oil-stone 
dust  and  oil  till  the  marks  of  the  graver  are 
removed,  and  a  smooth  “  gray  ”  or  dead- 
white  surface  is  obtained — the  pivot  now 
being  of  a  size  to  barely  enter  its  hole  and 
perfectly  shaped.  It  is  then  polished  with 
sharp  or  hard  rouge.  Both  the  grinding  and 
polishing  are  best  done  with  slips  of  bell- 
metal  filed  to  shape  and  used  like  the  old- 
fashioned  pivot  burnishers.  Many  workmen 
finish  off  with  Vienna  lime  or  diamantine  to 
give  a  fine  gloss,  but  this  is  hardly  necessary 
if  the  polishing  with  sharp  rouge  is  well  done, 
as  that  gives  a  splendid  black  luster  that  is 
the  ideal  of  perfect  polish  for  steel.  The 
polishing  should  not  be  continued  too  long, 
or  the  surface  will  become  a  sort  of  brown 
color  and  of  inferior  appearance.  If  the 
“  gray  ”  has  been  well  done,  a  very  little 
further  manipulation  will  be  sufficient  to 
produce  the  polish,  and,  as  soon  as  it  is 
reached,  the  process  should  stop.  But  if  the 
brown  shows  itself,  the  surface  should  again 
be  stoned  off  and  the  polishing  repeated. 
Some  workmen  take  the  trouble  to  finish  the 
pivot  in  the  Jacot  lathe  with  the  pivot  bur¬ 
nisher,  in  order  to  harden  the  surface  and 
make  it  wear  better,  and  less  easily  scratched 
and  marred.  The  foregoing  refers  to  work¬ 
ing  with  the  live  spindle  lathe,  but  if  the 
repairer  uses  the  old-fashioned  steel  verge 
lathe  or  “  turns,”  he  is,  of  course,  confined 
to  the  pivot  file  and  burnisher  for  finishing 
the  pivots.  _ 

TO  STRAIGHTEN  A  PIVOT.  ' 

SOME  watchmakers  will  object  to  the 
straightening  of  a  pivot,  and  rather  break 
it  off  and  put  in  a  new  one.  Some  may  try  to 
avoid  the  labor  and  expense,  and  sometimes 
a  pivot  can  be  straightened  and  act  as  well 
as  a  new  one,  in  the  following  manner :  I 
put  it  in  a  pivot  lathe,  with  or  without  screw 
collet,  place  in  a  rest  just  a  little  smaller  than 
the  pivot,  first  springing  it  as  near  straight 
as  I  can  see  or  tell,  then  carefully  run  a 
small  steel  burnisher  over  the  pivot,  pressing 
sufficiently  hard  to  spring  it  straight ;  the 


wheel  will  revolve  under  the  pressure  (if  it 
does  not,  use  collet  and  bow).  Great  care 
is  necessary  to  keep  the  pivot  from  rolling 
out  of  the  rest.  _ 

TO  FIX  A  CAP  JEWEL. 

TO  fix  an  end-stone,  the  cap  must  be 
held  by  its  edge  in  the  sliding  tongs 
and  shellac  carefully  applied  round  the  edge 
of  the  hollow.  It  is  advisable  to  hold  the 
cap  in  a  small  tool  formed  of  two  parallel 
blades,  as,  when  reversed  so  as  to  press  the 
stone  on  a  flat  surface,  the  shellac  will  be 
spread  over  the  end-stone,  from  which  it  will 
be  removed  with  difficulty. 


TO  MAKE  A  PIVOT  FILE. 

DRESS  up  a  piece  of  wood,  file  fash¬ 
ion,  about  one  inch  broad,  and  glue  a 
piece  of  fine  emery  paper  upon  it.  Then 
shape  your  file  as  you  wish  it,  of  the  best 
cast  steel,  and,  before  tempering,  pass  your 
emery  piece  several  times  heavily  across  it 
diagonally.  Temper  by  heating  to  a  cherry- 
red  and  plunging  it  into  linseed  oil.  Old 
worn  pivot  files  may  be  dressed  over  and 
made  new  by  this  process.  At  first  glance 
one  would  be  led  to  think  them  to  be  too 
slightly  cut  to  work  well,  but  this  is  not  so. 
They  dress  a  pivot  more  rapidly  than  any 
other  file.  _ 

THE  LENGTH  OF  A  BALANCE 
SPRING. 

THE  length  of  a  balance  spring  is  im¬ 
portant,  especially  in  fiat  springs,  with¬ 
out  overcoil.  By  varying  the  strength  of 
the  wire  two  flat  springs  may  be  produced, 
each  of  half  the  diameter  of  the  balances, 
but  of  very  unequal  lengths,  either  of  which 
would  yield  the  same  number  of  vibrations, 
as  long  as  the  extent  of  the  vibrations  re¬ 
mained  constant,  yet  if  the  spring  is  of  an 
improper  length,  although  it  may  bring  the 
watch  to  time  in  one  position,  it  will  fail  to 
keep  the  long  and  short  vibrations  isochro¬ 
nous.  Then,  again,  a  good  length  of  spring 
for  a  watch  with  a  cylinder  escapement  vi¬ 
brating  barely  one  full  turn,  would  clearly 
be  insufficient  for  a  lever  vibrating  one  turn 
and  a  half.  _ 

TO  SOLDER  A  STAY  SPRING. 

STAY  or  lifting  springs  are  often  broken, 
and  the  watchmaker  has  frequently  none 
of  the  right  size  nor  the  time  to  make  a  new 


REPAIRING  CHEAP  CLOCKS. 


one.  In  such  a  predicament,  he  can  mend 
the  old  one,  and  have  it  just  as  good  as  new, 
by  placing  the  broken  parts  together  and 
binding  them  firmly  to  a  piece  of  coal,  then 
soldering  them  with  1 8-karat  gold.  It  re¬ 
quires  a  strong  heat  and  plenty  of  borax ; 
then  finish  off,  nicely  harden  and  temper  in 
the  usual  manner.  _ _ 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  CURB  PINS. 

IF  the  balance  spring  is  not  entirely 
equidistant  from  both  the  curb  pins  in 
a  state  of  repose,  or,  what  is  still  worse,  if  it 
touches  one  of  the  pins,  it  will,  when  it 
makes  smaller  vibrations,  be  more  subject  to 
the  influence  of  these  curb  pins,  and  conse¬ 
quently  its  vibrations  will  become  quicker. 
It  will  often  happen  that  with  a  certain  ex¬ 
tension  of  the  vibrations,  it  leaves  one  of  the 
pins,  and  vibrates  free  from  all  impediment, 
therefore  with  less  power,  for  a  certain  time. 


TO  CUT  THE  SCREW  TO  THE  FAN 
OF  A  MUSIC  BOX. 

HE  country  watchmaker  will  be  re¬ 
quested  to  do  many  a  job  of  repairing, 
for  which  there  are  specialists  in  any  large 
city.  This  is  the  case  also  in  the  present 
instance.  Select  a  piece  of  steel  wire  a  little 
larger  than  the  entire  diameter  of  the  screw, 
and  turn  up  a  flank  for  your  screw  and  staff. 
Of  course,  the  reader  will  understand  that 
the  piece  of  wire  should  be  hardened  and 
tempered  to  a  spring  temper.  Now  take  a 
piece  of  fine  iron  binding  wire,  and  wind  it 
on  a  wire  a  trifle  smaller  than  the  size  of  the 
screw.  Wind  the  coils  close  together,  and 
when  you  have  an  inch,  say,  wound,  remove 
from  the  large  wire  and  stretch  it  out  like  a 
spiral  spring  until  the  spaces  between  the 
coils  exactly  correspond  to  the  spaces  of  the 
teeth  which  are  to  work  in  the  screw ;  a 
gradual  stretching  is  the  best — stretch  and 
try.  Cut  off  three-eighths  of  one  inch  of 
the  fine  wire  spiral,  slip  it  on  the  screw 
blanks,  on  which  it  should  go  easily,  not  too 
tight,  but  so  that  the  coils  touch  the  screw 
blank.  Soft  solder  this  fast,  and  you  have 
a  guide  that,  with  a  double  safe  edge-file  you 
can  quickly  file  out  to  a  screw.  Finish  with 
emery,  polish  with  rouge  or  diamantine. 


D  PALLET  ACTION. 

HERE  is  a  class  of  trouble  in  pallet 
action,  in  the  way  of  scape  wheels 
which  are  not  round.  Frequently  this  is  so 


61 

much,  that  part  of  the  teeth  of  the  scape 
wheel  hardly  pass  the  pallets,  while  the  other 
side  will  trip ;  that  is,  the  teeth  will  not 
securely  catch  on  the  locking  face.  Usually, 
in  such  cases,  the  scape  wheel  has  been 
badly  set  on  the  pinion.  This  can  generally 
be  told  by  inspection  of  the  pinion  at  the 
point  where  the  scape  wheel  is  set.  Some¬ 
times  it  arises  from  the  scape  wheel  pinion 
having  been  pivoted.  If  the  last  cause  is 
the  one,  a  new  pivot  will  cure  the  trouble ; 
but  if  the  pinion  is  all  right  we  must  seek 
for  the  cause  somewhere  else.  We  will  first 
find  out  where  the  fault  is,  and  then  tell  how 
to  correct  it.  If  we  put  the  scape  wheel 
and  pinion  into  the  double  calipers  and  re¬ 
volve  it,  we  can  readily  determine  which  is 
at  fault — the  scape  wheel  or  the  pinion.  If 
a  pivot  is  the  fault,  we  answered  this  above  ; 
if  it  seems  to  be  in  the  wheel,  knock  the 
pinion  out,  and  test  the  wheel  if  it  is  round. 
Usually,  in  such  cases,  the  trouble  is  in  the 
manner  in  which  the  scape  wheel  has  been 
set  on  the  pinion.  The  seat  or  place  where 
the  scape  wheel  goes  on  the  pinion  was 
turned  too  small,  and  when  the  wheel  was 
riveted  on,  tire  riveting  was  done  in  such  a 
way  as  to  throw  the  shake  or  play  all  to  one 
side.  Such  a  condition  is  quite  serious,  as 
we  cannot  well  put  the  pinion  again  in  the 
lathe  and  true  up  the  seat,  as  it  is  already 
too  small ;  and  it  is  impracticable  to  bush  or 
close  the  hole  in  the  scape  wheel.  The 
correct  way  to  proceed  is  to  test  the  scape 
wheel  for  round,  and  see  if  it  is  true ;  if  not, 
it  is  easy  to  open  the  hole  in  the  center  to 
one  side,  so  that  the  wheel  will  be  true  if  the 
pinion  is  true.  Now,  there  are  two  ways  to 
go  about  correcting  the  trouble :  First,  and 
best,  put  in  a  new  pinion ;  next,  use  the  old 
pinion  if  it  is  long  enough. 


REPAIRING  CHEAP  CLOCKS. 

HERE  are  few  things  that  tax  a  work¬ 
man’s  patience  and  ability  more  than 
the  repairing  of  common  clocks.  The  low 
prices  that  are  paid  for  repairs  and  the  ex¬ 
acting  demands  that  are  made  for  their 
performance  render  it  increasingly  difficult. 
Among  the  most  troublesome  that  I  have 
found  is  the  French  drum  clock  with  short 
pendulum.  The  most  frequent  cause  of 
stopping  is  this :  the  back  pivot,  just  above 
the  pendulum,  soon  wears  flat,  which  in¬ 
creases  friction  and  stops  the  clock.  The 
cheapest  and  best  remedy  is  to  file  up  the 


62 


TO  MAKE  A  COMPOSITION  FILE. 


pivot  to  a  knife  edge  or  V-shape,  which  will 
give  it  a  light  action. 


TO  MAKE  A  DRILL. 

IT  is  quite  a  difficult  piece  of  work  to 
make  a  true  running  drill  in  the  drill¬ 
ing  spindle  of  the  chuck  lathe.  To  do  this 
well  do  not  turn  the  drill  between  the  lathe 
center,  but  fit  the  steel  direct  into  the  spindle 
and  turn  the  spoon  on.  It  will  receive  the 
proper  form  and  size  in  the  lathe,  after  which 
it  is  filed  flat  in  front.  Such  a  drill  requires 
a  little  more  labor,  but  it  is  far  stronger  than 
the  hammered  ones,  and  it  is  really  a  piece 
of  downright  carelessness  if  the  repairer 
breaks  it.  Moreover,  a  drill  made  in  this 
manner  must  unconditionally  run  true.  It 
is  best  to  make  it  as  short  as  possible. 
Every  drill  should  have  only  two  cutting 
edges — one  on  each  side ;  this  will  expedite 
work  not  alone  in  the  foot  lathe,  but  also 
with  the  drill  bow. 


BOWS. 

HALEBONE  can  be  reduced  in 
strength  or  rendered  more  uniform  by 
being  filed  with  a  fine  rasp,  or  by  scraping 
its  surface  with  a  piece  of  broken  glass.  If, 
instead  of  fixing  a  brass  end  with  a  hook  to 
the  bow,  it  is  desired  to  form  a  hook  of  the 
whalebone  itself,  hold  the  extremity  in  boil¬ 
ing  oil  for  a  short  time,  when  it  will  soften ; 
then  form  the  hook,  maintaining  the  whale¬ 
bone  in  the  required  position  until  sufficiently 
cool  to  set.  A  form  of  bow  has  been  intro¬ 
duced  that  consists  of  a  brass  handle,  into 
which  slides  a  steel  wire  bent  into  the  requi¬ 
site  form  ;  the  strength,  of  course,  depending 
on  the  thickness  of  steel  wire  used. 


POLISHING  THE  FOURTH  PINION. 

HE  best  pivoters  generally  polish  the 
fourth  pinion  like  any  other  arbor,  but 
if  nervous  or  heavy-handed,  a  special  brass 
center  with  half  of  its  diameter  filed  away, 
and  a  convenient  slit  for  the  pivot  to  rest 
nearly  all  its  length  in  may  be  used,  but  it  is 
not  to  be  recommended,  as  a  careless  slip 
will  destroy  the  pivot,  which  otherwise  in  tht 
turns  would  have  a  certain  amount  of  elas¬ 
ticity.  The  resting  of  the  little  finger  on  a 
convenient  part  of  the  turns,  and  letting  it 
move  with  the  polisher,  is  an  item  in  polish¬ 


ing  pivots,  the  fingers  being  used  to  regulate 
the  pressure  of  the  arm  and  hand  ;  the  most 
troublesome  pinion  to  pivot  is  the  Swiss 
scape  pinion,  owing  to  its  having  no  arbor. 


AUDIBLE  UNROLLING  OF  THE  MAIN¬ 
SPRING. 

T  happens  occasionally  that  the  main¬ 
spring  will  make  a  peculiar  grating  noise 
in  the  barrel  while  in  the  act  of  unroll¬ 
ing.  The  repairer  should,  if  possible,  cor¬ 
rect  this,  because  it  may  occasion  other 
errors,  and  the  power  exerted  by  the  main¬ 
spring  must  necessarily  be  unequal.  It  is 
most  generally  caused  by  the  scant  room  in 
the  barrel ;  the  spring  in  the  act  of  unfolding 
in  the  contracted  barrel  space  must  naturally 
scrape  on  the  cover  or  bottom.  The  spring 
may  also,  when  it  grates  in  one  of  the  com¬ 
mon  clocks,  where  the  barrel  wheel  supplies 
the  place  of  cover,  catch  on  the  dial,  espe¬ 
cially  when  this  is  too  thick  or  shaky.  Burr 
inside  the  barrel  may  also  cause  the  audible 
development  of  the  spring. 


TO  PREPARE  SHELLAC  FOR  USE. 

HELLAC  can  be  dissolved  in  alcohol, 
and  kept  in  a  liquid  form,  in  a  close 
stoppered  bottle,  to  prevent  evaporation.  To 
use  it,  it  is  only  necessary  to  apply  it,  where 
required,  with  the  pointed  end  of  pegwood, 
or  small  camel’s-hair  brush,  and  gently  heat 
over  a  lamp,  when  it  will  quickly  harden. 
Or  it  may  be  used  in  chips,  as  received  from 
a  drug  store  ;  a  good  way  to  do,  when  set¬ 
ting  pallet  jewels,  ruby  pins,  etc.,  is  to  heat 
a  piece  over  the  lamp  and  draw  it  out  to  a 
long,  slender  thread,  then  break  the  thread 
into  small  particles  of  suitable  lengths  for 
cementing  the  jewel;  by  this  means,  the 
shellac  can  be  placed  just  where  it  is  needed, 
and  it  will  not  run  all  over  the  pallets  or 
table  roller.  ______ 

TO  MAKE  A  COMPOSITION  FILE. 

HESE  files,  which  are  frequently  used 
by  watchmakers  and  other  metal  work¬ 
ers,  for  grinding  and  polishing,  and  the  color 
of  which  resembles  silver,  are  composed  of 
8  parts  copper,  2  parts  tin,  1  part  zinc, 
1  part  lead.  They  are  cast  in  forms  and 
shaped  upon  the  grindstone ;  the  metal  is 
very  hard,  and  therefore  worked  with  dif¬ 
ficulty  with  the  file. 


THE  MOVABLE  STUD. 


6  3 


DIAMOND  FILES. 

HAPE  your  file  of  brass,  and  charge 
with  diamond  dust,  as  in  case  of  the 
mill,  grade  the  dust  in  accordance  with  the 
coarse  or  fine  character  of  the  file  desired. 


CLEANING-PITH. 

HE  stalk  of  the  common  mullen  makes 
the  best  pith  for  cleaning  pivots.  The 
best  time  to  gather  it  is  winter,  when  the 
stalk  is  dry.  Some  use  cork  instead  of  pith, 
but  it  will  hardly  answer  the  purpose. 


VERDIGRIS  SPOTS. 

CORRESPONDENT  of  the  D.  Uhrm. 
Ztg.  inquires  how  to  remove  verdi¬ 
gris  spots  from  gilt  parts  of  a  large  clock, 
to  which  some  one  responds  by  saying 
'  that  they  are  easily  removed  with  a  few 
drops  of  spirits  of  hartshorn  upon  the  offend¬ 
ing  spots  ;  or  wet  a  small  ball  of  silk  paper 
with  it  and  pad  them  until  removed,  after¬ 
ward  drying  the  spots  thoroughly  with  a  like 
pellet  of  dry  paper.  If  the  spots  do  not  dis¬ 
appear  at  once,  repeat  the  process.  If  the 
spots  have  shown  themselves  for  a  length  of 
time,  of  course,  the  gilding  has  been  ruined 
and  must  be  touched  up  again,  after  remov¬ 
ing  the  spots,  with  a  fine  camel’s-hair  brush 
and  shell  gold.  _ 

PALLET  LOCKINGS. 

N  respect  to  the  pallet  lockings,  the 
equality  of  sharpness  of  draught  in¬ 
ward  is  readily  judged  to  be  about  equal  by 
trial — some  persons  try  them  by  placing  the 
guard  pin  against  the  round  edge  of  the 
roller,  and  gently  putting  the  peg  on  the 
escape  wheel.  But  the  equality  of  their 
draught  inward  does  not  quite  prove  their 
equal  resistance  to  the  reciprocated  force  of 
the  balance,  nor  does  the  writer  know  of  any 
way  to  prove  when  they  are  so,  strictly,  but 
he  will  make  some  remarks  about  them.  It 
is  to  be  observed  that  the  two  lockings  are 
at  unequal  distances  from  the  center  of  the 
pallet,  and  also  that  with  deeper  depths  the 
wheel  drops  further  under  the  inside  locking, 
so  that  in  unlocking  the  wheel  has  to  be 
moved  further  back  to  get  the  locking  out 
from  under  the  tooth ;  still,  as  the  radius  to 
the  inside  locking  is  the  shortest,  therefore 
the  long  arm  of  the  lever  bears  a  greater 
ratio  to  that  shortest  pallet  radius,  and 
although  the  inside  locking  of  itself  may  be 


a  trifle  the  hardest,  yet  it  may  not  subtract 
any  more  velocity  from  the  balance  in  un¬ 
locking  than  the  outside  one  ;  and,  indeed, 
if  the  inside  locking  of  itself  was  as  easy  to 
unlock  as  that  of  the  outside  we  should  then 
be  certain  that  the  resistances  to  the  force 
of  the  balance  would  be  unequal,  as  the  two 
radii  to  the  lockings  were  unequal.  Un¬ 
equal  radii  must  have  unequal  resisting  lock¬ 
ings  to  subtract  equal  portions  of  velocity 
from  the  same  reciprocated  force  of  the  bal¬ 
ance. 

In  light  pallet  depths  the  wheel  has  only 
to  be  moved  back  in  the  locking  a  mere 
trifle,  but  in  very  deep  depths  or  long  run  to 
the  bankings,  the  wheel  has  to  be  moved 
back  a  good  bit.  It  is  the  moving  back  of 
the  wheel  to  get  the  locking  out  from  under 
the  tooth  that  causes  the  principal  resistance 
to  the  force  of  the  balance,  for  if  there  were 
no  motion  backward  of  the  wheel  the  un¬ 
locking  would  only  be  a  frictional  resistance, 
like  in  a  regulator  clock  ;  but  this  is  impossi¬ 
ble  in  watches,  for  there  must  be  a  detach¬ 
ment  by  draught  inward  sharp  enough  to 
free  the  guard  pin  without  any  hesitation,  or 
else  there  is  danger  that  the  vibration  of  the 
balance  is  frequently  interfered  with,  which, 
in  some  cases,  will  stop  the  watch. 

All  pallets  that  make  equal  arcs  by  the 
two  workings  have,  and  must  have,  the 
deepest  hold  of  the  outside  locking.  Sup¬ 
pose  the  depth  hold  to  be  such  that  each  of 
the  pallets  make  an  arc  of  3°  in  the  unlock¬ 
ing,  it  is  easily  seen  that  30  of  the  larger 
outer  circle  which  the  pallets  describe  is  a 
greater  space  than  30  of  the  smaller  inner 
circle,  and  the  piece  of  stone  which  must 
enter  the  wflieel  is  the  greatest  on  the  outside 
locking — and  if  pallets  were  made  to  draw 
off  equally,  that  depth  at  which  they  Avould 
do  so  must  be  planted  precisely  or  they 
would  be  unequal  in  the  draw  off.  As  a 
rule,  it  will  be  found  that  if  the  wheel  just 
catches  a  tripping  hold  of  the  outside  lock¬ 
ing  and  just  ships  the  inside  locking,  when 
tried  in  a  depthing  tool  before  closing  the 
tool  to  the  depth,  the  unlockings  wall  draw 
off  pretty  nearly  equal  when  in  at  the  depth, 
provided  the  depth  is  not  very  deep. 


THE  MOVABLE  STUD. 

HE  great  objection  to  the  ordinary 
balance  spring  lies  in  the  distance  of 
the  center  of  the  balance  cock  from  any  one 
of  its  points  of  fastening ;  this  causes  the 


M 


THE  ADJUSTING  OF  LARGE  AND  SMALL  WATCHES. 


body  of  the  spring  to  crowd  to  one  side  in 
vibrations  of  any  extent.  A  change  of  form 
takes  place,  which  opposes  the  progress  of 
the  isochronal  development. 

This  defect  may  be  overcome  by  not  fast¬ 
ening  the  spring  to  the  bridge,  but  to  the 
end  of  a  straight  spring  screwed  with  a  foot 
upon  the  plate.  This  construction  is  known 
by  the  name  of  “spring  stud,”  or  “  movable 
stud.”  By  the  vibrations  of  the  balance  the 
stud  bends,  and  when  the  balance  spring 
closes,  its  end  approaches  towards  the  cen¬ 
ter,  while  in  the  opening  of  the  former  it 
withdraws.  This  disposition  favors  the 
isochronal  development  of  the  spring  to  a 
high  degree. 

The  difficulty  is  to  find  the  exact  propor¬ 
tions.  It  is  evident  that  by  a  given  balance 
spring  the  spring  stud  must  comply  with 
certain  conditions  of  length,  thickness,  flexi¬ 
bility,  etc.,  which  until  now  could  be  estab¬ 
lished  only  by  experiments.  Besides  this, 
strictly  considered,  the  head  of  the  stud 
must  have  almost  no  weight,  so  that  its 
elasticity  alone  would  operate,  and  its  weight 
would  not  enter  into  account  as  a  different 
power,  between  the  vertical  and  horizontal 
positions. 

This  arrangement,  says  Cl.  Saunier,  is  still 
too  new  to  express  an  opinion  on  its  merit. 
C.  Frodsham,  of  London,  introduced  a  flat 
balance  spring  with  a  spring  stud  in  a  marine 
chronometer,  and  it  has  been  shown  that  this 
chronometer  was  one  of  the  best  he  ever 
made.  Raby,  of  Paris,  also  used  the  spring 
stud  in  watches,  and  expressed  great  satis¬ 
faction  as  to  their  performances. 


TOOL  FOR  FASTENING  ROLLER 
JEWELS. 

AVING  been  benefited  so  much  by 
the  many  good  suggestions  appearing  in 
The  Circular,  I  deem  it  but  right  that  I 
should  add  _my  mite  toward  the  fund  of 
information.  For  fastening  a  roller  jewel 
I  have  made  a  little  tool  which  I  find  very 
convenient.  It  is  made  of  a  small  piece  of 
brass  plate,  say  one  inch  long  by  one-quarter 
of  an  inch  wide,  with  a  slit  lengthwise. 
Fasten  this  plate  to  a  handle  three  inches 
long,  made  of  iron  wire,  with  a  rivet.  To 
use,  heat  the  brass  plate,  then  lay  your  bal¬ 
ance  on  with  the  table  roller  flat  on  the 
plate,  the  end  of  staff  and  the  roller  jewel 
extending  though  the  slit.  When  the  shellac 


has  melted  see  that  the  roller  jewel  is  in  cor¬ 
rect  position  before  the  shellac  hardens. 


THE  ADJUSTING  OF  LARGE  AND 
SMALL  WATCHES. 

HEN  we  speak  of  adjusting  watches, 
we  are  generally  understood  to  mean 
adjusting  to  temperature  and  position  or 
isochronism,  whichever  may  be  the  proper 
term.  In  what  I  am  going  to  say  about  the 
adjusting  of  large  and  small  watches,  I  mean 
to  speak  only  of  position,  adjustments,  or  ad¬ 
justments  to  isochronism,  and  I  will  have 
nothing  to  say  about  the  adjustment  to  tem¬ 
perature,  though  the  latter  may,  perchance, 
be  the  most  important  of  the  two. 

In  adjusting  watches  to  position,  or  in 
isochronizing  the  vibrations  of  the  balance 
to  all  the  conditions  which  a  watch  may  be 
subjected  to,  we  have  to  deal  pre-eminently 
with  the  following  factors,  while  there  are 
others  which  it  may  not  be  necessary  to 
mention  in  discussing  the  subject  from  the 
proposed  standpoint : 

1.  The  escapement. 

2.  The  balance  spring. 

3.  The  momentum  of  the  balance. 

4.  Friction. 

The  most  perfect  isochronism  could,  no 
doubt,  be  produced,  could  we  have  a  bal¬ 
ance  which  could  vibrate  without  any  fric¬ 
tion  whatsoever,  but  in  all  watches  made  the 
balance  can  only  vibrate  on  resting  points 
or  pivots,  and  its  vibrations  can  only  be  kept 
up  by  its  receiving  a'n  occasional  impulse  by 
means  of  the  escapement ;  and  here  we  en¬ 
counter  at  once  one  of  the  worst  enemies  to 
a  perfect  isochronism,  i.e.,  “friction."  This 
friction  is,  therefore,  twofold.  1.  The  fric¬ 
tion  of  the  pivots,  and  2.  The  friction  caused 
by  the  balance  coming  in  contact  with  the 
escapement.  Of  these  frictions,  the  first  is 
constant  and  the  second  is  intermitting. 

What  means  have  we  to  overcome  these 
frictions? 

1.  The  momentum  of  the  balance. 

What  is  momentum?  Momentum  is 
weight  multiplied  by  velocity.  A  steamship 
weighing  3,000  tons  and  moving  at  the  rate 
of  2  miles  per  hour,  has  double  the  momen¬ 
tum  of  a  steamship  weighing  300  tons  mov¬ 
ing  at  the  rate  of  1  o  miles  per  hour,  because 
3,000  tons  weight  multiplied  by  2  miles 
velocity  is  equal  to  6,000,  while  300  tons 
weight  multiplied  by  10  miles  velocity  is 


REGULATION  OF  WATCHES. 


65 


only  equal  to  one-half,  or  3,000.  In  a 
watch  balance,  momentum  is  represented  by 
the  weight  of  its  rim  near  its  outer  edge, 
multiplied  by  the  velocity  at  which  a  given 
point  in  this  rim  moves  in  a  given  time  and 
at  a  given  distance.  The  proportions  of  the 
size,  or,  rather,  of  the  weight,  of  the  arm  or 
arms  of  a  balance,  have  a  good  deal  to  do 
with  the  momentum  of  a  balance,  as  will  be 
readily  understood. 

2.  The  balance  spring.  The  balance 
spring  is  to  the  balance  what  gravity  is  to 
the  pendulum,  and  it  exerts  a  continuous 
influence  which  tends  to  bring  the  balance 
back  to  a  point  of  rest,  and  it  overcomes  the 
inertia  of  the  balance  in  this  respect,  and  in 
so  doing  becomes  instrumental  and  auxiliary 
to  unlocking  the  escapement,  overcoming 
with  the  co-operation  of  the  momentum  of 
the  balance,  the  pivot  friction  and  the  inter¬ 
mitting  friction  of  the  escapement. 

It  will  be  seen  at  a  glance  from  the  fore¬ 
going,  that  the  most  perfect  isochronism 
attainable  can  only  be  had  by  reducing  the 
pivot  and  escapement  friction  to  a  mini¬ 
mum,  by  the  greatest  mechanical  skill  and 
by  the  most  intelligent  manipulation.  And 
the  larger  the  machine  the  more  perfectly 
we  can  carry  out  the  details  of  its  construc¬ 
tion.  (Of  course,  there  is  a  limit  to  every¬ 
thing.)  Hence  the  size  of  a  ship’s  chro¬ 
nometer. 

When  we  consider  that  in  making  the 
best  18-size  pocket  watch  movements,  we 
make  the  balance  pivots  often  as  small  as 
0.004  of  an  inch  and  escapements  to  match, 
and  we  present  the  question  whether  we  can 
reduce  sizes  and  frictions  proportionately  to 
a  6-size  watch,  the  answer  must  be  an  em¬ 
phatic  “  No.”  The  pivot  and  escapement 
friction  in  so  small  a  watch,  therefore,  be¬ 
comes  such  a  preponderating  factor,  that  the 
isochronizing  of  the  vibrations  of  the  balance 
thereof  must  be  at  best  but  a  crippled  job. 

In  speaking  of  small  watches,  we  must 
include  in  the  list  some  of  the  complicated 
watches,  such  as  repeaters,  etc.,  where  the 
want  of  space  and  a  limited  motive  power 
admit  of  only  a  small  train  and  escapement 
and  balance  to  match,  and  it  was  with  one 
of  these  that  I  had  my  first  experience. 

I  cannot  conclude  my  communication  and 
convey  the  impression  that  what  I  have  said 
is  all  that  ought  to  have  been  said ;  and,  if 
circumstances  will  permit,  I  hope  to  be  able  to 
refer  to  the  subject  again  incidentally,  treat¬ 
ing  it  from  an  entirely  different  standpoint. 


REGULATION  OF  WATCHES. 

H-E  accurate  time-keeping  qualities  of 
a  watch,  presuming  the  works  to  have 
been  properly  constructed,  depend  in  the 
main  upon  the  regulation  ;  while  it  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  the  great  majority  of  people 
judge  the  quality  of  a  watch  solely  by  the 
accuracy  of  the  time  it  keeps. 

To  move  the  regulator  to  the  right  or  to 
the  left,  thus  lengthening  or  shortening  the 
hairspring  and  thereby  causing  the  watch 
to  run  slower  or  faster,  as  the  case  may  be, 
is  a  very  simple  matter  in  itself,  but  the 
science  of  regulation  lies  much  deeper  than 
this,  since  accuracy  can  only  be  obtained 
when  all  the  parts  are  in  proper,  order.  It 
is  therefore  necessary  at  all  times  to  be  as¬ 
sured  that  certain  faults  do  not  exist,  because 
their  presence  unperceived  might  render 
accuracy  absolutely  impossible ;  hence,  to 
summarize  some  of  these  defects  briefly  may 
not  be  inappropriate.  In  this  article  the 
treatise  will  be  confined  to  the  anchor  watch, 
elbowed  spiral,  and  compensated  balance ; 
attention  being  directed  hereafter  to  the 
regulation  of  the  cylinder  watch. 

A  subtle  defect,  and  one  which  inexpe¬ 
rienced  workman  do  not  readily  perceive 
because  they  occur  almost  solely  in  fine 
watches,  is  a  too  great  precision  in  the  per¬ 
formance  of  the  escapement,  but  which, 
however,  is  not  noticeable  upon  the  vibra¬ 
tions  of  the  balance.  In  order  to  remedy 
this  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  remove  the 
gilding  at  the  place  where  the  pallet  rests 
while  it  is  locked.  To  ascertain  if  the  action 
is  too  strict,  all  the  teeth  of  the  wheel  should 
be  made  to  pass  by  using  a  small  wooden 
point,  in  order  to  push  the  pallet  of  the 
anchor  to  the  locking  point  on  each  side 
of  the  escapement  wheel.  In  the  great 
majority  of  cases  the  teeth  will  not  pass 
equally  well  on  both  sides,  to  rectify  which 
it  is  often  only  necessary  to  raise  the  bed  of 
the  gilding  on  one  side.  This  defect  does, 
not  exist  in  anchors  in  which  the  locking  is 
made  on  the  stem  of  the  wheel,  though  but 
few  escapements  of  this  kind  are  met  with 
on  account  of  the  greater  care  required  in 
their  manufacture. 

The  ruby  holes,  also,  should  not  be  too 
constricted,  there  being  no  danger  in  allow¬ 
ing  a  little  play  to  the  pivots  in  the  holes. 
In  the  better  grade  of  watches  the  ruby 
holes  are  usually  of  a  fair  size,  well  oiled 
and  well  set,  with  the  exception  of  the  cen¬ 
ter  holes,  which  are  often  too  exact,  the  fac- 


66 


REGULATION  OF  WATCHES. 


tory  workman  imagining  that  to  make  them 
well  only  little  play  must  be  allowed.  The 
consequence  is  that  the  oil  does  not  remain 
upon  the  pivots,  entailing  a  rapid  alteration 
in  the  rate  of  speed  of  the  movement  owing 
to  the  pivots  wearing  rough,  and  getting  cut. 
Too  often  these  holes  do  not  receive  from 
the  manufacturer  the  attention  which  their 
importance  demands. 

The  axis  ought  to  be  well  tempered  so  as 
to  have  the  pivots  as  hard  as  possible,  and 
which,  conical  and  well  burnished,  should 
not  be  too  large,  but  ought  to  be  of  such  a 
size  as  not  to  leave  any  chance  of  breaking. 
That  the  pivots  should  be  well  rounded  is  of 
prime  importance,  since  oval  pivots  produce 
the  same  effect  as  a  balance  of  bad  equilib¬ 
rium,  and  occasion  much  trouble  in  estab¬ 
lishing  the  isochronism  of  the  positions. 
Let  the  ends  of  the  pivots  be  well  burnished 
and  slightly  rounded,  and  better  still,  that 
that  part  of  the  pivot  which  works  in  the 
hole  should  be  perfectly  cylindrical,  so  that 
it  may  leave  the  axis  just  play  enough  be¬ 
tween  its  counter-points. 

The  balance  spring  requires  particular 
attention ;  requiring  to  be  very  upright,  and 
to  turn  well  round.  Many  watchmakers 
have  been  surprised,  after  having  well 
rounded  a  balance  to  discover,  when  the 
watch  is  brought  back  to  them  six  months 
later,  that  the  balance  is  no  longer  round, 
and  that  the  regulation  is  changed.  To 
avoid  this,  warm  the  balance  on  a  metal  plate 
to  a  temperature  of  6o°  or  700  Cent.,  make 
it  round  and  warm  it  afresh  until  quite  cer¬ 
tain  that  it  is  in  the  same  condition  as  at 
first.  Care  should  be  taken,  if  it  is  held  in 
the  fingers  during  very  warm  weather,  to 
place  it  each  time  upon  a  plate  of  cold 
metal,  as  it  may  happen  that  the  heat  will 
close  it  up,  and  that  a  moderate  temperature 
will  change  the  diameter  and  of  course  inter¬ 
fere  with  the  regulating.  It  is  usual  also  to 
obtain  its  diameter  and  height  by  that  of  the 
barrel  and  mainspring.  Its  size  should  be 
the  diameter  of  the  cover  of  the  barrel,  and 
the  height  of  the  rim  just  half  that  of  the 
spring.  It  should  be  furnished  with  fourteen 
screws  of  gold,  rather  less  than  more. 

The  practice  of  regulating  at  different 
temperatures  is  already  well  understood,  yet 
for  the  sake  of  perspicuity  it  should  be  re¬ 
membered  that  when  a  watch  goes  slower  in 
heat  the  screws  are  carried  toward  the  end 
of  the  blade  of  the  balance,  and  if  that  does 
not  suffice,  then  change  the  last  gold  screw 


for  one  of  platina ;  but  this  latter  course  is 
very  unusual,  owing  to  the  length  of  the 
spiral  now  in  use.  If  the  watch  gains  in 
heat  the  screws  should  be  set  back  ;  and  if 
after  they  have  all  been  put  back  the  watch 
still  gains,  the  arms  of  the  balance  must  be 
shortened,  and  two  additional  small  screws 
added.  With  a  little  practice  the  desired 
result  will  be  obtained. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience,  regulating 
the  balance  has  been  considered  prior  to 
that  of  the  spiral,  but  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  former  can  in  actual  practice 
only  be  regulated  after  the  isochronism  of  the 
latter  has  been  accomplished  ;  because  if  any 
change  is  needed  in  the  spiral,  the  balance 
must  then  be  regulated  again. 

Often  it  becomes  necessary  to  put  in  a 
new  spiral  altogether,  in  the  selection  of 
which  those  of  moderate  size  are  preferable, 
since  with  the  small  ones  considerable  diffi¬ 
culty  is  met  in  finding  the  isochronism ; 
while  with  the  large  ones,  although  this  is 
much  easier  accomplished,  yet  they  are  not 
safe  for  a  pocket  watch,  the  movements  ol 
the  wearer,  especially  when  the  coils  are 
close,  causing  them  to  touch  each  other,  or 
to  touch  the  balance.  Many  watchmakers 
have  met  instances  in  which  larger  spirals 
almost  caught  the  center  wheel,  and  to  pre¬ 
vent  which  have  been  obliged  to  put  in  an 
accessory  piece ;  and  besides  this,  a  long 
spiral  is  more  susceptible  of  shocks  which 
might  interfere  with  regulating,  especially  in 
watches  that  are  liable  to  receive  rough 
treatment,  as  for  instance  those  worn  by 
railroad  men,  and  those  engaged  in  similar 
pursuits. 

It  is  usual  to  take  for  the  diameter  of  the 
spiral  the  radius  of  the  balance  and  the 
number  of  turns  fifteen ;  this  size  and  this 
number  permit  the  separation  of  the  coils, 
and  avoid  the  danger  of  their  touching  each 
other  through  shocks.  The  spiral  should  be 
hard  and  the  blade  high — as  high  as  the 
watch  -  will  permit.  Generally  the  spiral  of 
low  blade  produces  a  noise  which  the  accus¬ 
tomed  ear  detects,  and  which  indicates  some¬ 
thing  wrong  with  the  regulator.  This  may 
be  produced  by  an  uneven  steel  wire,  and, 
in  order  to  discover  if  the  wire  is  equal 
throughout,  observe  attentively  its  workings  ; 
if  it  is  uneven,  a  slight  vibration  of  the 
thickest  part  will  be  perceptible,  upon  dis¬ 
covering  which  the  spiral  should  be  im¬ 
mediately  changed,  for  it  will  only  be  loss 
of  time  to  try  to  make  it  isochronal.  The 


REPAIRING  OF  ENGLISH  PATENT  LEVER  WATCHES. 


67 


requisites  of  a  perfect  fiat  or  elbowed  spiral 
are  that  it  should  not  wriggle,  and  if  it  is  of 
fifteen  turns,  the  eighth  should  not  leave  its 
place,  though  this  is  contrary  to  the  opin¬ 
ions  of  some  watchmakers  who  have  con¬ 
fined  their  observation  to  the  helicoid  spiral, 
in  which  all  the  blades  are  equally  displaced. 

REPAIRING  OF  ENGLISH  PATENT 
LEVER  WATCHES. 

HENEVER  an  English  patent  lever 
watch  -is  offered  for  repair,  the  watch¬ 
maker  well  understands  that  a  difficult  and 
Tedious  job  is  before  him.  Very  often  the 
■cap  has  been  hammered  out  by  some  botch, 
and  evidence  may  be  visible  that  the  top 
bridge  has  been  pressed  this  way  and  that, 
-while  the  heavy  and  clumsy  expansion  bal¬ 
ance  wheel  with  its  lazy  motion,  which  be¬ 
comes  still  slower  when  held  in  different 
positions,  presents  in  itself  a  hard  problem. 
Before  taking  the  watch  to  pieces  the  bank¬ 
ing  should  be  carefully  examined  by  guid¬ 
ing,  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  escape 
wheel  has  a  safe  rest  upon  the  anchor  pallets. 
Should  the  banking  be  safe,  but  wide,  close 
one,  or,  if  necessary,  both  of  the  banking 
pins ;  bearing  in  mind,  however,  that  very 
little  play  is  needed.  Friction  is  thus  re¬ 
duced,  and  the  impulse  power  of  the  pallets 
thereby  increased ;  which  is  in  turn  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  balance  wheel,  increasing  its 
curve  of  vibration.  Should  the  fork  pin 
squeeze  against  the  roller,  thus  clogging  the 
motion  of  the  balance  wheel,  the  banking  is 
insecure,  and  after  the  watch  has  been  taken 
to  pieces  and  the  escapement  reached,  the 
fork  pin  should  be  bent  a  trifle  forward. 

Supposing  the  watch  to  be  in  pieces,  ex¬ 
amine  each  piece  separately  and  thoroughly. 
First,  put  the  center  wheel  between  the  plates 
and  notice  if  its  motion  is  free  and  easy ;  if 
it  has  the  right  play,  or  if  it  is  rubbing  on 
the  bottom  of  the  out-cut.  A  small  supply 
of  ordinary  pins,  with  heads  filed  gradually 
thinner  to  the  end,  should  always  be  kept  on 
hand  to  be  used  in  place  of  the  usual  pillar 
pins,  a  handy  substitute  which  admits  of 
easy  insertion  and  ready  withdrawal  without 
pliers.  If  the  center  wheel  moves  freely  and 
the  pinion  is  well  fastened,  observe  whether 
the  cannon  pinion  has  made  a  hard  impres¬ 
sion  on  the  front  of  the  dial  plate,  and  if  so, 
take  it  off  by  making  a  flat  counter-sink — 
the  bottom  of  the  cannon  pinion  must  never 
touch  the  plate. 


The  fusee  wheel  next  requires  attention, 
and  more  than  ordinary  pains  must  be  taken 
with  this ;  because  this  wheel  causes  more 
trouble  in  an  English  lever  than  all  the  other 
wheels  together.  Test  the  wheel  between 
the  plates,  and  in  a  great  majority  of  in¬ 
stances  it  will  be  found  to  be  out  of  order, 
and  sometimes  so  badly  as  to  absorb  more 
than  half  the  power  of  a  strong  mainspring. 
Examine  the  stop-piece  situated  in  the  stud, 
to  see  if  it  squeezes  against  the  fusee.  This 
piece,  generally  furnished  with  a  stiff  spring, 
reaches  too  high  up  ;  if  so,  make  the  spring 
softer  and  stretch  the  lower  end  with  the 
hammer  so  much  that  the  front  end  touches 
the  plate  ;  take  the  screw-driver  or  penknife, 
squeeze  it  under  the  stop-piece  close  to  the 
stud,  and  bend  it  carefully  up  a  little,  just 
enough  to  give  the  stop-snout  of  the  fusee 
a  free  passage,  and  nothing  more.  If  the 
edge  of  the  lower  end  does  not  give  out 
enough  when  stretched  (sometimes  it  gets 
too  thin),  put  a  new  stop-piece  in  the  watch. 
Again  place  the  fusee-wheel  between  the 
plates  and  carefully  note  that  the  stop-snout 
passes  freely  between  the  stop-piece  and 
plate,  forward  and  backward.  When  this  is 
corrected,  proceed  to  the  stop-snout  of  the 
fusee.  Here  a  neglect  is  met,  curiously 
enough,  which  has  been  carried  on  for  hun¬ 
dreds  of  years,  and  perhaps  longer.  The 
snout  is  invariably  too  short  to  secure  a  safe 
stopping,  after  winding  up.  Fusee,  staff, 
and  snout  are  in  one  solid  piece,  making  the 
job  of  filing  it  out  very  difficult  for  an 
ordinary  watchmaker.  However,  it  can 
usually  be  accomplished  if  the  snout  is  not 
too  thin,  by  placing  it  upon  a  suitable  anvil, 
and  with  a  hammer  stretch  it  as  much  as 
possible  and  then  bend  off  the  stop-piece 
from  the  fusee.  Place  the  fusee  in  the  up¬ 
per  plate  only,  to  see  that  a  safe  counter- 
stemming  is  produced.  If  so,  there  is  no 
danger  of  chain-breaking  on  account  of  an 
imperfect  stop-work.  Put  the  wheel  again 
between  the  plates,  and  if  the  work  has  been 
done  properly,  the  fusee  wheel  will  be  found 
to  move  with  perfect  freedom. 

Examine  the  chain  on  its  track ;  if  it  runs 
off,  file  the  turns  a  little  deeper  with  a  sharp 
and  well-fitting  screw-head  file,  bearing  in 
mind  that  the  chain  should  be  only  one  inch 
longer  than  actually  necessary,  to  prevent 
running  one  turn  over  another.  Now  place 
the  two  wheels  together  between  the  two 
plates,  center  and  fusee,  and  examine  the 
pitchings  or  depth,  and  when  traces  of  hard 


68 


REPAIRING  OF  ENGLISH  PATENT  LEVER  WATCHES. 


wear  are  observable  on  the  front  side  of  the 
teeth,  the  wheel  must  be  worked  over,  a  job 
requiring  both  skill  and  experience.  Close 
below  the  teeth  is  generally  a  little  cornice, 
which  must  not  be  destroyed.  Place  the 
teeth— and  only  the  teeth — upon  a  sharp- 
edge  anvil,  fastened  in  a  bench  vise,  and 
hammer  them  out,  one  after  the  other,  until 
all  are  done ;  but  the  hammer  must  hit  no 
other  places.  The  marks  of  the  blow  must 
be  removed  with  fine  emery  paper  without 
touching  the  gilding,  while  with  a  small 
rounding-up  file  (entirely  smoothed  on  the 
oil-stone)  the  front  side  of  the  teeth  must  be 
polished. 

Assuming  the  depth  to  be  right,  observe 
that  the  wheels  do  not  touch  each  other,  and 
that  the  pin  of  the  maintaining  spring  reaches 
out  far  enough  to  catch  the  teeth  of  the 
center  wheel.  Then  try  the  click-work  by 
turning  the  fusee  around  the  wheel.  If  the 
rattling  of  the  double  click  is  heard  plainly, 
all  is  right ;  otherwise,  take  off  the  wheel  and 
remedy  what  is  necessary  by  putting  in 
either  a  new  click-work  or  a  new  ratchet 
wheel.  The  correction  of  the  mainspring 
click-work  yet  remains  to  be  done.  The 
point  of  the  click  must  be  sharp  and  the 
click  itself  level  with  the  ratchet  wheel. 
The  click-spring  is  invariably  too  stiff,  absorb¬ 
ing  too  much  power,  and  must  be  made 
softer.  If  the  spring  is  small  and  curved, 
file  it  thinner  at  a  point  about  half  an  inch 
from  the  stud — -never  at  the  front  end  ;  while 
doing  the  job  support  the  spring  upon  a 
cork,  placed  in  a  vise,  or  in  some  other  safe 
way.  If  the  spring  is  a  broad,  band-shaped 
one,  cut  in  with  a  shoulder  file  a  quarter 
inch  from  the  front  end,  and  file  out  half, 
or  a  little  more,  of  its  whole  width,  close  to 
the  stud.  In  filing  this  spring  thinner,  the 
broad  side  presents  the  difficulty,  on  account 
of  its  hardness  and  brittleness,  yet  the  spring 
must  not  possess  more  stiffness  than  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  working  the  click 
properly.  The  two  wheels,  maintaining 
click-work  and  stop-work,  are  now  in  per¬ 
fect  order.  The  third  wheel  now  requires 
attention.  Place  it  between  the  plates,  and 
if  it  works  free  and  easy,  do  the  same  with 
the  fourth ;  then  put  in  both  together  and 
examine  depth  and  freedom.  The  rule  is, 
examine  each  wheel  singly,  then  in  pairs. 

If  the  watch  is  jeweled,  holding  the  plate 
firmly  in  your  hand,  put  each  pivot  in  its 
pivot  hole,  and  observe  that  the  fall  is  equal 
on  all  sides ;  if  not  so,  roll  the  pivot  a  little 


thinner,  irrespective  of  how  free  it  seems, 
otherwise  when  oiled  the  pivot  will  stick. 
If  the  watch  is  working  in  metal  bearings, 
put  a  pivot  broach  in  each  hole  to  see  if  it 
is  straight ;  in  many  cases  it  will  not  be,  in 
which  case  a  few  chips  must  be  taken  out 
with  the  broach  very  carefully,  in  order  to 
straighten  the  hole  as  much  as  possible.  If 
the  hole  is  getting  too  large,  bushing  will  be 
necessary. 

Examine  the  escape  wheel  as  to  freedom 
and  pitch  in  the  same  manner  as  before,  and 
if  the  pinion  is  too  large,  it  must  be  re-turned 
to  its  proper  size,  the  edges  smoothed,  and 
the  teeth  of  the  fourth  wheel  well  polished 
with  a  smoothed  rounding-up  file. 

The  escapement  next  requires  attention. 
The  arbor-pin  has  been  bent  already  a  little- 
forward,  but  by  doing  so,  frequently  the  free 
passage  through  segment  of  the  roller-plate 
will  be  destroyed ;  therefore  take  off  the 
roller,  hold  it  in  the  cuts  of  a  watch-hand 
tong,  or  some  other  suitable  way,  and  file 
the  segment  straight  down  to  its  bottom  ; 
the  two  edges  are  mostly  in  the  way.  If 
there  is  left  plenty  of  material  between  the 
surface  and  the  hole  in  which  the  roller-pin 
is  fastened,  hollow  out  the  newly-made  sur¬ 
face  with  a  bird’s-tongue  file  to  restore  the 
segment  form  again.  In  no  other  way  must 
the  proper  hold  of  the  roller-pin  be  de¬ 
stroyed  ;  better  the  fork-pin  be  bent  a  trifle 
back. 

Next  comes  the  hairspring  roller.  Take 
off  the  hairspring  and  roller,  fasten  the  latter 
upon  a  fitting  turning  arbor,  and  turn  both 
sides  of  the  roller  down  as  much  as  possi¬ 
ble,  the  front  side  even  a  little  under-cut, 
without  endangering  a  safe  hold  of  the  hair¬ 
spring. 

The  balance  wheel  is  now  reached,  the 
weight  of  which  must  be  in  proportion  to 
the  motive  power.  “A  balance  wheel  too 
heavy  does  not  admit  a  good  curve  of  vibra¬ 
tion  ;  a  balance  wheel  too  light  would  act  as 
a  fly,  but  not  as  a  regulator.”  The  balance 
wheel  is  almost  invariably  too  heavy,  to 
rectify  which,  the  arms  or  spokes  must  be 
filed  much  smaller,  and  made  to  incline 
a  little  toward  the  center.  To  do  the  job 
with  security,  put  a  good  sized  piece  of  wire 
perpendicular  in  the  vise,  bend  the  top  end 
outward  nearly  in  a  right  angle  and  furnish 
it  with  one  or  two  cross  cuts  deep  enough 
to  give  the  balance  wheel  a  firm  support 
when  filing  the  spokes ;  afterward  file  away 
all  unnecessary  metal  around  the  staff,  taking; 


ABOUT  GAUGES. 


69 


off  as  much  as  possible  without  interfering 
with  a  safe  hold  of  the  center-staff.  Then 
file  the  drums  a  little  slanting  so  as  to  cut 
the  air  well,  and  after  cleaning  put  the  hair¬ 
spring  and  roller  in  their  proper  places.  If 
the  hairspring  roller  is  somewhat  loose, 
squeeze  it  a  little,  but  not  without  having  a 
piece  of  wire  held  loosely  in  the  middle,  or 
it  is  apt  to ’break.  Some  slight  improve¬ 
ments  still  remain  to  be  made  in  the  anchor- 
fork.  If  the  outside  of  the  fork  reaches  far 
outward,  cut  off  enough  to  make  the  bank¬ 
ing  just  safe  and  poise  the  inner  end  by  filing 
and  shaping  it  into  a  small  bar  from  close 
behind  the  fork-pin  to  the  anchor  (pallets). 
Should  the  extreme  inner  ends  of  the  fork 
be  very  stiff,  file  them  straighter,  but  never 
touch  the  inner  edges,  and  carefully  remove 
all  burr.  Sometimes  when  they  are  too 
steep,  they  are  apt  to  catch  the  roller-pin 
from  behind.  In  fine  Swiss  watches  these 
■ends  are  hollowed  out. 

Last,  but  not  least,  the  mainspring  and 
barrel  requires  attention.  See  that  the  arbor 
Las  the  necessary  play  and  how  many 
rounds  the  mainspring  makes — generally  3  ^ 
rounds,  and  if  so,  span  the  ratchet  wheel 
about  ^  of  a  whole  round — just  enough  not 
to  allow  the  chain  to  fall  off.  Clean  the 
watch  properly  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  if 
the  job  has  been  done  conscientiously,  the 
result  cannot  fail  to  give  perfect  satisfaction. 


ADJUSTMENT  TO  ISOCHRONISM. 

HE  manipulation  of  the  hairspring  so 
that  the  long  and  short  arcs  of  the  bal¬ 
ance  are  performed  in  the  same  time.  The 
theory  of  isochronism  advanced  by  Dr.  Rob- 
■ert  Hooke,  and  more  commonly  known  as 
Hooke’s  law,  “  as  the  tension  so  is  the  force,” 
is  an  axiom  in  mechanics  with  which  every¬ 
body  is,  or  should  be,  familiar.  This  law 
has,  like  nearly  all  others,  its  exceptions,  and 
it  is  only  partially  true  as  applied  to  hair¬ 
springs  of  watches ;  “  otherwise,”  says  Glas¬ 
gow,  “every  spring  would  be  isochronous.” 
Pierre  Le  Roy  says  that  there  is  in  every 
spring  of  a  sufficient  extent  a  certain  length 
where  all  the  vibrations,  long  or  short,  great 
or  small,  are  isochronous,  and  that  this  length 
being  secured,  if  you  shorten  the  spring  the 
great  vibrations  will  be  quicker  than  the 
small  ones ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  length¬ 
ened,  the  small  arcs  will  be  performed  in  less 
time  than  the  great  ones.  Glasgow  says 
that  a  hairspring,  of  whatever  form,  to  be 


isochronous  must  satisfy  the  following  con¬ 
ditions  :  Its  center  of  gravity  must  always 
be  on  the  axis  of  the  balance,  and  it  must 
expand  and  contract  in  the  vibrations  con¬ 
centrically  with  that  axis.  When  these  con¬ 
ditions  are  secured  in  a  properly  made  spring 
it  will  possess  the  quality  of  isochronism, 
that  is,  its  force  will  increase  in  proportion 
to  the  tension,  and  it  will  not  exert  any 
lateral  pressure  on  the  pivots. 

The  recognized  authorities  conflict  con¬ 
siderably  in  their  various  theories  in  regard 
to  adjustment  to  isochronism,  and  partic¬ 
ularly  in  regard  to  the  length  of  spring. 
Immisch  says  that  mere  length  has  nothing 
to  do  with  isochronism.  Glasgow  contends 
that  length  has  everything  to  do  with  it  and 
that  a  spring  too  short,  whatever  its  form, 
would  make  the  short  arcs  of  the  balance 
vibration  be  performed  in  a  less  time  than 
the  long  arcs,  and  a  spring  too  long  would 
have  just  the  contrary  effect.  Charles 
Frodsham  advanced  the  theory  that  every 
length  of  spring  has  its  isochronous  point. 
Britten  declares  that  the  length  is  all-impor¬ 
tant.  That  a  good  length  of  spring  for  bne 
variety  of  escapement'  is  entirely  unfitted 
for  another  variety.  Saunier  says  that  the 
discussion  of  the  question  whether  short 
springs  are  preferable  to  long  ones  is  a  mere 
waste  of  time  and  can  result  in  no  good. 
In  horology  everything  must  be  relative. 
Whatever  be  the  escapement  under  consid¬ 
eration,  it  requires  neither  a  long  nor  a  short 
hairspring,  but  one  that  is  suited  to  its  nat¬ 
ure  and  mode  of  action,  that  is  to  say,  the 
length  must  bear  a  definite  relation  to  the 
extent  of  the  arcs  of  vibration,  etc. 

Owing  to  this  conflict  of  opinion,  it  is 
advisable  that  the  student  read  the  various 
arguments  set  forth  in  the  works  referred  to 
above  and  form  his  own  conclusions. 


ABOUT  GAUGES. 

IN  working  in  a  new  pinion  when  the 
old  one  is  at  hand,  no  trouble  will  be 
experienced  as  to  height,  and  when  the  old 
pinion  is  removed  from  the  wheel,  all  the 
measurements  can  be  taken  from  it  by  the 
millimeter  gauge.  This  gauge  is  much  lighter 
in  its  action  than  the  douzieme  gauge,  and 
altogether  more  suitable,  having  finer  and 
cleaner  divisions.  About  two-tenths  of  a 
millimeter  are  equal  to  one  douzieme.  The 
jaws  of  this  tool  are  frequently  not  fitted 
closely,  and  on  account  of  their  hardness  can 


7° 


WATCH  REPAIRING. 


only  be  corrected  by  grinding.  A  piece  of 
flat  brass,  similar  to  a  barrel  cover,  is  fixed 
on  an  arbor  and  adjusted  to  run  true  in  flat ; 
a  little  emery  and  oil  or  oil-stone  dust  is  ap¬ 
plied  on  each  side  of  it.  The  turns  having 
been  put  in  the  vise  sideways,  so  that  the 
gauge  can  hang  freely,  the  jaws  should  be 
allowed  to  close  on  the  lap.  A  few  revolu¬ 
tions  will  grind  both  jaws  true  and  perfectly 
parallel.  After  this  operation  it  is  not  un¬ 
likely  that  the  pointer  will  pass  beyond  the 
index ;  if  so,  the  end  of  the  pointer  must  be 
gripped  in  the  vise,  with  a  piece  of  card  in¬ 
serted  between  it  and  the  vise,  to  prevent 
marking,  and  pulled  gently,  until  it  indicates 
correctly.  _ 

ANNEALING  AND  HARDENING. 

OPPER,  brass,  German  silver,  and  sim¬ 
ilar  metals  are  hardened  by  hammer¬ 
ing,  rolling,  or  wire  drawing,  and  are  softened 
by  being  heated  red  hot  and  plunged  in  cold 
water.  Copper,  by  being  alloyed  with  tin, 
may  be  made  so  hard  that  cutting  instru¬ 
ments  may  be  made  from  it.  This  is  the 
old  process  of  hardening  copper,  which  is  so 
often  claimed  to  be  one  of  the  lost  arts,  and 
which  would  be  very  useful  if  we  did  not 
have  in  steel  a  material  which  is  far  less 
costly  and  far  better  fitted  for  the  making  of 
edge  tools.  _ 

WATCH  REPAIRING. 

LTHOUGH  broaching  in  the  mandrel 
is  not  a  bad  way  of  opening  a  hole,  it 
is  always  better  to  open  it  to  nearly  the  re¬ 
quired  size  by  running  a  cutter  through  it,  if 
the  hole  is  large  enough  to  admit  of  this 
being  done  ;  but,  as  these  cutters  are  easily 
broken,  in  consequence  of  their  being  so 
small,  turning  out  holes  is  not  often  resorted 
to  by  watch  jobbers. 

The  half-round  or  triangular  pieces  of 
steel  sold  with  a  mandrel  to  make  cutters  of 
are  seldom  made  from  the  best  steel,  and 
are  only  fit  for  cutters  for  rough  turning,  and 
making  a  cutter  of  one  of  these  involves 
considerable  labor ;  therefore  it  is  much 
better  to  make  one  into  a  cutter-holder  by 
drilling  a  good-sized  hole  in  one  end  of  it, 
and  after  broaching  the  hole,  fitting  several 
pieces  of  small  steel  to  the  hole  (they  should 
be  turned  and  fitted  accurately) ;  these  pieces 
are  easily  made  into  cutters  of  any  size  or 
shape  required,  and  if  one  gets  broken  it  is 
easily  replaced. 

Watch  jobbers  do  not  seem  to  like  the 


mandrel,  but  the  more  they  use  it  the  better 
will  their  work  be  done,  and  it  will  certainly 
save  their  time  to  do  so.  If  the  fusee  re¬ 
quires  new  holes  and  the  center  wheel  holes 
are  right  or  have  been  renewed,  the  teeth  of 
the  great  wheel  will  often  be  found  worn 
and  sometimes  bent  from  the  wheel  having 
been  softened  in  gilding — the  teeth  being' 
much  longer  than  is  necessary  and  the 
spaces  cut  square  at  the  bottom— and  in  the 
case  of  the  teeth  being  worn  from  the  center 
pinion  being  a  wrong  size  and  the  depth  too- 
shallow.  A  new  wheel  would,  of  course,  be 
the  proper  remedy  for  this ;  but  if  this  maw 
not  be  done,  the  teeth  should  be  hammered 
carefully  ;  the  depth  tried  in  the  depthing- 
tool,  and  when  the  stopping  in  the  pillar 
plate  or  bar  is  pushed  out,  the  depth  marked 
across  the  hole.  The  hole  should  then  be 
drawn  until  the  mark  is  in  the  center  of  it 
and  a  new  stopping  put  in.  The  great 
wheel  depth  should  always  be  as  deep  as- 
possible ;  it  is  a  mistake  to  make  it  shallow, 
because  it  will  then  run  more  smoothly. 
But,  supposing  the  lower  fusee  hole  does  not 
require  any  alteration,  and  a  new  top  hole 
only  is  required  (a  repair  often  wanted),  if 
the  old  stopping  in  the  plate  is  removed  or 
— in  the  case  of  a  -plate  watch — the  fusee 
piece  is  broached  large  enough  for  a  stop¬ 
ping,  if  a  piece  of  brass  is  broached  to  nearly' 
the  size  of  the  pivot  and  then  turned  to  fit 
the  hole  in  the  plate  of  fusee  piece  and  riv¬ 
eted  ;  if  the  hole  is  again  broached  to  fit  the 
pivot  and  the  fusee  put  into  its  place  in  the 
frame,  the  chances  are  twenty  to  one  against 
its  being  upright ;  whereas  if  the  method  I 
have  described,  of  pegging  the  lower  hole- 
and  turning  out  the  upper  one,  be  adopted,, 
the  upright  of  the  fusee  will  be  secured  with¬ 
out  further  trouble  ;  and,  if  it  is  not  perfectly'- 
upright,  the  stop-work  is  most  likely  to  be 
wrong,  and  the  acdetantant  will  require  bend¬ 
ing  to  get  it  to  act  in  the  steel  wheel,  which,, 
of  course,  is  botching. 

If  the  barrel  holes  are  worn,  and  the  bar¬ 
rel  is,  as  it  often  is,  out  of  truth,  it  may  be 
better  to  put  in  a  new  stopping  in  the  barrel 
and  get  it  true  by  the  cover ;  but  generally 
it  will  be  sufficient  to  close  the  holes  by  lay¬ 
ing  the  barrel  on  a  small  round  stake  and 
hammering  up  the  boss  from  the  inside  of 
the  barrel.  This  boss  is  usually  left  large, 
and  if  it  is  hammered  on  the  outside  edge 
the  hole  will  be  closed,  when  it  can  be  made 
to  fit  the  pivot  by  broaching  with  a  round 
broach,  and  it  will  be  good  enough  to  last 


THE  BREGUET  SPRING. 


for  years ;  this  repair  is  often  an  improve¬ 
ment,  as  it  lessens  the  rubbing  surfaces  of 
the  shoulders  of  the  barrel-arbor  pivots.  If 
the  hole  in  the  barrel  cover  is  too  large 
and  the  cover  too  small,  from  the  expansion 
of  the  barrel  from  the  breaking  of  strong 
mainsprings,  the  best  remedy  is  a  new  cover, 
which  any  one  can  make  without  any  telling  ; 
but  in  the  case  of  a  new  cover  being  made, 
the*  barrel  is  not  likely  to  be  true,  and  the 
cover  should  be  snapped  into  the  barrel  be¬ 
fore  it  is  brought  to  the  right  thickness ;  if 
when  the  end-shake  of  the  arbor  is  adjusted, 
the  arbor  and  barrel  are  put  into  the  calipers, 
it  will  be  seen  if  the  barrel  is  true — if  not, 
the  cover  should  be  marked  on  the  high 
side,  taken  off  and  turned  until  it  fits  easily, 
and  then  hammered  carefully  on  the  outer 
edge  of  the  side  that  is  marked  until  it  fits 
the  groove  in  the  barrel ;  and  this,  if  done 
the  required  amount,  will  bring  the  barrel 
true.  When  a  barrel  cover  is  hammered  on 
one  side  until  it  is  out  of  round,  the  barrel 
and  cover  should  be  marked  in  order  that 
the  cover  may  always  occupy  the  same  place. 


THE  BREGUET  SPRING. 

HERE  is  no  doubt  that  the  Breguet  or 
overcoil  spring  is  one  of  the  best  forms, 
in  fact  the  best  form,  of  spring  under  certain 
conditions ;  and  if  the  watch  be  of  such  a 
character  in  construction  and  finish  as  to 
justify  or  require  its  application — this  fact 
being  known  and  acknowledged  gives  a 
character  to  a  watch  worthy  of  imitation, 
and  therefore  it  is  something  for  a  manu¬ 
facturer  or  agent  to  point  to — and  as  the 
action  of  the  spring  is  easy  and  uniform  the 
retailer  or  shopkeeper  is  taken  with  it  and 
points  to  it  in  his  turn  as  an  excellence  in 
the  cheap  watch  he  is  recommending  to  his 
customer,  and  in  which  he  probably  believes. 
As  to  his  consideration  for  the  comfort  or 
convenience  of  the  jobber  into  whose  hands 
the  watch  may  afterward  come  for  repairs, 
the  thing  is  too  absurd  to  be  thought  of ;  his 
business  is  to  sell  the  watch.  The  Swiss 
have  hitherto  been  the  chief  sinners  in  this 
affair  of  Breguet  springs,  and  as  they  claim 
that  great  man  Breguet  as  their  countryman, 
they  may  be  excused  for  having  a  prejudice 
in  favor  of  his  invention  ;  but  it  is  useless  to 
rail  against  the  manufacturers  of  any  article 
for  making  what  they  can  sell.  However 
great  the  excellence  of  a  spring  having  the 
inherent  quality  of  giving  isochronal  vibra- 


W 

tions  to  the  balance  of  a  fine  watch,  it  is  no 
help  to  a  watch  with  machine-made  pivots 
and  jewel  holes,  and  such  escapements  as 
these  watches  generally  have,  especially  when 
the  overcoil  is  badly  and  unscientifically 
made  so  that  each  move  of  the  index  pins 
gives  the  spring  a  different  form.  But  it  is 
the  business  of  the  watch  jobber  to  take 
things  as  they  are,  and  to  that  end  he  should 
learn  to  make  the  best  of  them. 

The  manipulation  of  the  balance  spring  is 
really  the  most  important  function  of  the 
watch  jobber,  and  but  for  the  fact  that  these 
springs  can  be  bought  ready  to  his  hand,  he 
would  be  under  the  necessity  of  learning  to 
handle  them  with  greater  certainty  and  less 
trouble  to  himself.  It  is  rather  humiliating 
to  be  obliged  to  acknowledge  that  nearly 
all  the  balance  springs  applied  to  English 
watches  are  of  foreign  make. 

Although  the  watch  jobber  is  an  all-round 
man,  he  ought  to  be  able  to  pin  in  a  spring  flat 
and  true  and  to  correct  or  repair  an  injured 
one,  as,  no  matter  how  perfect  all  the  other 
parts  of  the  watch  may  be,  if  the  spring  is 
bent  or  constrained  in  its  action  no  correct 
time  will  be  obtained  from  the  watch.  A 
flat  or  spiral  spring  should  never  be  larger 
than  half  the  diameter  of  the  balance,  that 
is,  if  the  spring  has  the  coils  close  together, 
such  as  are  generally'in  use  at  present;  but 
if  a  new  spring  is  required  for  a  job  watch  it 
must  be  of  a  size  to  suit  the  stud  and  index 
pins,  and  therefore  if  larger  than  this  pre¬ 
scribed  size  the  coils  should  be  more  open. 
If  the  old  spring  is  only  distorted,  and  not 
broken,  a  ready  way  of  finding  the  strength 
of  the  new  one  is  by  lifting  a  small  weight 
attached  to  the  inner  coil  of  the  spring  while 
the  other  end  is  held  in  the  tweezers.  This 
weight  should  consist  of  a  small  disc  of  brass 
having  a  pin  about  an  inch  long  projecting 
through  its  center ;  the  pin  should  be  tapered 
so  as  to  make  it  as  light  as  possible  at  the 
top,  and  have  a  small  hook  filed  in  it  close 
to  the  disc  sufficient  to  hold  the  inner  coil 
of  the  spring  while  the  weight  is  being  lifted. 
It  is  easier  to  judge  of  the  strength  correctly 
if  the  weight  be  sufficient  to  draw  the  spring 
down  the  whole  length  of  the  pin,  and  for 
this  purpose  a  few  thin  pieces  of  brass,  that 
will  drop  over  the  pin  and  increase  the 
weight  to  what  is  required,  should  be  kept 
ready  ;  by  this  means  the  strength  of  the  old 
spring  is  easily  gauged  and  a  new  one  of  the 
same  strength  as  easily  chosen.  A  very 
common  and  very  uncertain  method  of  find- 


7  2 


BALANCE. 


ing  the  strength  of  a  spring  is  by  lifting,  in 
a  similar  manner  to  what  I  have  just  de¬ 
scribed,  the  balance  itself ;  the  almost  use¬ 
lessness  of  this  method  is  seen  when  we 
know  that  the  diameter  of  the  balance  has 
as  much  to  do  with  the  time  of  the  watch  as 
its  weight,  and  the  diameter  in  this  case 
counts  for  nothing.  A  spring  should  be 
chosen  that  will  be  rather  smaller  than  the 
circle  of  the  stud  hole  and  index  pins ;  that 
is,  the  spring  should  look  small  when  the 
balance  is  at  rest,  as  a  spring  this  size  has 
more  freedom  of  the  coils  or  at  those  parts 
of  the  coils  that  lie  between  the  stud  and 
the  balance  staff,  and  therefore  assists  in 
quickening  the  short  arcs  of  the  balance. 

I  think  it  is  pretty  well  known  that  almost 
all  ordinary  watches  go  slower  in  the  short 
arcs  of  the  balance  than  in  the  long  ones, 
or  slower  when  the  watch  is  hanging  up  than 
when  it  is  lying  down  (this  is  especially  the 
case  with  full-plate  watches,  and  they,  as  a 
rule,  have  the  balance  springs  too  large). 
A  spring  collet  should  be  as  small  as  possi¬ 
ble,  and  the  inner  coil  of  the  spring  just 
large  enough  to  be  free  of  the  collet.  If  the 
hole  in  the  collet  is  not  straight,  that  is, 
tangential,  it  should  Se  broached  until  it  is 
so,  and  from  the  side  from  which  the  spring 
is  inserted,  as,  if  this  is  done,  it  will  not  be 
found  necessary  to  bend  the  spring  to  suit 
a  hole  that  is  drilled  anyhow ;  and,  if  the 
spring  has  to  be  unpinned,  it  must  be  bent 
again  to  suit  another  position. 

If,  when  the  spring  is  pinned  to  the  collet, 
it  stands  away  from  it  at  the  points  where 
the  pin  is  inserted,  it  will  be  useless  to  at¬ 
tempt  to  bring  it  closer  to  the  collet  by  bend¬ 
ing  it  on  the  collet ;  therefore,  it  must  be 
unpinned,  and  the  eye  bent  in  a  little,  so  as 
to  get  the  center  true.  When  the  spring 
runs  true,  the  collet  can  be  put  on  an  arbor, 
and  there  is  then  very  little  trouble  in  get¬ 
ting  it  flat.  I  am  now  speaking  of  hardened 
and  tempered  springs,  or  those  springs  that 
are  hardened  by  chemical  process,  and  are 
more  difficult  to  handle :  soft  springs  can  be 
bent  to  any  shape  or  form.  Some  years  ago 
a  prize  essayist  on  the  balance  spring  gave 
a  few  diagrams  of  springs,  showing  how  they 
grew  shorter  as  they  grew  older,  and  the  way 
these  springs  were  made  to  do  was  by  a  pro¬ 
cess  known  as  white  throating,  that  is,  by 
scraping  with  a  graver  about  an  inch  of  the 
inside  of  the  outer  end  of  the  spring  to  re¬ 
duce  its  strength.  This  is  complete  botch- 
in  tc,  and  the  workman  who  resorts  to  it  can 


have  no  respect  for  himself,  and  need  not 
look  for  respect  from  others. 


A  GOOD  WAY  TO  CLEAN  A  MAIN¬ 
SPRING. 

HERE  are  several  methods  for  cleaning 
and  mounting  a  mainspring,  but  the  fol¬ 
lowing  ranks  with  the  best  in  use  among  gobd 
watchmakers.  Let  us  suppose  we  have  a 
watch  that  has  run  twelve  months  or  more. 
After  taking  the  watch  down,  first  examine 
the  mainspring  by  taking  off  the  cap  of  the 
barrel,  carefully  removing  the  arbor,  then 
holding  the  barrel  in  the  thumb  and  fingers 
of  the  left  hand,  lift  out  the  inner  end  of  the 
spring  with  small  round  nose  pliers,  holding 
the  thumb  and  fingers  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  allow  the  spring  to  uncoil  itself  from  the 
barrel  in  a  gentle  manner  into  the  hand,  and 
if  sound  and  of  the  right  strength,  proceed 
to  clean  it  with  a  piece  of  domestic  (a  clean 
soft  rag  is  preferable,  as  it  is  free  from  starch 
and  other  foreign  matter  calculated  to  injure 
steel).  Holding  the  cloth  or  rag  in  the  left 
hand  and  the  spring  just  as  it  has  come  out 
of  the  barrel  in  your  right,  gently  move  it 
back  and  forth,  holding  two  or  three  of  the 
coils  between  the  thumb,  first  and  second 
fingers,  pressing  the  coils  slightly  over  with 
the  ball  of  the  thumb  (not  nails),  so  as  not  to 
materially  change  the  natural  curvature  of 
the  spring  in  any  way  during  the  operation. 
In  this  way  the  entire  spring  can  be  cleaned, 
with  the  exception  of  a  small  portion  of  the 
inner  coil,  which  can  be  cleaned  by  using  a 
corner  of  the  rag,  applied  with  a  piece  of 
pegwood,  or  by  a  slight  brushing  with  a  brush 
used  for  this  purpose.  A  first-class  spring 
(and  no  watchmaker  should  use  any  other  if 
he  values  time  and  reputation)  thus  cleaned, 
with  proper  space  in  the  barrel,  and  with  the 
arbor  free,  of  proper  .size,  and  a  liberal  appli¬ 
cation  of  watch  oil,  but  not  flooded  with  it, 
turned  up  to  its  proper  capacity,  will  give 
out  its  full  force  for  one  or  two  years,  at 
least,  without  breaking,  rusting,  or  becoming 
gummy  and  foul. 


BALANCE. 

HREE  things  cause  a  loss  of  the  bal¬ 
ance  velocity,  viz. :  the  resistance  of 
unlocking  the  escape  wheel,  the  friction  of 
the  pivots  in  the  holes,  and  the  stress  of  the 
reciprocating  spring  on  the  pivots.  If  the 


WOOD  ROD  AND  LEAD  BOB  FOR  PENDULUM. 


73 


mass  of  the  balance  is  unbalanced,  the  pivots 
will  suffer  an  additional  stress  from  the  cen¬ 
trifugal  force  in  revolving. 


PRACTICAL  METHOD  FOR  LENGTH¬ 
ENING  A  BALANCE  SPRING. 

HE  repairer  is  occasionally  compelled  to 
regulate  a  watch  with  too  short  a  balance 
spring,  because  the  owner  does  not  want  to 
pay  for  a  new  spring,  or  else,  if  a  country 
watchmaker,  he  may  not  happen  to  have  the 
exact  size  on  hand.  Let  us  imagine  that  he 
has  withdrawn  the  spring  to  its  utmost,  and 
still  the  watch  advances.  Apparently  some¬ 
thing  is  to  be  done,  and  in  this  extremity 
the  most  objectionable  means  are  employed. 
A  repairer  recently  asked  the  question  in  a 
German  horological  paper,  and  received  all 
kinds  of  replies.  One  recommended  to  dip 
the  spring  in  acid ;  another  to  scrape  it 
thinner  with  a  graver ;  and  still  another  to 
make  it  weaker  by  grinding  with  an  oil-stone. 
The  most  heroic  treatment  was  proposed 
lately  in  another  horological  paper.  The 
scientist  says  :  “  When  I  find  that  a  spring  is 
too  short  and  cannot  be  made  longer  by 
pinning,  I  employ  a  method  that  will  inva¬ 
riably  do  it :  I  make  the  balance  a  trifle 
heavier  with  tin  solder.  I  cut  off  two  very 
small  pellets  of  solder,  put  a  little  soldering 
fluid  on  the  lower  side  of  the  balance,  lay  a 
pellet  of  the  solder  upon  it,  and  then  hold 
the  balance  rim  on  the  edge  of  the  alcohol 
flame  until  the  solder  has  run. 

“It  does  not  require  a  great  heat  to  do 
this,  and  it  suffices  to  hold  the  rim  on  the 
edge  of  the  flame,  whereby  it  is  prevented 
at  the  same  time  that  the  cylinder  or  one  of 
the  pivots  is  annealed,  by  carelessness.  I 
then  make  the  opposite  side  heavier  in  the 
same  manner,  and  finally  buff  the  rim,  after 
which  no  trace  of  the  work  can  be  seen.” 

For  what  use,  we  ask,  are  the  prize  essays 
“on  the  balance  spring,”  by  Excelsior,  Im- 
misch,  Sandoz,  and  others,  who  have  wasted 
their  talent  and  ill-spent  lives  by  writing  on 
timing  and  isochronism?  Make  a  pyre  of 
their  writings  ! 

A  Mr.  Barthelemy,  of  St.  Menehouldt,  a 
skillful  watchmaker,  recently  published  his 
method  for  obtaining  satisfactory  results  in 
the  Revue  Chronometrique.  He  says  : 

“  My  method,  which  I  have  employed  with 
excellent  results  for  the  last  fifteen  years,  is, 
that  in  place  of  the  graver  I  use  a  burnisher, 
with  which  I  rub  over  the  balance  spring, 


the  thickness  of  which  is  reduced  by  this 
means ;  its  pores  are  closed  and  the  quality 
of  the  spring  is  not  whatever  impaired ;  be¬ 
sides  this,  it  is  easy,  with  a  spring  treated  in 
this  manner,  to  restore  it  to  its  original  coils. 

“  It  requires  only  a  moderate  amount  of 
practice  to  accomplish  the  purpose,  and  it  is 
only  necessary  to  hold  the  spring  flat.  I 
made  the  first  trial  with  a  spring  that  ad¬ 
vanced  20  minutes  per  day.  After  I  had 
smoothed  a  length  of  about  3  centimeters 
with  the  burnisher,  I  had  produced  a  differ¬ 
ence  of  40  minutes — that  is,  the  spring  now 
retarded  20  minutes,  while  formerly  it  had 
advanced  20  minutes.” 

The  country  repairer  who  may  occasionally 
be  called  on  to  do  this,  might  by  practice 
seek  to  acquire  the  necessary  skill. 


WOOD  ROD  AND  LEAD  BOB  FOR 
PENDULUM. 

CHEAP  and  good  compensated  pen¬ 
dulum  may  be  made  with  a  wood  rod 
and  lead  bob.  For  a  seconds  pendulum, 
the  rod  should  be  of  thoroughly  well  sea¬ 
soned,  straight  grained  deal,  44^  inches 
long,  measuring  from  the  top  of  the  free 
part  of  the  suspension  spring  to  the  bottom 
of  the  bob,  and  of  an  oval  section  .75  inch 
by  .5  inch.  This  size  of  rod  allows  of  sound 
fixing  for  the  attachments  at  the  ends.  A 
slit  for  the  suspension  spring  is  cut  in  a  brass 
cap  fitting  over  the  top  of  the  rod,  to  which 
it  is  secured  by  two  pins.  A  bit  of  thin 
brass  tube  is  fitted  to  the  rod  where  it  is 
embraced  by  the  crutch.  The  rating  screw, 
.25  inch  in  diameter,  is  fixed  to  a  short  piece 
of  sheet  brass,  .75  of  an  inch  wide.  A  saw 
cut  is  made  at  the  bottom  of  the  pendulum 
rod,  into  which  the  brass  plate  is  inserted, 
and  fixed  with  a  couple  of  pins.  Wooden 
rods  require  to  be  coated  with  something  to 
render  them  impervious  to  the  atmosphere. 
They  are  generally  varnished  or  polished, 
but  painting  them  answers  the  purpose  well. 
Mr.  Latimer  Clark  recommends  saturating 
them  with  melted  paraffine.  The  bob,  2^ 
inches  in  diameter  and  1 1  inches  high,  with 
a  hole  just  large  enough  to  go  freely  over 
the  wood  rod,  rests  on  a  washer  above  the 
rating  point. 

Many  pendulums  made  on  this  plan  have 
been  all  that  could  be  desired.  Several  cor¬ 
respondents  have  borne  testimony  to  their 
high  efficiency,  but  nearly  all  say  that  the 
bob,  14  inches,  advised  in  a  former  article, 


74 


CONICAL  PIVOTS. 


is  too  long  for  a  seconds  pendulum,  and  a 
length  of  12,  1 1,  io,  and  even  8  inches  is  ad¬ 
vised.  For  this  reason,  1 1  inches  may  be 
taken  as  a  mean. 

It  is  essential  that  the  grain  of  a  wood 
pendulum  should  be  perfectly  straight,  for 
if  the  grain  is  not  straight  the  rod  is  likely 
to  bend,  causing  the  clock  to  go  irregularly. 


CLOSE  OBSERVATION  NECESSARY. 

LOSE  observation  is  necessary  when 
taking  down  a  watch  for  repairs.  If  it 
has  a  strong  mainspring  and  a  bad  vibration 
and  the  train  free,  it  may  be  assumed  that 
the  escapement  is  at  fault.  A  very  common 
fault  by  which  the  vibration  is  spoiled  is  too 
much  run  on  the  pallets,  and  the  escape- 
'ment  pitched  too  deep  ;  all  run  is  a  serious 
evil,  and  no  more  than  sufficient  for  freedom 
should  be  allowed. 

If,  on  closing  the  banking-pins,  the  pallets 
escape  freely  and  the  roller  and  lever  are 
not  free,  first  try  if  the  guard-pin  is  free  with 
the  banking  closer,  and  has  fair  shake  when 
the  end  of  the  lever  is  moved.  If  tight,  the 
guard-pin  must  be  bent  back,  or  the  roller 
edge  turned  away  and  repolished  to  give  the 
guard-pin  freedom,  care  being  taken  that  the 
pin,  though  free,  is  not  so  free  as  to  pass 
the  roller  or  to  stick ;  reducing  the  size  of 
the  roller  insures  its  safety,  though  an  im¬ 
pression  to  the  contrary  seems  to  prevail 
among  some  foreign  makers  of  common 
lever  escapements,  judging  by  the  large 
radius  of  roller  outside  the  ruby  pin,  which 
is  seen  in  all  cheap  levers  of  English,  Swiss, 
and  German  make.  Both  time  and  trouble 
are  saved  by  making  the  guard  roller  as 
small  as  possible.  True  theory  requires  it 
smaller  than  the  roller-pin  radius,  hence  the 
double  roller  escapement. 

Should  the  ruby  pin  be  unable  to  leave 
the  lever  notch,  with  the  motion  of  the  lever 
curtailed  to  that  given  it  by  the  pressure  of 
the  pallets  only,  the  necessary  freedom  must 
be  obtained  by  more  legitimate  means  than 
wasting  the  motive  force  in  pallet  motion 
and  extra  locking  friction — an  evil,  in  its 
best  form,  to  be  kept  within  the  smallest 
possible  limits  in  all  escapements.  If  the 
lever  notch  is  very  deep,  removing  sufficient 
with  a  piece  of  oil-stone  will  give  freedom, 
but  much  care  is  desirable  in  making  a  rad¬ 
ical  alteration,  and  repairers  should  think 
twice  before  removing  parts  they  cannot 
restore.  Putting  the  roller  on  a  wire  and 


warming  it  sufficiently  to  allow  the  ruby  pin 
to  be  moved  nearer  the  center  of  the  roller, 
to  make  a  more  shallow  depth,  and,  if  the 
pin  is  circular,  replacing  it  with  one  flattened 
on  the  surface,  will  allow  the  pin  to  leave 
the  lever  notch  with  more  freedom  ;  and  ex¬ 
periments  with  a  brass  pin  in  the  roller 
should  also  precede  any  serious  alterations. 
Exchanging  a  small  roller  pin  for  a  large 
oval  or  flattened  one,  will  diminish  the  labor 
required  in  unlocking  and  improve  some  es¬ 
capements  by  changing  the  engaging  friction 
at  the  line  of  centers  to  a  disengaging  action. 


THE  ROUNDING-UP  TOOL. 

HIS  most  ingenious  tool  is  one  of  the 
most  useful  to  watch  repairers.  By  its  aid 
the  wheel  may  be  almost  instantly  reduced 
in  diameter ;  corrected,  if  out  of  round,  or 
have  the  form  of  its  teeth  altered  as  may  be 
required.  The  cutters  are  a  little  over  half 
a  circle  and  terminate  in  a  guide.  While 
one  end  of  the  guide  meets  the  cutter,  the 
other  angles  a  little,  so  that  instead  of  meet¬ 
ing  the  other  extremity  of  the  cutter,  when 
the  circle  is  completed,  it  leaves  a  space 
equal  to  the  pitch  of  the  wheel  to  be  cut. 
By  this  means,  after  the  cutter  has  operated 
on  a  space,  the  wheel  is  led)  forward  one 
tooth  by  the  time  the  cutter  arbor  has  com¬ 
pleted  its  revolution.  Some  little  practice 
is  required  to  select  exactly  the  cutter  re¬ 
quired.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  select 
one  too  thick,  or  the  teeth  will  of  course  be 
made  too  thin,  and  the  wheel  probably  bent. 
When  the  guide  is  adjusted  to  the  pitch,  it 
will  be  well  to  see  that  it  enters  the  space 
properly  before  rotating  the  tool  quickly. 
The  wheel  should  be  fixed  firmly,  but  not 
too  tightly,  between  the  centers,  which 
should  rest  well  on  the  shoulders  of  the 
pinion.  The  rest  piece  for  the  wheel  should 
be  as  large  as  possible  to  keep  the  wheel 
from  bending,  to  give  it  firmness  and  to  in¬ 
sure  a  clean  cut.  _____ 

CONICAL  PIVOTS. 

HE  cone  should  be  an  easy  curve 
tapering  off  into  the  pivot  proper, 
which  runs  in  the  hole ;  this  part  must  be 
perfectly  straight  and  parallel.  The  pivot 
having  been  turned  to  a  little  over  the  re¬ 
quired  size,  its  end  is  laid  on  a  bed  formed 
in  a  manner  of  the  turns.  Every  time  the 
work  is  examined  the  bed  of  the  runner 
must  be  cleared  and  the  runner  adjusted  to 


THE  MOTIVE  FORCE  IN  WATCHES. 


75 


a  slightly  different  length,  so  that  it  does  not 
bear  on  the  same  part  of  the  pivot.  If  this 
is  neglected,  the  pivot  is  sure  to  be  marked. 
A  soft  steel  polisher,  made  to  suit  the  pivot, 
is  then  used  with  either  oil-stone  dust  or  red- 
stuff.  It  should  be  used  with  a  backward 
and  forward  as  well  as  a  rolling  motion,  till 
the  pivot  is  reduced  so  that  it  will  just  fall 
off  the  hole.  The  pivot  is  then  finished 
with  a  very  smooth  burnisher  and  oil. 

Instead  of  the  soft  steel  polisher,  some 
prefer  to  use  a  hard  steel  burnisher  rough¬ 
ened.  or  a  piece  of  lead  with  emery,  which 
makes  an  equally  good  pivot.  For  rounding 
the  end  of  the  pivot,  a  thin-edged  runner,  to 
allow  the  end  of  the  pivot  to  come  through, 
is  used.  The  pivot  is  rounded  by  passing 
the  burnisher  from  the  body  of  the  pivot 
over  the  end.  If  the  burnisher  is  used  from 
the  point  toward  the  body  of  the  pivot,  a 
burr  may  be  formed.  There  is  a  little  differ¬ 
ence  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper  direction  of 
the  stroke  to  be  imparted.  Opinions  will 
differ. 


THE  MOTIVE  FORCE  IN  WATCHES. 

OLLOWING  a  recent  controversy  in 
an  English  horological  paper,  a  contri¬ 
bution  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Oscar  Perret,  of 
St.  Imier,  in  the  Journal  Suisse  d' Horlogerie, 
will  be  read  with  interest :  “  It  should  ap¬ 
pear  that  this  question  [the  motive  force  in 
watches]  were  worthy  of  meriting  the  atten¬ 
tion  of  all  those  engaged  in  watchmaking ; 
nevertheless,  this  is  far  from  being  so,  be¬ 
cause  it  is  the  most  neglected  part,  to  such 
an  extent,  even,  that  many  watchmakers  do 
not  trouble  themselves  at  all  to  study  the 
important  works  which  this  force  produces, 
nor  the  parts  that  consume  a  portion  of  it. 
It  appears  that  the  mounter  has  no  other 
duty  to  perform  than  that  of  imprisoning  the 
spring  within  the  barrel,  lubricating  it  with 
a  little  oil  of  an  inferior  quality,  without  fur¬ 
ther  troubling  himself  whether  it  runs  with¬ 
out  being  cramped,  or  whether  its  force  can 
develop  as  it  should.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  motive  force  labors  under  one 
disadvantage.  Its  motions  cannot  be  seen 
and  studied  like  those  of  the  other  movable 
parts ;  were  this  so,  one  can  be  certain  that 
it  would  be  the  object  of  greater  care,  and  it 
would  be  more  highly  esteemed. 

“  It  is  rarely  the  case  that  the  mainspring 
is  examined ;  this  fact  is  left  to  the  good 
taith  of  the  spring  manufacturers,  who  may 
employ  either  steel  of  a  bad  quality  or  badly 


tempered ;  nor  is  any  rigorous  exactitude 
exerted  as  regards  the  height  or  thickness  of 
blade,  etc.  Such  as  the  spring  is,  it  is  de¬ 
livered  to  the  mounter,  whose  duty  simply 
is  to  put  it  in  place,  regardless  of  the  condi¬ 
tion  in  which  he  receives  it.  It  is  not  as¬ 
tonishing,  therefore,  that  the  greater  part  of 
these  springs  cannot  but  very  imperfectly 
comply  with  the  functions  they  are  to  dis¬ 
charge,  and  they  become  a  source  of  imper¬ 
fection  to  the  watch,  even  when  all  its  other 
parts  are  in  fair  order. 

“  We  have  said  that  the  mainspring  per¬ 
forms  a  very  important  part ;  it  produces  a 
force  which  must  be  preserved  as  nearly 
intact  as  possible.  The  ban-el  being  actu¬ 
ated  by  this  force  must,  in  its  rotary  motion, 
actuate  an  entire  mechanism,  and  its  energy 
experiences  a  diminution  from  one  wheel  to 
the  other,  so  that  when  it  arrives  at  the  es¬ 
capement  a  large  part  of  the  original  force 
has  been  consumed  by  the  many  frictions  of 
the  depthing  and  pivots.  Theory  can  with 
precision  calculate  this  loss.  To  this  may 
be  still  added  the  imperfections  of  construc¬ 
tion,  bad  proportions,  etc.,  which  augments 
the  intensity  of  the  frictions,  and  conse¬ 
quently  requires  more  force.* 

“  In  order  that  the  mainspring  may  comply 
with  its  functions  passably,  it  must  be  capa¬ 
ble  of  exerting  a  uniform  traction  force  for 
at  least  twenty-four  hours ;  and  it  would 
thereby  favor  the  regularity  of  the  amplitude 
of  the  balance  vibrations,  which  is  very  im¬ 
portant  for  the  adjustment.  But  experience 
has  taught  us  that  it  is  not  always  an  easy 
thing  to  attain  this  result,  because  it  is  well 
known  that  the  manufacturers  of  steel  have 
not  yet  been  able  to  produce  it  with  a  reg¬ 
ular  force,  and,  consequently,  springs  with¬ 
out  a  uniform  action  in  the  same  conditions 
are  the  result.  Nothing,  indeed,  is  more  in¬ 
teresting  than  experiments  on  their  action, 
to  prove  the  irregularities  produced  by  them, 
as  far  as  their  traction  is  concerned,  even 
with  springs  of  the  same  height  and  thick¬ 
ness  of  blade ;  this  irregularity  is  a  great 
defect. 

“  I  would  like  to  call  the  attention  of  young 
watchmakers  to  one  point :  it  is  better  in 
order  to  have  more  force  to  augment  the 
breadth  of  the  blade  rather  than  its  thick¬ 
ness,  because  less  is  lost  of  development, 

*  Experiments  instituted  have  demonstrated  that 
the  train  (wheels,  pivots,  depthings),  when  in  proper 
condition  and  lubricated  with  fresh  oil,  absorbs 
about  20  per  cent,  of  the  motive  force. 


76 


ATTRACTION  OF  GRAVITATION. 


and  the  traction  is  much  more  regular  from 
the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  performance 
— -that  means  that  the  differences  are  not  so 
great  in  the  extremes ;  we  have  been  able  to 
observe  this  fact  in  a  number  of  instances, 
and  it  is  easy  to  prove  the  truth  of  the  asser¬ 
tion  by  instituting  experiments. 

“  The  friction  produced  between  the  coil 
blades  during  the  activity  of  the  spring 
is  also  of  great  importance,  and  becomes 
so  much  more  injurious  as  the  spring  is 
out  of  truth,  that  is  to  say,  when  it  un¬ 
folds  to  one  side.  It  is  fairly  difficult  to 
ascertain  the  origin  of  this,  and  the  in¬ 
quirer  frequently  loses  much  valuable  time 
in  ascertaining  it.  In  the  common  watch, 
where  the  price  does  not,  naturally,  permit 
any  very  exhaustive  inquiry,  much  could 
nevertheless  be  done  toward  ameliorating  this 
evil. 

“The  barrel  must  be  free  upon  its  arbor, 
like  any  other  movable  piece  in  the  watch  ; 
the  spring  must  be  unconditionally  free  to 
develop  with  the  greatest  ease.  The  pivot 
holes  and  spring  must  be  lubricated  with  a 
suitable  oil  of  good  quality.  The  repairer 
will  frequently  find  a  bad  oil  which  rusts  the 
steel  and  produces  very  injurious  friction. 
One  grave  error  very  often  found  is  that  the 
core  is  too  large. 

“  We  might  say  much  on  the  question  of 
the  stop-work,  because  it  must  be  acknowl¬ 
edged  that  many  watchmakers  do  not  at  all 
inquire  into  the  utility  and  duty  of  this  little 
mechanism.  It  is  often  the  case  that  re¬ 
pairers  take  it  out  altogether  because  they 
do  not  understand  its  functions.  The  stop- 
work  has  its  well-defined  utility,  if  it  is  kept 
in  good  order,  and  especially  if  it  is  made  to 
comply  with  its  functions,  to  wit,  of  utilizing 
the  turns  which  give  the  greatest  equality  in 
the  tractive  power.  By  barrels  for  which 
no  stop-work  is  used,  different  stop  systems 
are  employed,  and  they  are  oftenest  in  bad 
condition,  either  by  the  space  they  occupy, 
the  little  quantity  of  solidity  which  they  pos¬ 
sess,  or  the  disagreeable  friction  produced  by 
them.  We  have  been  able  to  observe  fre¬ 
quently  that  in  many  cases  the  collar-stop¬ 
ping  contrivance  hinders  the  spring  from 
unfolding ;  although  certain  kinds  of  collars 
do  not  produce  this  effect,  and  thus  enjoy  an 
advantage  over  other  kinds. 

“  As  regards  the  quantity  of  force  to  be 
employed,  there  are  laws  governing  this 
question  in  a  rational  ^nanner.  Generally 
speaking,  there  is  more  force  than  is  neces¬ 


sary,  but  by  reason  of  the  want  of  care  this 
excess  is  completely  absorbed. 

“  It  is  often  asserted  that  the  Americans 
use  springs  which  are  too  strong.  It  is  nec¬ 
essary  to  do  them  this  justice,  however,  that 
their  springs  are  proportioned  to  the  barrel, 
and  that  if  they  employ  large  barrels  their 
trains  and  escapements  are  in  the  same  pro¬ 
portion.  One  difference  to  be  noticed  is 
that  they  have  employed  a  much  smaller 
but  much  thicker  balance  than  we.  In 
Switzerland  the  principle  governs  that  the 
watch  must  go  with  the  least  possible  force. 
It  is  an  old  principle  which  exerts  its  full 
value,  especially  for  fine  grade  watches  ;  but 
when  it  concerns  watches  ‘  by  the  thou¬ 
sand,’  which  must  be  manufactured  at  a 
very  low  price,  the  question  is  no  longer  the 
same.  We  must  admit  that  the  Americans 
have  abandoned  this  principle  for  a  very 
simple  reason  :  Their  watches,  as  well  as  our 
own,  possess  imperfections  which  would 
cause  them  to  stop,  and,  above  all,  to  go 
badly.  Now,  it  must  be  acceded  that  these 
defects  are  compensated  to  a  certain  extent 
by  the  resistance  of  the  motive  power,  which 
is  much  stronger  than  in  our  watches.” 


BROKEN  BALANCE  PIVOT. 

F  a'  balance  pivot  is  broken  I  generally 
replace  it  by  a  new  staff,  as  I  think 
that  by  far  a  better  way  than  to  drill  and  put 
in  a  new  pivot,  as  it  is  nine  chances  out  of 
ten  that  the  job  is  not  done  without  some 
harm  to  the  watch.  I  can  take  a  blank  staff 
and  turn  up  and  finish  the  pivots  in  less  time 
than  I  could  drill  and  pivot,  and  I  always 
feel  satisfied  with  my  job.  Of  course  there 
are  always  cases  where  we  have  to  pivot  and 
then  make  the  best  of  it.  In  the  train 
wheels  I  always  pivot,  as  there  is  less  wear 
and  tear  and  more  stock  to  work  on. 


ATTRACTION  OF  GRAVITATION. 

NE  law  governing  the  pendulum  is  this  : 
The  action  of  gravity  or  the  mutual 
attraction  of  bodies  varies  with  their  masses, 
and  inversely  as  the  square  of  their  distances. 
Following  from  this,  a  pendulum  will  vibrate 
seconds  only  in  a  given  place.  Our  standard 
of  measurement  is  taken  from  a  pendulum 
vibrating  seconds  in  a  vacuum  at  the  level 
of  the  sea.  It  also  follows  that  the  further 
a  pendulum  is  removed  from  the  center  of 


WATCH  MAINSPRING 


77 


the  earth  the  less  it  will  be  attracted  in  its 
descent  toward  the  vertical.  This  explains 
why  a  pendulum  loses  on  being  transferred 
from  the  sea  level  to  the  mountain,  or  from 
one  of  the  earth’s  poles  toward  the  equator, 
as  the  earth  is  a  spheroid  slightly  flattened 
at  the  poles. 

WATCH  MAINSPRING. 

ERY  little  is  generally  said  in  the  hor- 
ological  press  on  the  subject  of  main- 
springing  ;  while-some  writers  appear  to  have 
“  isochronism  ”  on  the  brain,  others  treat  ad 
nauseam  of  the  pallet  draw  and  locking, 
while  mainspringing  is  but  occasionally  men¬ 
tioned,  and  treated  with  a  step-parent’s  affec¬ 
tion.  We  recently  read  in  a  horological 
publication  where  the  writer  advised  to  sub¬ 
stitute  the  hook  on  the  barrel  for  one  on  the 
spring ;  not  to  make  it  of  steel,  but  of  the 
softest  and  best  of  iron  ;  for  instance,  an 
American  clock  pendulum  rod  or  a  horseshoe 
nail.  To  use  iron,  because  it  is  more  easily 
and  more  firmly  riveted,  and  easier  to  cut  off 
and  finish. 

These  are  apparently  weighty  reasons, 
although  not  many  practical  watchmakers 
would  agree  with  the  waiter  in  substituting  a 
hook  on  the  barrel  for  that  on  the  spring  in 
a  w^ch  with  fusee  and  chain.  The  trial 
has  occasionally  been  made,  but  the  inevi¬ 
table  result  is  that  the  first  time  the  chain 
breaks  the  barrel  is  bulged  out  on  the  side, 
caused  by  the  recoil  of  the  spring  against  the 
hook,  and  in  all  probability  ruined  beyond 
redemption.  He  next  recommended  that 
the  workman  should  always  shape  the  hook 
on  the  spring  and  polish  its  face  before  it  is 
put  in  the  barrel.  This  style  of  work  may 
be  possible  to  do,  but  it  is  certainly  neither 
practical  nor  customary. 

A  practical  method  of  fitting  this  kind  of 
hook  would  be  about  as  follows : 

A  piece  of  soft  iron  is  held  in  a  pin  vise 
and  filed  to  fit  the  hole  in  the  barrel,  round  or 
square,  whichever  it  may  be,  giving  it  as  little 
taper  as  possible  ;  pass  the  wire  so  fitted  into 
the  hole  in  the  barrel  from  the  outside,  in 
giving  it  the  same  slant  as  the  hole,  and 
make  a  scratch  wfith  a  sharp  point  across  it 
and  on  the  inside  of  the  barrel ;  withdraw 
the  wire  and  turn  it  end  for  end  in  the  vise, 
bringing  the  end  faces  of  the  jaws  even  with 
the  scratch.  You  now  place  this  vise,  with 
the  wire  in  it,  in  a  perpendicular  position  in 
the  bench  vise ;  first  shorten  the  wire  and 


then  proceed  to  fit  it  to  the  hole  in  the  main¬ 
spring,  which  has  been  previously  punched, 
countersunk  and  pointed,  as  already  de¬ 
scribed,  allowing  the  jaws  of  the  pin  vise  to 
act  as  a  gauge  for  the  scratch  made  on  the 
wire,  remove  the  wire  from  the  pin  vise  and 
grip  it  firmly  in  the  left  side  of  the  bench 
vise,  close  up,  but  not  so  as  to  injure  the 
part  which  is  to  form  the  hook. 

Put  the  spring  in  its  place  and  rivet  up 
carefully  and  solidly ;  have  the  spring  so 
countersunk  as  not  to  permit  any  of  the  rivet 
to  project  above  the  surface  of  the  spring. 
Take  it  out  of  the  vise  and  cut  off,  leaving 
just  enough  to  form  the  hook.  Try  if  the 
hook  fits  by  putting  it  backward  into  the  hole 
in  the  barrel  from  the  outside,  for  it  is  pos¬ 
sible  to  distort  its  shape  in  riveting,  etc. 
Being  satisfied,  and  not  having  the  hook 
excessively  long,  wind  it  in  and  ship  the 
hook. 

You  now  take  the  barrel  between  the 
thumb  and  point  of  the  middle  finger  and 
slap  it  on  the  bench,  first  on  one  side,  then 
the  other,  till  you  see  that  the  hook  is  well 
home  to  its  place.  Put  the  arbor  and  cover 
— presuming  that  the  spring  was  oiled  before 
winding  it  in.  All  that  remains  to  be  done 
now  is  to  finish  the  hook  outside  the  barrel, 
which  is  done  by  carefully  filing  it  down  till 
you  come  close  to  the  gilded  side  or  edge 
of  the  barrel ;  you  then  take  a  piece  of  thin 
writing  paper  and  lay  over  it,  and  go  on 
filing  both  paper  and  hook  together  till  you 
touch,  but  not  deface,  the  barrel.  It  is  well 
now  to  grip  the  square  of  the  arbor  in  a  pin 
vise,  and  set  the  spring  up  to  test  the  effi¬ 
ciency  of  the  hook,  and,  if  possible,  to  force 
it  further  through  the  barrel,  in  which  case 
you  repeat  the  filing  through  a  fresh  piece 
of  paper.  You  now  finish  the  job  by  pass¬ 
ing  a  clean  flat  burnisher  over  it  a  few 
times,  also  through  a  piece  of  paper.  I 
consider  it  quite  impossible  for  a  hook  on 
the  spring  that  is  properly  fitted  to  fail  to 
hold  securely. 

It  is  easily  seen  that  the  hook  on  the 
spring  is  preferable  to  having  it  on  the  bar¬ 
rel,  because  box  chronometers  of  all  nations 
have  it  on  the  hook.  We  may  readily  con¬ 
jecture  that  when  we  see  the  hook  of  a  watch 
with  fusee  and  chain  altered  from  the  spring 
to  the  barrel,  that  it  was  the  work  of  one 
who  was  either  too  lazy  or  incompetent  to 
do  the  job,  but  it  is  not  to  be  accepted  as 
evidence  that  the  hook-on-the-barrel  stvle  is 
more  reliable. 


78 


IS  THE  STOP-WORK  INDISPENSABLE. 


SCAPE  WHEELS  OF  SWISS 
WATCHES. 

N  the  case  of  a  very  bad  wheel  it  would 
be  much  easier  to  change,  than  to  at¬ 
tempt  to  correct  it ;  there  is  such  facility  now 
for  doing  this — wheels  of  very  good  quality 
can  be  got  for  such  a  low  price,  and  in  such 
a  variety  of  sizes  and  heights,  that  it  is  rarely 
a  difficult  matter  to  get  one  of  a  correct  size. 
If  the  country  watchmaker  has  no  large 
stock  on  hand,  and  must  send  for  a  new 
wheel,  it  is  always  best  to  turn  a  sink  in  a 
piece  of  brass  in  the  mandrel,  as  a  gauge  for 
size ;  and  if  the  wheel  is  not  sent,  a  notch 
cut  for  the  height  also.  The  removal  of  the 
wheel  from  the  pinion  should  be  done  on  a 
pinion-riveting  stake,  in  a  hole  that  just  fits 
the  pinion  loosely ;  a  pointed  hollow  punch, 
preferably  of  brass,  fitting  freely  over  the 
pivot,  or  in  the  hollow  of  the  rivets,  should 
be  used  and  a  light  hammer.  The  size  of 
the  hole  in  the  wheel  is  the  next  considera¬ 
tion  ;  it  will  most  probably  be  considerably 
smaller  than  the  old.  The  common  way  of 
opening  this  hole  is  to  broach  it,  and  as  the 
wheel  as  obtained  from  the  material  dealer 
is  generally  too  hard  to  broach,  it  is  usually 
put  on  a  wire,  and  the  wire  in  the  flame  of  a 
lamp,  until  sufficiently  softened. 

This  is  rather  a  risky  way  of  doing ;  the 
wheel  is  liable  to  be  got  out  of  flat,  or  broken 
in  the  operation ;  a  far  safer  and  better  plan 
is  to  grind  out  the  hole  without  softening  the 
boss,  A  long  and  soft  arbor  is  filed  length¬ 
ways  ;  it  should  not  be  too  taper,  and  used 
with  either  fine  emery  or  oil-stone  dust,  the 
wheel  having  previously  been  cemented  by 
its  back  to  either  an  old  fourth  wheel  or 
some  light,  circular  piece  of  brass,  to  protect 
the  teeth  and  handle  it  by.  Particular  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  run  the  arbor  dry 
while  grinding,  but  to  keep  it  liberally  sup¬ 
plied  with  oil,  so  that  it  does  not  stick. 
Should  the  boss  be  too  thick,  leaving  insuf¬ 
ficient  rivet,  it  can  be  turned  down  with  a 
hard  graver.  To  turn  down  the  seat,  if  the 
watch  is  flat,  would  be  rather  a  difficult  mat¬ 
ter  ;  but  if  it  is  at  all  high,  it  can  be  done, 
supposing  that  the  slot  in  the  cylinder  will  ad¬ 
mit  of  it.  The  hole  having  been  ground  out 
until  it  fits  firmly  on  to  the  pinion,  it  should 
be  riveted  lightly  with  a  hollow  steel  punch, 
revolving  the  wheel  a  little  between  each 
blow  of  the  hammer,  which  should  be  very 
light.  Its  truth  in  flat  should  be  examined 
from  time  to  time  by  means  of  the  brass 
calipers  and  straight-edge ;  if  the  riveting  is 


carefully  done  the  wheel  will  be  true.  It 
will  rarely  be  necessary  to  bump  the  arms  of 
the  wheel  if  carefully  riveted.  The  size  of 
the  punch  should  be  such  that  it  just  goes 
easily  over  the  shoulder  of  the  pinion,  and 
its  face  should  be  perfectly  polished. 


HOW  TO  REPLACE  A  BALANCE 
STAFF. 

N  the  event  of  a  broken  staff  a  new 
one  is  to  be  made  as  follows: — In  the 
first  place  the  old  balance  staff  should  serve 
as  a  model,  unless  it  has  decidedly  radical 
defects.  The  balance  is  knocked  off  the 
brass  collar  on  the  old  staff  and  a  rough 
staff  selected  of  approximate  dimensions. 
These  staffs  are  generally  sold  in  the  rough 
by  material  dealers,  but  one  may  be  made 
by  driving  a  steel  arbor  into  a  collet  of  hard 
brass.  The  steel  should  be  hardened  and 
tempered  just  sufficient  to  allow  it  to  be 
turned  with  the  graver.  A  screw  ferrule  is 
fixed  to  the  staff,  and  it  is  mounted  in  the 
turns ;  the  length  is  reduced  to  a  trifle  over 
the  finished  size,  paying  due  attention  to  the 
relative  size  of  the  staff  that  projects  both 
above  and  below  the  brass.  The  brass  is 
then  turned  to  fit  the  balance  and  the  bal¬ 
ance  spring  collet,  and  the  length  is  made 
right.  The  staff  is  then  turned  downjtfo  fit 
the  hole  in  the  roller.  The  pivots  are  then 
made,  gauging  the  position  at  the  shoulders 
by  means  of  the  pinion  gauge,  using  the  old 
staff  to  measure  by.  The  diameter  is  made 
by  trying  in  the  jewel  holes.  The  body  of 
the  staff  is  polished,  as  are  the  pivots,  with 
crocus  on  a  bell-metal  burnisher,  English 
workmen  generally  using  the  turn  bench  with 
specially  made  centers,  but  the  Jacot  tool  is 
far  more  convenient.  When  the  staff  is  fin¬ 
ished  the  balance  is  riveted  on  true,  and 
should  be  at  the  precise  height,  so  that  it 
will  not  be  necessary  to  use  a  punch  to  raise 
or  lower  it.  Very  careful  handling  and  con¬ 
stant  gauging  are  the  principal  requisites  for 
making  a  balance  staff ;  failing  the  former, 
the  partlv  finished  staff  is  likely  to  be  broken, 
and  by  not  paying  sufficient  attention  to  the 
latter,  some  part  will  be  made  too  small. 


IS  THE  STOP-WORK  INDISPENSABLE, 

HE  question  whether  the  Maltese  cross 
or  stop-work  in  medium  and  low  grade 
watches  is  indispensable  or  not  was  some 
time  ago  debated  in  a  meeting  of  watch- 


PENDULUMS. 


79 


makers  in  Germany.  Those  in  favor  of  dis¬ 
pensing  with  it  proposed  a  number  of  other 
devices,  among  which  is  the  brace.  One  of 
them  published  his  views  on  the  matter  sub¬ 
sequently  in  the  Deutsche  Uhrmacher  Zeitung, 
from  which  we  translate  the  following : 

“  I  am  not  at  all  opposed  to  the  stop- 
work  ;  on  the  contrary,  I  consider  it  to  be 
one  of  the  best  and  most  secure  devices — if 
well  executed  and  hardened,  and  the  square 
of  the  spring  arbor  upon  which  the  stop 
sits  is  sufficiently  long  and  well-conditioned. 
Every  repairer,^  however,  knows  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  stop-work  in  the  ordinary  cheap 
watches.  .  .  .  It  is  an  ordinary  occur¬ 

rence  that  already  in  the  first  four  weeks  the 
man  who  recently  bought  a  cheap  watch 
from  you  will  come  back  to  the  shop  with  his 
watch  over-wound,  and  from  that  time  for¬ 
ward  misconfidence  against  his  time-keeper 
and  yourself  is  fully  established.  Frequently, 
also,  does  it  happen  that  after  the  mainspring 
is  broken  the  owner  also  ruins  the  stop-work 
by  winding,  when  he  is  a  sort  of  a  Jack-at- 
all-trades  and  tries  to  remedy  the  evil  himself. 

“  Some  repairers  urge  that  when  an  ordinary 
brace  stop  is  used,  more  springs  break  than 
by  the  use  of  a  stop-work.  I  cannot  say  that 
this  is  my  experience,  although  I  have  been 
a  repairer  for  a  number  of  years.  If  ever  it 
should  be  true  that  the  breakage  of  springs  is 
greater  by  io  per  cent.,  surely  watchmakers 
cannot  call  this  a  great  misfortune!  Nor 
does  the  assertion  hold  good  that  the  small 
end  of  a  spring  (the  brace)  forms  a  separate 
spring  power,  as  this  force  lasts  barely  one 
minute. 

“  Another  advantage  of  the  simple  brace 
stop  in  the  interior  of  the  barrel  is  that  this 
is  rendered  much  more  secure,  as  the  cover 
does  not  require  to  be  turned  down  and  out, 
and  the  spring  arbor  can  at  its  lower  end  be 
made  with  a  nice  and  long  pivot.  All  the 
repairers  know  how  terribly  shaky  some  bar¬ 
rels  are  in  consequence  of  the  pivot  hole  be¬ 
ing  too  thin  in  the  barrel  cover,  and  also  in 
this  particular  a  decided  defect  would  be 
remedied.  The  time  which  the  workman 
spends  upon  the  repairing  or  re-making  of 
the  stop-work  may,  by  the  employment  of  the 
simple  brace,  be  spent  to  a  far  better  purpose 
upon  the  other  parts  of  the  watch. 

For  better  grade  watches,  which  have  from 
the  start  been  constructed  with  more  care, 
and  on  which  more  time  is  spent  in  repair¬ 
ing,  they  may  be  employed  profitably. 

“  Three  methods  are  known  to  me  for  using 


the  brace  as  a  stop.  The  first  consists  in 
riveting  a  small  piece  of  watch  spring  to  the 
end  of  the  spring  and  of  beveling  its  free 
side  a  little  ;  by  the  second,  the  end  of  the 
spring  is  bent  into  a  small  hook,  in  which  is 
laid  a  small  piece  of  spring  with  beveled 
ends ;  by  the  third,  the  spring  is  bent  out¬ 
ward  at  a  length  of  from  5  to  10  millimeters 
near  the  end,  which  must  be  done,  however, 
while  the  spring  is  red  hot,  so  that  it  will  not 
break  in  bending.  The  diameter  of  the 
spring  core  can,  in  general,  be  taken  as  the 
length  of  the  brace.  The  latter  method  is 
the  simplest  and  easiest,  and  I  have  success¬ 
fully  employed  it  for  a  number  of  years. 
The  hook  in  the  barrel  is  unnecessary,  and  a 
very  small  pin  slightly  projecting  within  is  all 
that  is  required  ;  even  this  fear  is  not  neces¬ 
sary  ;  simply  raise  a  burr  with  a  sharp  graver 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  barrel.” 

In  conclusion  the  writer  solicits  the  opinion 
of  other  watchmakers  on  this  question. 


THE  BAROMETRICAL  ERROR. 

PENDULUM  is  affected  by  the  den¬ 
sity  of  the  atmosphere,  but  to  a  degree 
that  would  only  be  of  importance  in  a  pre¬ 
cision  timepiece,  where  all  the  errors  are  re¬ 
duced  to  a  minimum.  An  increase  of  den¬ 
sity  in  the  air  is  equivalent  to  reducing  the 
action  of  gravity,  while  the  inertia  of  the 
moving  body  remains  the  same.  The  rule 
is,  that  the  velocity  of  the  pendulum  varies 
directly  as  the  force  of  gravity  and  inversely 
as  the  inertia,  and  it  follows  then  that  an  in¬ 
crease  of  density  diminishes  the  velocity  and 
shortens  the  time  of  oscillation,  causing  the 
clock  to  gain  time.  The  barometrical  error 
can  be  reduced  to  within  three-  or  four-tenths 
of  a  second  in  twentv-four  hours  for  each 
rise  or  fall  of  the  barometer.  Short  axes  of 
oscillation  are  also  essential  in  reducing  the 
barometrical  error.  An  apparatus  is  some¬ 
times  attached  to  the  pendulum  to  assist  in 
reducing  the  error. 


PENDULUMS. 

PENDULUM  required  to  vibrate  sec¬ 
onds,  says  a  lecturer,  must  be  of  such 
"a  length  as  to  make  the  distance  between  the 
centers  of  suspension  and  oscillation  39.14 
inches ;  and  it  must  farther  satisfy  the  con¬ 
dition  here  indicated,  namely,  the  expansion 
of  steel  downward  must  equal  that  of  brass 
upward.  The  co-efficients  of  expansion  of 


8o 


i’MNDULUMS. 


steel  and  brass  are  respectively  0.0000124 
and  0.0000188  per  i°  centigrade,  and  it  can 
easily  be  shown  that  the  smallest  number  of 
rods  that  can  satisfy  this  condition,  keeping 
the  pendulum  symmetrical,  is  nine.  The  ar¬ 
rangement  of  the  rods  and  the  mode  in  which 
they  effect  the  required  object  need  but  little 
explanation.  The  outer  steel  rods  are  firmly 
pinned  at  right  angles  to  the  upper  brass 
cross-piece,  but  they  are  only  held  loosely  by 
the  pins  in  the  lowest  cross-bar.  This  car¬ 
ries  two  brass  rods  expanding  upward,  and 
each  pair  is  loosely  held  by  pins  in  the  same 
way.  The  innermost  steel  rod  hangs  from 
a  pin  at  its  upper  end,  passes  freely  through 
the  lower  cross-piece,  and  supports  the  pen¬ 
dulum  bob  by  a  nut  at  its  extremity. 

The  necessity  for  so  many  rods  has  always 
been  regarded  as  a  serious  objection  to  this 
form  of  pendulum,  and  many  attempts  have 
been  made  to  avoid  the  difficulty.  Trough- 
ton  suggested  a  very  elegant  arrangement, 
in  which  the  four  brass  rods  are  replaced  by 
two  brass  tubes,  the  five  steel  rods  being 
joined  in  a  manner  corresponding  to  that 
above  indicated.  The  bulk  of  the  pendulum 
rod  is  thus  diminished  to  a  tube  0.6  of  one 
inch  in  diameter,  an  important  point,  since 
the  center  of  oscillation  is  thereby  lowered, 
and  a  shorter  pendulum  can  be  employed. 
Zinc  has  a  much  higher  expansibility  than 
brass,  and  attention  was,  therefore,  directed 
toward  the  employment  of  this  metal.  By 
increasing  the  length  of  the  pendulum,  and 
placing  the  bob  some  distance  above  the 
lower  end  of  the  pendulum,  supported  by  a 
short  cylinder  of  zinc,  Berthoud  succeeded 
in  obtaining  sufficient  compensation  with 
only  two  brass  rods  and  three  of  steel ;  and, 
even  with  a  brass  cylinder  in  place  of  the 
zinc,  the  compensation  was  at  times  found 
to  be  complete.  This  is  a  compact  form  of 
gridiron  pendulum,  but  long,  and  the  excess¬ 
ive  friction  between  the  rods  is  a  serious  ob¬ 
jection.  Berthoud  constructed  them  about 
13  inches  long,  beating  half-seconds,  and  the 
center  of  oscillation  comes  very  near  the  cen¬ 
ter  of  the  bob. 

Reid,  Tiede,  Jacob,  Ward,  Dent  and 
others,  invented  pendulums  in  which  zinc  and 
steel  are  employed  in  conjunction,  and  in  an 
interesting  arrangement  suggested  long  ago 
by  Robert,  zinc  is  associated  with  platinum 
as  being  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  scale  of 
expansibility.  The  form  adopted  by  Jacob 
is  worthy  of  notice  on  account  of  its  extreme 
facility  of  adjustment.  The  central  rod  is 


of  steel,  and  terminates  in  a  screw  bearing 
a  locking  nut,  which  supports  a  rectangular 
zinc  frame.  A  screw  thread  is  cut  on  the 
upper  portion  of  this,  and  a  nut  on  it  sup¬ 
ports  the  frame  that  carries  the  bob.  As¬ 
suming  the  pendulum  to  be  under  or  over 
compensated,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  ele¬ 
vate  the  upper  screw  and  depress  the  lower, 
or  vice  versa ,  and  the  effective  length  of  the 
zinc  will  thus  be  altered  as  required.  The 
expansion  of  zinc  being  more  than  double 
that  of  steel,  a  single  zinc  rod  less  than  the 
length  of  the  pendulum  will  suffice  for  the 
compensation. 

The  only  other  combination  of  these  two 
metals  that  need  be  specially  referred  to  is 
the  pendulum  employed  by  Dent  &  Co.,  of 
London,  England,  for  astronomical  clocks, 
in  which  the  bob  is  of  lead,  and  the  steel  and 
zinc  are  two  concentric  tubes,  the  rod  also 
being  of  steel.  A  zinc  tube  resting  on  the 
rating  nut  supports,  at  its  upper  end,  a  steel 
tube  by  which  it  is  enclosed ;  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  steel  is  fixed,  by  its  center,  the 
lead  bob  covered  with  a  brass  jacket.  Holes 
are  drilled  through  the  steel  and  zinc  tubes 
in  such  a  manner  that  each  portion  of  the 
pendulum  is  equally  influenced  by  thermo¬ 
metric  variation. 

The  pendulum  by  Mr.  Robert,  above  re¬ 
ferred  to,  is  a  light  platinum  tube  passing 
through  a  zinc  bob  and  terminating  in  a  steel 
screw,  which  carries  the  rating  nut.  The 
bob  extends  to  half  the  height  of  the  rod, 
and  its  upward  expansion  is  sufficient  to  neu¬ 
tralize  the  downward  expansion  of  this  latter. 

Numerous  other  combinations  of  two  or 
more  substances  have  been  suggested  from 
time  to  time,  but  detailed  reference  to  them 
is  unnecessary  since  the  principle  of  all  is 
identical.  J.  L.  Smith  employed  a  vulcanite 
tube  surrounding  the  lower  extremity  of  a 
steel  rod,  in  a  manner  somewhat  analogous 
to  Berthoud’s  pendulum,  only  that  the  tube 
passed  within  the  (copper)  bob  ;  Ley  used 
zinc  and  glass  similarly  arranged,  and  Cal- 
laud  proposed  a  combination  in  which  steel, 
brass,  and  platinum  (wire)  are  used.  The 
brass  tube  resting  on  the  timing  nut  supports 
a  plate  at  its  upper  end,  through  which  pass 
two  screws  attached  to  the  extremities  of  a 
platinum  wire.  This  passing  round  a  groove 
in  the  pendulum  bob  raises  it  as  the  brass 
tube  expands,  and  the  adjustment  for  com¬ 
pensation  somewhat  resembles  that  of  Jacob’s 
pendulum.  Benzenberg’s  pendulum,  as  mod¬ 
ified  by  Kater,  consists  of  a  lead  tube  trav- 


RULES  GOVERNING  COMPENSATION  PENDULUMS. 


81 


ersed  by  an  iron  wire,  the  bob  being  sus¬ 
pended  by  two  iron  wires  from  the  upper  end 
of  this  tube.  By  employing  steel  and  zinc, 
Katei  succeeded  in  reducing  the  length  of 
compensation  metal  so  as  to  conceal  it  within 
the  bob  ;  and  Bailey  proposed  a  cheap  con¬ 
struction  that  has  been  much  used,  in  which 
the  upward  expansion  of  a  cylindrical  lead 
bob  neutralized  the  downward  expansion  of 
a  deal  rod. 

It  is  unquestionable  that  a  carefully  made 
wooden  pendulum  is  to  be  preferred  in  all 
clocks,  other  than  the  very  best  astronomical 
timepieces ;  in  conjunction  with  a  well-made 
train,  it  can  be  relied  upon  to  give  a  more 
uniform  rate  than  any  unadjusted  compen¬ 
sation  pendulum.  Indeed,  such  a  pendulum 
may  give  rise  to  a  very  great  irregularity,  if, 
as  is  perfectly  possible,  the  arrangements  for 
compensation  tend  to  produce  an  opposite 
effect  to  that  which  is  required. 

An  immense  variety  of  devices  have  been 
proposed  for  correcting  this  error  of  temper¬ 
ature,  but  they  may  all  be  classified  under 
four  heads : 

1.  Two  or  more  solid  and  rigid  substances 
employed  in  conjunction,  and  so  arranged 
that  the  vertical  downward  expansion  of  one 
is  neutralized  by  the  vertical  upward  expan¬ 
sion  of  another. 

2.  Two  metals  of  different  expansibilities 
actuating  levers,  and  thus  maintaining  the 
length  of  the  pendulum  invariably. 

3.  Two  metals  of  different  expansibility, 
Tigidly  joined  together  by  soldering  or  other¬ 
wise,  employed  to  vary  the  distance  of  a 
weight  from  the  center  of  suspension  when¬ 
ever  the  temperature  varies. 

4.  Pendulums  in  which  mercury  is  em¬ 
ployed. 

The  earliest  attempt  to  correct  the  varia¬ 
tions  of  temperature  was  made  by  Harrison, 
in  the  construction  of  his  “  gridiron  ”  pendu¬ 
lum,  consisting  of  nine  vertical  rods — five  of 
steel  and  four  of  brass. 


1RULES  GOVERNING  COMPENSATION 
PENDULUMS. 

HE  compensation  pendulum  is  to  the  as¬ 
tronomical  clock  exactly  what  the  com¬ 
pensation  balance  is  to  the  chronometer,  and 
whatever  facilitates  the  narrowing  of  the  mar¬ 
gin  that  borders  the  central  line  of  absolute 
accuracy,  reduces  the  space  demanded  by 
final  adjustment.  It  may  never  become  pos¬ 
sible  to  produce,  by  mechanical  means,  either 


a  balance  or  a  pendulum  absolutely  correct 
and  requiring  no  adjustment.  There  are 
means  of  closely  approximating  to  that  con¬ 
dition,  and  these  I  propose  to  impart. 

In  the  first  place,  the  conditions  of  the 
manufacture  of  Graham’s  mercurial  pendu¬ 
lum,  the  one  adopted  by  both  the  artist  and 
the  astronomer,  require  careful  consideration. 
The  rod  and  the  stirrup  should,  after  all  me¬ 
chanical  work  is  completed,  be  annealed 
down  to  the  simplest  softness,  and  all  subse¬ 
quent  bending  avoided,  as  well  as  any  large 
amount  of  friction,  for  the  sake  of  polish ; 
no  part  of  the  stirrup  should  be  left  on  the 
strain ;  everything  should  fit  without  shake, 
but  still  without  bind.  Here  we  arrive  at 
the  point  of  the  closest  approximation  to  the 
proportion  nearest  mechanically  achievable 
— perfect  compensation  for  temperature. 
The  ordinary  glass  jar  and  mercury  being  the 
simplest,  is  amongst,  if  not  absolutely,  the 
best ;  and  the  result  of  a  great  number  of 
experiments  has  proved  that  a  glass  jar  of  ex¬ 
actly  two  inches  internal  diameter,  containing 
eleven  pounds  eight  ounces  (avoirdupois)  of 
mercury  will  be  so  near  to  absolute  compen¬ 
sation  as  seldom  to  require  any  correction 
when  tested  in  heat  and  cold.  The  mercury 
should  be  carefully  relieved  from  all  ad¬ 
mixture  of  atmospheric  air,  and  this  is  by  no 
means  an  easy  task.  In  addition  to  the  care¬ 
ful  removing  of  any  visible  air  bubbles,  time 
and  the  application  of  heat  should  be  given 
in  order  to  facilitate  the  decomposition  of 
such  remaining  portions  of  air  as  cling  with 
great  tenacity  to  mercury  that  has  been  re¬ 
cently  shaken.  For  this  purpose  a  piece  of 
bladder  neatly  tied  over  the  top  of  the  jar 
will  enable  the  maker  to  aid  this  decomposi¬ 
tion  by  keeping  the  jar  for  a  week  or  so  in 
a  temperature  of  (say)  from  a  hundred  to  a 
hundred  and  five,  and  the  jar  should  not  be 
put  into  the  stirrup  until  all  the  manipulations 
of  the  clock  and  its  pendulum  suspension  are 
completed. 

During  the  ovening  of  the  pendulum,  the 
addition  or  subtraction  of  mercury  from  the 
jar  should  be  effected  by  a  dipping-tube. 
The  most  convenient  form  of  this  latter  tool 
is  a  piece  of  glass  tube  half  an  inch  in  diam¬ 
eter,  drawn  out  at  one  end  for  a  couple  of 
inches  to  a  nose  about  two  inches  long,  and 
of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  top  end  of  the  dipper  should  also  be 
drawn  out  a  little,  and  the  end  of  the  drawn- 
out  part  rounded  where  the  orifice  is  about 
one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  plane 


82 


TO  REPAIR  A  YANKEE  CLOCK. 


in  which  the  pendulum  swings  should  be  east 
and  west,  and  the  suspension  should  always 
be  of  such  a  form  as  will  enable  the  pendu¬ 
lum  to  oscillate  by  its  own  weight,  making 
the  suspension  of  itself  from  all  restraint  of 
friction. 

The  fulfilment  of  the  foregoing  conditions 
will  give  in  all  cases  good  practical  results. 


NEW  METHOD  OF  HARDENING 
DELICATE  STEEL  PARTS. 

HE  warping  of  very  delicate  or  long  steel 
parts  by  tempering  is  one  of  the  most 
disagreeable  occurrences  that  can  happen 
to  a  watchmaker,  and  many  remedies  have 
been  proposed  and  are  in  use  to  counteract 
it,  with  more  or  less  satisfactory  results  — 
tempering  in  animal  charcoal,  smearing  with 
soap,  tempering  in  the  lead  bath,  etc.  The 
latest  method  is  that  of  the  very  able  watch¬ 
maker,  Mr.  P.  Gabriel,  published  in  the 
Revue  Chronometrique.  He  says  : — 

“  Take  an  earthen  or  metal  crucible,  pour 
in  a  proper  quantity  of  cyanide  of  potassium 
and  place  it  over  a  grate  fire  to  fuse.  Into 
this  fusing  mass  enter  the  steel  article  to  be 
hardened,  and,  as  soon  as  red  hot,  dip  it 
quickly  into  cold  water.  The  article  will  not 
only  have  obtained  a  very  good  temper,  but 
it  has  also  not  become  warped  in  the  slight¬ 
est  degree.  Another  advantage  of  this 
method  of  hardening  is  that  the  polish  of 
the  article  is  not  injured  whatever — in  case 
it  has  already  been  polished.  The  polish 
becomes  slightly  gray,  which  color,  however, 
is  easily  removed  by  a  few  retouches  with 
wood  and  a  little  fine  steel  rouge. 

“  As  regards  the  warping  of  the  article  to 
be  hardened,  it  must  be  stated  that  before 
hardening  it  must  not  be  injured  by  hammer 
taps  or  careless  glow  heating,  so  that  the  in¬ 
terior  texture  of  the  steel  is  damaged.  Well 
treated  thus,  turning  arbors  of  from  four  to 
five  centimeters  long  remained  perfectly  true, 
when  hardened  by  this  method.  This  is  also 
excellent  for  hardening  the  detent  springs  of 
chronometers,  by  which  the  foot  must  always 
be  much  larger  than  the  very  delicate, flexible 
part  of  the  spring.  All  the  parts  are  equally 
heated  in  the  cyanide  bath,  in  consequence 
of  which  they  experience  no  warping.” 

TO  REPAIR  A  YANKEE  CLOCK. 

rPHE  ordinary  Yankee  clock  is  so  very 
1  cheap  now  that  it  “  hardly  pays  ”  to 
repair  it  ;  yet  it  stands  the  tvary  watch  and 


clock  repairer  in  hand  to  look  out  even  in  this 
particular.  We  will  suppose  a  customer  lias 
an  old  Yankee  clock  which  has  done  service 
in  the  kitchen  for  years;  he  brings  it  in  to 
you  and  you  see  it  is  well  worn  and  needs  a 
considerable  amount  of  repair  ;  now,  sell  him 
a  new  one  if  you  can  ;  if  not,  do  not  let  him 
take  it  away  and  get  some  other  man  perhaps 
not  half  as  skilful  as  yourself  to  tinker  it  up 
for  him,  for  if  you  do  it  will  be  more  than 
probable  that  he  will  give  him  his  watch  to 
clean  and  repair,  and  you  will  not  only  lose  a 
customer,  but  have  a  man  saying  :  “  Oh  ! 

B.’s  no  good  ;  I  took  my  clock  to  him  to  fix 
and  he  said  it  was  all  worn  out,  and  C.  took  it 
and  fixed  it,  and  it  runs  as  well  as  ever.”  In 
every  case  either  sell  a  new  one  or  fix  up  the 
old  one.  It  is  a  very  bad  clock  that  one  who 
knows  how  cannot  put  into  shape  so  it  will 
run.  Another  thing  to  be  looked  to  is  the 
regulation  ;  be  sure  it  is  running  right  before 
you  let  it  go  out  of  the  store  ;  do  not  trust 
the  purchaser  with  timing  his  own  clock,  as 
it  is  only  in  rare  instances  that  you  will  find 
one  who  can  do  it  properly.  Nine  cases  out 
of  ten,  if  the  clock  goes  too  fast,  he  will  turn 
down  the  nut,  but  it  never  occurs  to  him 
to  pull  the  bob  tightly  down  on  to  it.  All 
words  aside,  it  is  best  to  make  sure  of  the 
regulation  yourself  while  you  have  the  clock 
in  your  possession.  The  great  secret  in  clock 
work  is  to  know  exactly  what  you  want  to  do 
and  have  the  proper  tools  to  do  the  work 
with.  In  three  cases  out  of  four  it  is  not 
necessary  to  take  a  clock  down  to  insure  its 
running.  Put  on  plenty  of  fresh  oil  and  take 
off  the  verge  and  let  it  run  down,  wiping  off 
the  oil  as  it  exudes  from  the  pivot  holes,  leav¬ 
ing  enough  on  finally  to  ensure  its  running 
for  the  next  twelve  months.  When  it  comes 
to  repairs,  clocks  need  but  two  things  (as  a 
rule)  done  to  them  ;  these  are  closing  a  hole 
or  two  and  grinding  out  pits  in  the  pallets. 
It  needs  no  expensive  punches  to  close  a 
hole  nicely,  just  a  crescent-shaped  punch  of 
two  or  three  sizes  is  all  that  is  required.  The 
largest  punch  should  be  of  No.  5  steel  wire 
and  the  smallest  of  No.  14  steel  wire.  Holes 
are  in  every  instance  worn  on  one  side  ;  close 
up  from  this  side  only,  but  be  sure  you  do 
not  overdo  the  matter  and  force  the  hole  over 
too  far — this,  like  everything  else  around  a 
watchmaker's  shop,  is  a  matter  of  nice  judg¬ 
ment.  A  few  words  to  my  old  friends,  the 
apprentices,  for  whom  these  articles  are  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  written  :  Learn  to  take  down 
and  put  together  a  clock  quickly  ;  don't  sit 


HANDSOME  FROSTING  OF  WHEELS,  ETC. 


83 


and  dread  a  clock  and  be  afraid  you  cannot 
get  it  to  strike  right  again  ;  go  at  it  man¬ 
fully,  and  say,  “  I  am  going  to  get  so  I  can 
put  any  striking  clock  together  in  five  min¬ 
utes,”  go  at  it  and  stick  to  it  until  you  can  be 
as  good  as  your  word.  When  you  find  it  is 
necessary  to  take  a  clock  down,  out  with  the 
pins  or  screws  and  down  with  it ;  do  your 
repairs  and  slap  it  together  again.  But  for 
mercy  sake  don’t  sit  and  dread  it.  Get  (when 
you  have  an  idle  half  hour  at  your  disposal) 
an  old  clock  movement  and  take  it  down  and 
mix  up  the  wheels,  and  learn  to  put  every 
part  of  it  in  place  as  quickly  as  you  can  set 
the  men  on  a  checkerboard.  When  you  have 
a  hole  to  close,  notice  how  it  is  to  be  closed, 
and  on  the  side  where  the  wear  is,  so  as  to 
restore  it  to  as  near  the  original  condition  as 
possible.  Judgment  is  essential  in  regard  to 
the  distance  from  the  hole  at  wdrich  you 
should  set  the  punch.  This  in  a  great 
measure  depends  on  the  thickness  of  the 
plate  ;  if  the  plate  is  quite  thick  the  punch 
should  be  set  back  farther  from  the  hole  than 
in  a  thin  plate.  It  should  be  our  endeavor 
ro  close  the  hole  the  entire  thickness  of  the 
plate,  and  this  can  generally  be  done  from 
one  side ;  but  in  some  cases  it  is  necessary 
to  close  from  both  sides.  A  round  broach 
should  be  used  to  smooth  out  the  hole  after 
it  is  closed,  putting  the  wheel  in  place  and 
the  plates  together,  and  trying  if  the  wheel 
runs  free  and  with  the  proper  amount  of  side- 
shake.  A  smooth-faced  stake  of  pretty  good 
weight  should  be  used  for  punching  on. 


HANDSOME  FROSTING  OF  WHEELS, 
ETC. 

FREQUENTLY  we  see  stem-wind  wheels 
frosted,  that  is,  they  have  a  dull,  gray, 
matted  look.  This  is  usually  done  with  sifted 
oil-stone  dust  and  benzine  on  the  end  of  a 
block  of  wood,  giving  the  wheel  or  piece  to 
be  frosted  a  short  circular  motion.  Such 
frosted  wheels,  when  well  and  nicely  done, 
are  very  pretty ; '  but  where  one  perfectly 
satisfactory  finish  of  this  kind  is  accomplished 
there  will  be  a  dozen  failures.  I  mean  to  a 
greater  or  lesser  extent.  A  beautiful  frosting 
can  be  made,  dissolving  clear  white  rosin  in 
alcohol.  The  solution  does  not  want  to  be 
thick,  as  the  thinner  the  solution  is  the  finer 
the  grain  or  finish  produced  will  be.  Take 
two  wide-mouthed  bottles,  holding  about  two 
ounces  each,  and  fill  one  about  half  full  of 
rosin  broken  into  dust  and  small  pieces,  then 


fill  the  bottle  with  95  per  cent,  alcohol  and 
let  it  stand,  with  an  occasional  shaking, 
for  two  or  three  days ;  after  this  pour  the 
fluid  portion  into  the  empty  bottle  and  fill  up 
with  alcohol.  When  we  wish  to  frost  a 
wheel,  put  piece  of  sharpened  pegwood  into 
the  center  hole  (to  handle  it  by) ;  dip  the 
wheel  into  the  solution  of  rosin  and  alcohol 
and  set  the  wheel  on  a  riveting  stake  to  dry, 
letting  the  point  go  into  one  of  the  holes  so 
that  the  wheel  will  lay  flat  and  quiet  until 
dry.  The  wheel  is  now  to  be  dipped  into 
dilute  nitric  acid  prepared  by  mixing  fifty 
drops  of  acid  with  an  ounce  of  water.  The 
wheel  is  allowed  to  remain  in  about  two 
minutes,  when  it  is  removed  and  well  washed 
with  water.  After  this  the  rosin  is  dissolved 
off  with  turpentine  and  well  washed  in 
soap  and  water.  If  the  first  etching  is  not 
satisfactory  repeat  the  rosin  coat,  dipping  in 
acid,  and  the  frosting  will  be  found  very 
even  and  a  little  coarser  than  the  grain  made 
by  grinding.  By  rubbing  the  wheel  on  a  bit 
of  flat  cork  with  oil-stone  dust  and  benzine, 
the  dark  coat  produced  by  the  acid  is  re¬ 
moved  and  the  surface  has  a  beautiful  steel- 
gray  appearance.  A  mixture  of  Jj  of  an 
ounce  of  alum  and  Q  of  an  ounce  of  corro¬ 
sive  sublimate  in  half  a  pint  of  water,  makes 
a  good  acid  solution  into  which  to  dip  the 
wheel  after  the  rosin  coat  has  been  applied. 
It  is  to  be  understood  that  the  process  of 
frosting  by  acid  is  not  attempted  until  the 
wheel  is  ground  smooth  and  flat,  and  free 
from  any  deep  scratches.  The  solution  of 
alum  and  corrosive  sublimate  acts  much 
quicker  than  the  dilute  nitric  acid,  a  few 
seconds  answering.  Before  I  leave  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  cheap  chatelaine  watches  it  is  well  to 
speak  of  the  stem-winding  works.  These 
are,  as  a  rule,  very  badly  made  and  tax  the 
ingenuity  of  the  workman  to  the  uttermost 
to  remedy  the  countless  ills  to  which  (like 
flesh)  they  are  heir  to.  The  American  plan 
of  a  tilting  yoke  for  changing  over  the  action 
from  the  winding  to  the  hand  setting,  is  usu¬ 
ally  kept  in  place  by  a  spring  struck  out  of 
sheet  metal  with  a  die.  This  method  is  to 
be  deprecated,  as  the  die  breaks  up  the 
strength  of  the  steel.  Springs  cut  out  in  this- 
way  should  be  struck  out  much  larger  than 
needed,  and  worked  down  with  a  file  or  mill¬ 
ing  machine  to  the  correct  size.  For  such 
springs  we  need  sheet  steel  softened  in  char¬ 
coal  annealing  box  from  which  to  cut  them. 
Every  watchmaker  should  keep  an  assort¬ 
ment  of  such  sheet  steel  of  different  thick- 


84 


THE  USE  OF  BENZINE  FOR  WATCII  CLEANING. 


nesses  ready  softened  for  just  such  jobs.  In 
making  such  a  spring,  about  the  best  way  is 
to  select  a  bit  of  softened  sheet  steel  of  the 
proper  thickness  and  soft  solder  the  old  spring 
fast  to  the  steel.  The  hole  is  drilled  and  the 
whole  spring  given  shape  while  the  old  spring 
is  attached.  A  jeweler’s  narrow  saw  can  be 
used  to  saw  the  soft  steel  into  shape  almost 
as  readily  as  if  it  were  of  brass.  After  it  is 
cut  out  with  the  saw  it  should  be  brought 
nearly  to  shape  with  a  file,  and  then  hardened 
by  placing  it  between  two  plates  of  thin  sheet 
iron  formed  by  folding  one  piece  together 
like  the  covers  to  a  book.  The  spring  is 
embedded  in  a  paste  of  Castile  soap  be¬ 
tween  the  folds  of  the  sheet  iron,  heated  red 
hot,  and  thrown  into  cold  water  to  harden. 
It  should  now  be  tempered  by  laying  on 
another  piece  of  sheet  iron  with  a  little  bees¬ 
wax,  and  heated  until  the  beeswax  burns 
off.  This  device  of  heating  to  harden  can 
also  be  used  for  wheels. 


TO  COLOR  IRON  AND  STEEL  BROWN. 

ISSOLYE  in  four  parts  water,  two  parts 
crystallized  chloride  of  iron,  two  parts 
chloride  of  antimonium  and  a  trifle  of  tannic 
acid,  and  apply  this  mixture  with  a  cloth  or 
sponge  upon  the  surface ;  then  let  it  dry. 
Repeat  the  application  according  to  the 
depth  of  color  desired.  This  coating  fully 
protects  the  steel  against  humidity.  The 
chloride  of  antimonium  should  be  as  little 
acid  as  possible.  _ 

HARDENING  GOLD  SPRINGS. 

O  gold  detent,  thermometer,  suspension 
and  balance  springs  can  be  imparted  a 
high  degree  of  elasticity.  Rolling  hardens 
them,  but  they  are  rendered  very  brittle  there¬ 
by.  They  can  be  made  pliable  and  elastic,  not 
by  hardening,  as  in  the  case  of  steel,  but  by 
annealing,  care  being  taken  not  to  exceed  a 
certain  degree  of  heat.  The  spring  may  be 
coiled  on  a  block  and  placed  in  a  tube,  with 
a  smooth  steel  lid  ;  then  heat  the  tube  in  the 
flame  of  a  spirit  lamp,  and  as  soon  as  the 
steel  is  of  a  blue  temper,  remove  the  flame 
and  allow  the  whole  to  cool. 


FLATTENING  AN  ORDINARY  BAL¬ 
ANCE  SPRING. 

EMOVE  the  collet  and  stud,  and  clamp 
the  spring  by  a  central  screw  between 
two  plates,  which  are  then  placed  on  a  blu¬ 


ing  tray  and  gently  heated.  A  small  piece 
of  whitened  steel  is  laid  on  the  plate  in  order 
to  see  that  the  heat  does  not  exceed  what  is 
needed  to  give  a  blue  temper.  Allow  the 
plates  to  cool  and  separate  them.  Ordinary 
springs  being  made  of  rolled  steel  and  sub¬ 
sequently  coiled,  always  open  out  on  heat¬ 
ing  ;  it  is  therefore  necessary,  before  resort¬ 
ing  to  the  above  method,  to  coil  up  the  spring, 
as  otherwise  the  outer  turn  will  be  found  to 
have  opened  beyond  the  stud. 


TO  FIT  A  BOUCHON. 

AFTER  repairing  the  pivot,  a  bouchon  is 
selected  as  small  as  the  pivot  will  admit. 
Open  the  hole  of  the  plate  or  cock  so  that 
the  bouchon,  which  previously  should  be 
lightly  draw-filed  at  the  end,  will  stand  with 
a  slight  pressure  upright  in  the  opened  hole 
of  the  plate  or  cock ;  then,  with  a  knife,  cut 
it  across  at  the  part  where  it  is  to  be  broken 
off  so  that  it  may  break  very  readily  when 
required  to  do  so.  Press  it  in  the  plate  on 
the  side  the  pivot  works,  break  off,  and  then 
drive  it  home  with  a  small  center  punch.  In 
every  repair  of  this  nature,  notice  should  be 
taken  of  the  amount  of  end-shake  of  the 
pinion,  and  allowance  made  by  leaving  the 
bouchon  so  that  any  excess  may  be  corrected. 
To  finish  off  the  shoulder  end,  a  small  cham¬ 
fering  tool  should  be  used.  It  has  a  hole 
smaller  than  the  pivot  one  to  receive  a  fine 
brass  wire,  serving  as  a  center  to  prevent  the 
tool  from  changing  its  position  while  being 
used ;  or  the  wire  may  be  put  through  the 
bouchon  holes,  and  then  the  hole  of  the  tool 
may  be  left  open.  Tile  above  is  a  far  more 
expeditious  way  than  using  the  turning  lathe. 


THE  USE  OF  BENZINE  FOR  WATCH 
CLEANING. 

N  a  period  at  the  workbench  extending 
over  fifty  years,  I  have  used  benzine  for  the 
last  fifteen — of  course,  the  purest.  A  piece 
of  brass  dipped  into  it  will  not  have  a  par¬ 
ticle  left  on  it  one-half  minute  after,  and 
if  my  experience  in  this  line  will  be  of  any 
use,  I  am  glad  to  offer  it  to  my  fellow-work¬ 
men. 

On  taking  a  watch  down,  removing  all 
screws  and  cap  jewels,  I  place  all  the  parts 
in  an  alcohol  glass  one-half  full  of  benzine ; 
I  then  put  the  cover  on  and  let  it  soak  for 
an  hour  or  so  ;  two  or  three  can  thus  be  in 
operation  at  the  same  time.  Then  I  turn  all 


MEASURE  FOR  THE  LENGTH  OF  BALANCE  STAFF,  ETC.  85 


out  into  a  small  white  porcelain  plate,  and 
with  tweezers  and  a  small,  stumpy  camel’s- 
hair  brush,  wash  all  the  parts  while  covered 
with  the  benzine  ;  on  removing,  dry  off  with 
an  old  fine  cambric  rag ;  then  place  in  alco¬ 
hol  and  dry  off  with  another  clean  rag ;  this 
can  all  be  done  easily  in  ten  minutes.  I  do 
not  let  it  remain  in  the  alcohol  longer  than 
I  can  help,  putting  the  balance  and  pallets 
in  last,  and  taking  them  out  first.  I  very 
seldom  find  it  necessary  to  use  either  peg  or 
(watch)  brush ;  thus  the  gilding  even  on  a 
cheap  watch  will  never  get  rubbed  off.  Of 
course,  you  want  to  keep  clean  rags,  espe¬ 
cially  for  the  alcohol.  In  my  opinion,  there 
are  so  few  watches  that  will  do  without  a 
little  oil  on  the  pallets,  that  it  is  best  to  put 
it  on  all.  Often  when  I  have  left  them  over 
night  without  oil,  they  have  stopped  before 
morning  (of  course,  alcohol  makes  them  very 
dry),  and  this  has  happened  with  good  Amer¬ 
ican  watches  too. 


TO  REPAIR  A  PINION. 

AT  the  present  prices  of  material,  it  is 
l  economy  to  buy  the  parts  as  nearly  fin¬ 
ished  as  possible.  Then  take  your  measures 
and  bring  them  to  sizes  required  in  your  lathe. 
Then  stake  the  wheels  to  their  place  with  a 
good  true  staking  tool.  With  a  good  tool, 
you  are  bound  to  do  good  work.  The  bal¬ 
ance  staff,  when  broken,  requires  a  staking 
tool  and  roller  remover  to  do  a  good  job 
properly.  Fit  your  new  staff  to  the  jewels, 
then  stake  on  the  balance ;  place  in  position 
and  take  a  blow-pipe  and  blow  against  its 
edge,  and  see  if  it  runs  easy  in  all  positions. 
This  is  the  very  best  test.  Let  it  run  lively 
and  listen,  and  see  if  there  is  any  tremble  or 
jar;  if  you  hear  this,  the  balance  is  out  of 
poise  or  out  of  truth.  Always  get  a  good 
polish  on  your  pivots. 


TO  STRAIGHTEN  THE  CYLINDER 
WHEEL. 

HE  cylinder  escape  wheel,  if  it  does  not 
run  flat,  may  be  straightened  upon  a  nice 
little  brass  anvil,  which  has  a  hole  for  the 
pinion  in  the  center ;  it  can  be  placed  either 
upon  the  workbench  or  fastened  in  the  vise  ; 
a  small  punch,  in  the  shape  of  a  rounded- 
off  chisel  can  be  used,  or  else  taps  are  di¬ 
rectly  given  upon  the  wheel  with  the  pane 
of  a  small  hammer.  Care  of  course  is  neces¬ 
sary. 


THE  PROPORTION  OF  AN  ESCAPE¬ 
MENT. 

HPI  most  effectual  test  of  the  correctness 
of  the  proportions  of  an  escapement  is 
supplied  by  the  bankings.  Assuming  that  the 
depths  are  right,  the  “  run  ”  of  the  pallets 
ought  to  be  the  same  as  the  shake  on  the 
bankings,  and  if  the  wheel  has  been  so  planted 
that  the  lever  lies  straight  along  the  pallet 
the  proportions  may  be  used  as  the  basis  of 
future  operations,  assuming  always  that  the 
angle  of  the  pallets  are  the  same. 


TO  MAKE  A  WHETSTONE. 

T  is  easy  to  make  a  stone  for  sharpening 
tools  and  to  make  it  sufficiently  hard, 
and  give  it  the  “  bite  ”  desired.  Take  gel¬ 
atine  of  a  very  good  quality,  which  melt  in 
an  equal  quantity  of  water.  The  operation 
should  be  performed  in  darkness,  as  daylight 
is  injurious  to  gelatine.  When  melted,  add 
one  and  one-half  per  cent,  of  bicarbonate 
of  potash  previously  dissolved.  Then  take 
about  nine  times,  by  weight,  the  quantity  of 
gelatine  employed  of  very  fine  emery  and 
pulverized  flint-stone,  which  mix  intimately 
with  the  dissolved  gelatine.  Mould  the  ob¬ 
tained  paste  according  to  the  desired  form, 
and  press  it  in  as  hard  as  possible  to  consoli¬ 
date  the  mass  well.  After  it  has  been  dried 
in  the  sun,  you  will  have  a  first-class  stone 
for  sharpening.  _ 

HOW  TO  DRILL  HARD  STEEL. 

AVING  to  put  a  pivot  in  a  pinion  wheel, 
on  attempting  to  drill,  I  found  no  drill  I 
could  make  would  cut  it.  I  thought  of  trying 
the  same  lubricator  as  for  cutting  or  drilling 
glass,  viz.,  turpentine,  and  to  my  great  sur¬ 
prise  I  found  the  same  drills  cut  freely  and 
enabled  me  to  get  over  the  difficulty.  In  a 
long  experience  and  with  many  men,  I  never 
heard  of  it  being  used  before,  and  if  not  gen¬ 
erally  known,  if  tried  I  am  sure  will  remove 
a  difficulty  that  I  know  has  existed  with  many 
repairers.  _ 

MEASURE  FOR  THE  LENGTH  OF 
BALANCE  STAFF,  ETC. 

N  exchange  contains  a  practical  process 
for  exact  measure.  The  brass  instrument 
is  composed  of  a  brass  pendant  with  two 
points  placed  one  over  the  other,  exactly  sim¬ 
ilar  to  the  point  of  the  depthing-tool,  with  the 
exception  that  the  inside  ends  are  flat.  Both 


86 


THE  TRAIN  OF  A  WATCH. 


points  will  be  pressed  by  side  screws,  similar 
to  the  depthing-tool.  The  outer  end  of  the 
upper  point  is  furnished  with  a  screw,  on 
which  is  a  strong  adjusting  nut.  It  has  to 
be  used  as  follows :  The  tool  with  the  situ¬ 
ated  piece  is  pressed  into  the  vise,  and  after 
the  cover-lids  or  end-stones  have  been  taken 
off  from  the  jewel  holes  of  both  balance  staff 
or  cylinder  cocks,  the  whole  is  brought  with 
the  left  hand  between  the  points  of  the  in¬ 
strument,  of  which  the  lowest  will  be  estab¬ 
lished  by  the  side  screw,  while  the  upper  one 
remains  previously  loosened.  The  last  point 
is  afterward  pressed  softly  down,  until  it  re¬ 
poses  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  upper  jewel 
hole.  The  upper  point  is  also  pressed  by 
the  side  screw  and  the  nut  screwed  down, 
so  as  to  pose  firmly  on  the  body  of  the  tool. 
By  this  process  is  the  corrected  measure 
given.  To  take  the  plate  out  with  both 
cocks,  it  is  necessary  to  screw  the  upper  side 
looser  and  to  lift  the  point,  by  which  motion 
the  whole  is  free  and  easily  taken  away. 
The  point  is  to  be  pushed  back  until  the  nut 
reposes  firm  on  the  body  of  the  tool,  being 
also  pressed  by  the  side  screw.  The  distance 
of  both  points  given  is  the  exact  one  between 
the  outer  surfaces  of  both  side  holes,  which 
shows  the  right  length  of  the  arbor  to  be  fin¬ 
ished.  _ 

CLUB  TEETH. 

NE  of  the  grave  objections  to  the  club 
tooth  is  that,  no  matter  how  perfect  the 
machinery  for  cutting  the  teeth,  error  will 
creep  in  ;  and  these  errors  are  much  more 
difficult  to  detect  than  with  the  ratchet  tooth 


CYLINDER  PIVOTS. 

LL  cylinder  pivots  should  be  of  a  coni¬ 
cal  shape,  since  they  are  then  much 
stronger ;  and  their  making  does  not  require 
more  time  and  skill  than  ordinary  cylindrical 
pivots.  They  are  made  with  a  three-cornered 
pivot  polishing  file,  the  edges  of  which  are 
correspondingly  ground  off.  The  file  must 
be  well  sharpened,  to  be  done  with  medium 
fine  emery  upon  a  flat  piece  of  lead. 


THE  TRAIN  OF  A  WATCH. 

HE  first  condition  for  the  construction 
of  the  train  of  a  watch,  says  M.  Gross- 
mann.  is  to  make  it  of  as  large  dimensions 
as  the  diameter  of  the  movement  will  admit 
of.  The  very  limited  space  allowed  by 


reigning  taste  for  the  movement  of  a  port¬ 
able  time-keeper  is  already  an  impediment 
to  the  attaining  of  a  high  degree  of  perfec¬ 
tion  in  the  gearings ;  and  if  it  is  possible  to 
execute  the  wheels  and  pinions  of  a  clock 
with  a  satisfactory  degree  of  accuracy,  it 
gets  more  and  more  difficult  to  do  so,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  smaller  dimensions  in  which  the 
work  is  to  be  executed.  If  we  had  the 
means  of  verifying  easily  the  accuracy  of  the 
division  and  rounding  of  our  small  pinions, 
even  of  the  best  make,  we  would  soon  come 
to  the  conclusion  that  it  must  necessarily 
diminish  with  the  dimensions.  The  inequal¬ 
ities  and  alterations  of  shape  by  the  stoning 
and  polishing  will  be  nearly  the  same  with  a 
large  pinion  as  with  a  small  one,  only  the 
small  one  suffers  proportionally  much  more 
under  them.  This  applies  to  the  manufact¬ 
uring  of  the  pinions ;  but  before  the  pinion 
runs  in  the  train  it  has  to  pass  through  the 
finishing  process.  The  finisher  first  of  all 
will  have  to  verify  whether  the  pinion  runs 
perfectly  true,  and  to  set  it  true  in  case  of 
need.  In  all  operations  of  this  nature  the 
operator  has  to  rely  on  his  eye  for  distinguish¬ 
ing  whether  the  state  of  the  piece  is  satisfac¬ 
tory.  But  the  eye,  like  all  the  senses  of 
man,  is  reliable  only  within  certain  limits, 
and  if  a  good  workman  pronounces  a  pinion 
to  be  true,  this  statement  must  not  be  taken 
mathematically ;  it  can  only  be  understood 
so  that  an  experienced  eye  can  no  more  de¬ 
tect  any  deviations  from  the  truth  of  run¬ 
ning.  There  are,  then,  in  any  piece  of 
workmanship,  some  small  defects  escaping 
the  most  experienced  eye,  and  their  absolute 
quantity  is  about  the  same  for  the  large 
pieces  as  for  the  small  ones.  Let  us  suppose, 
for  instance,  that  a  careful  workman  when 
turning  a  pinion  of  3  millimeters  diameter, 
cannot  perceive  any  defect  of  truth  beyond 
one  hundredth  of  this  size — say  0.03  milli¬ 
meter.  The  same  defect,  indistinguishable 
to  his  eye,  with  a  pinion  of  one  millimeter 
diameter,  will  be  not  one  but  three  hun¬ 
dredths  of  it ;  consequently  it  is  of  threefold 
more  importance  with  the  small  pinion  taken 
proportionally. 

The  same  considerations  will,  to  their  full 
extent,  apply  also  to  the  correctness  of  the 
depths  or  gearings ;  and  it  will  be  clearly 
seen  that  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
construct  the  acting  parts  of  the  train  as  large 
as  the  diameter  of  the  watch  will  admit  of. 

Another  matter  of  great  importance  is  the 
uniform  transmission  of  motive  power  from 


THE  TRAIN  OF  A  WATCH. 


the  barrel  through  the  train  to  the  escape¬ 
ment.  This  uniformity  can  only  be  attained 
by  good  depthing ;  and,  as  it  is  well  known 
that  the  depthings  are  more  perfect  with  the 
higher  numbered  pinions,  it  is  advisable 
never  to  have  the  center  pinion  with  less  than 
i  2  leaves,  the  third  and  fourth  wheel  pinions 
with  io,  and  the  escape  pinion  with  7  at 
least.  The  difference  resulting  therefrom  in 
the  cost  of  manufacturing  is  so  very  trifling, 
that  it  could  not  be  an  obstacle  to  making 
■even  low  class  watches  with  these  numbers. 

The  center  pinion,  it  must  be  admitted, 
will  be  more  delicate,  apparently,  and  more 
liable  to  injury  by  the  sudden  jerk  resulting 
from  a  rupture  of  the  mainspring,  or  by  the 
pressure  occasioned  through  careless  wind¬ 
ing.  The  teeth  of  the  barrel,  too,  being 
necessarily  thinner,  will  be  more  apt  to  bend 
:from  the  same  causes ;  but  this  is  partly 
remedied  by  the  fact  that  with  a  pinion  of 
twelve  there  are  in  almost  every  moment  two 
teeth  of  the  barrel  acting  at  the  same  time 
on  two  leaves  of  the  pinion,  while  in  the 
lower  numbered  pinions  one  tooth  alone 
Jias  to  lead  through  a  more  or  less  extended 
angle.  Thus,  any  sudden  shock  will  be 
divided  between  two  teeth  of  the  pinion  of 
twelve,  and  sustained  in  the  same  way  by 
two  teeth  of  the  barrel  belonging  to  it,  where¬ 
by  the  same  apparent  danger  is  greatly  dimin¬ 
ished.  Besides,  the  finer  toothing  produces 
a  better  transmission  of  power,  a  weaker 
mainspring  may  be  used,  and,  in  case  of  its 
Tupture,  the  shock  will  be  less  violent. 

One  of  the  chief  conditions  for  a  good  and 
regular  transmission  of  power  is  a  good  and 
suitable  shape  of  the  wheel  teeth  ;  and  it  is 
astonishing  to  see  in  what  an  indifferent  way 
this  important  matter  is  treated.  It  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  the  wheel  teeth,  in  order 
to  act  properly,  ought  to  have  an  epicycloidal 
rounding,  and  no  engineer  would  suffer  any 
form  for  the  teeth  of  star  wheels.  Berthoud 
treated  this  subject  in  a  most  elaborate  way 
about  a  century  ago ;  Reid  and  others  have 
also  explained  the  principles  of  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  toothed  wheels  most  explicitly,  but  in 
vain.  It  seems  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
horological  community  have  resolved  to  view 
the  shape  of  their  wheel  teeth  as  a  matter  of 
taste.  All  the  wheels  of  English  and  other 
makers  have,  with  very  few  exceptions,  their 
teeth  of  a  shape  defying  the  rules  of  Berthoud, 
Reid,  and  other  masters — a  shape  of  which 
nothing  can  be  said,  except  that  they  look 
very  nice  in  the  eyes  of  those  who  make 


87 

them,  or  those  who  use  them,  and  say,  “  They 
look  much  better,  indeed,  than  those  ugly 
pointed  teeth.” 

There  is  no  possibility  of  being  successful 
against  arguments  like  these,  and  I  have 
known  many  a  respectable  and  good  watch¬ 
maker  who  declared  that  he  could  not  bear 
the  sight  of  epicycloidally  rounded  teeth. 
This  is  a  subject,  however,  which  cannot  be 
more  amply  entered  into  in  the  present  essay. 

The  respective  proportions  of  the  wheels 
of  a  train  ought  also  to  present  a  certain  har¬ 
mony,  attainable  by  a  regular  progression  in 
the  diameters  of  the  wheels  and  the  fineness 
of  their  teeth. 

With  respect  to  the  escape  pinion,  at  least 
for  the  larger  watches,  I  would  strongly  rec¬ 
ommend  to  have  it  of  eight  leaves,  with  a 
fourth  wheel  of  75,  and  an  escape  wheel  of- 
16  teeth.  The  last  depthing,  the  most  sensi¬ 
tive  of  all  to  any  irregularity  of  transmission, 
will  be  found  greatly  improved  by  so  doing. 

The  following  are  the  sizes  of  a  train  which, 
according  to  my  opinion,  would  answer  per¬ 
fectly  to  the  above  conditions,  for  a  watch 
of  43  millimeters  =  19  lignes  Swiss  =  14  lines 
English  size. 

Diameter  of  barrel .  .  43  X  0.485  =  20.85  mm- 

Center  wheel . 15.4  mm. 

Third  wheel . 13.0  mm. 

Fourth  wheel . j  1 .8  mm. 

The  numbers  would  be 

Barrel . 

Center  wheel . 

Third  wheel . 

Fourth  wheel . 

Escape  wheel . 

Pinion . 


The  sizes  of  teeth  are  accordingly : 

Barrel-  . °-345  mm. 

Center  wheel . 0.30  mm. 

Third  wheel . 0.27  mm. 

Fourth  wheel . 0.24  mm. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  this  progression  is  a 
very  regular  one. 

The  train  ought  to  be  arranged  in  such  a 
way  as  to  have  the  seconds  circle  at  a  suit¬ 
able  place  on  the  dial.  This  circle,  of  course, 
ought  to  be  as  large  as  possible  for  the  sake 
of  distinctness  of  the  divisions,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  ought  not  to  be  so  large  as  to 


.  90  teeth. 
,80 

75 
75 
16 


1  2 
I  o 


SCREW  PLATES  AND  TAPS. 


88 

cover  entirely  the  VI.  of  the  hour  circle.  It 
'  may  be  recommended  as  a  good  disposition 
to  have  the  center  of  the  circle  of  seconds 
exactly  in  the  middle  of  the  distance  from 
the  center  of  the  dial  to  its  edge.  The  gen¬ 
eral  observation  of  this  rule  would  be  a  de¬ 
cided  step  toward  a  greater  regularity  of 
construction,  and  besides  it  would  prove  a 
great  boon  to  all  the  dealers  and  manufact¬ 
urers  of  dials,  and  to  all  the  repairers  who 
have  to  replace  broken  dials. 

A  greater  circle  of  seconds  might  be  ob¬ 
tained  by  approaching  its  center  nearer  to 
the  center  of  the  dial,  but  this  subordinate 
advantage  would  be  too  dearly  purchased  at 
the  expense  of  the  commodious  arrangement 
of  the  wheel  work. 

The  height  of  the  moving  arbors  ought  to 
be  restricted  only  by  the  height  of  the  frame. 
'The  longer  the  distance  between  the  two 
bearings  of  an  axis  can  be,  the  better  it  will 
prove  for  the  stability  of  the  moving  part  as 
well  as  its  performance.  The  same  amount 
of  side-shake  required  for  free  action  will  in¬ 
fluence  the  pitch  of  a  long  pinion  less  than 
that  of  a  short  one. 

The  diameters  of  the  pivots  in  the  watch 
work  could  not  be  made  according  to  the 
generally  established  rules  in  the  construction 
of  machines,  for  if  we  should  attempt  to 
make  the  dimensions  of  our  pivots  in  a  theo¬ 
retical  proportion  to  the  strain  which  they 
have  to  resist,  we  would  obtain  pivots  of  such 
extreme  thinness  that  they  would  be  very 
difficult  to  make  and  handle,  and  it  would  be 
doubtful  whether  the  cross-section  of  such 
a  pivot  would  not  come  into  an  unfavor¬ 
able  proportion  with  the  molecular  disposi¬ 
tion  of  the  steel.  Besides,  it  ought  always 
to  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  pivots  of  the 
train  must  not  be  calculated  to  bear  with 
safety  the  mere  pressure  of  the  mainspring, 
but  also  the  sudden  strains  resulting  from 
rupture  of  the  spring  or  from  rough  winding. 
Thus,  there  will  be  very  little  to  say  against 
the  way  in  which  the  pivots  of  watch  work 
are  generally  made. 

SCREW  PLATES  AND  TAPS. 

HE  lathes  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  screws,  says  Mr.  Saunier,  are  of  two 
kinds ;  those  intended  for  polishing,  and, 
where  necessary,  modifying  the  form  of  screw 
heads  much  used  by  watch  examiners  and 
repairers,  and  those  specially  designed  for 
cutting  the  threads,  which  are  mainly  in  use 


among  mechanics.  Before  discussing  them, 
however,  we  will  give  some  account  of  the 
screw  plates  and  taps  in  ordinary  use. 

COMMON  HAND  SCREW  PLATES. 

The  use  of  these  is  much  facilitated  by 
providing  a  seconds  plate  perforated  with 
holes  of  such  sizes  that  a  spindle  which 
just  passes  into  a  hole  of  any  given  number 
will  be  of  the  size  most  convenient  for  form¬ 
ing  a  screw  in  the  hole  of  the  same  number  in 
the  screw  plate.  For  a  long  time  we  had 
made  use  of  two  Latard  screw  plates,  so- 
made  that  a  rod  which  would  enter  into 
one  hole  without  play  was  of  the  most  con¬ 
venient  size  for  forming  a  screw  in  the  next 
smaller  hole  but  one.  (Thus  the  plate  per¬ 
forated  with  plain  holes  can  be  replaced  by 
a  second  screw  plate,  or  by  using  the  suc¬ 
cessively  larger  holes  on  a  single  plate  as 
gauges.) 

In  order  to  form  a  screw  that  is  clean  cut 
and  even  with  the  least  possible  straining  of 
the  metal,  the  holes  in  the  screw  plates  should 
have  notches ;  they  should  be  carefully 
hardened  and  well  polished  on  each  side  of 
the  notch,  and  this  system  is  now  even  ap¬ 
plied  in  the  case  of  the  smallest  jewel  screws. 

SCREW  DIES. 

The  ordinary  plate  in  which  notches  are 
not  cut  at  the  sides  squeezes  up  and  strains- 
the  metal.  This  effect  is  less  marked  when 
separate  dies  are  used,  and  disappears  en¬ 
tirely  if  only  a  small  quantity  of  metal  is- 
removed  at  a  time  and  the  cutting  edges  of 
the  dies  are  smooth  and  in  good  order.  In 
addition  to  possessing  other  advantages,  this- 
form  of  screw  plates  enables  us  to  obtain  at 
will  screws  of  the  same  thread  and  different 
diameters,  or  of  the  same  diameter  and  dif¬ 
ferent  threads.  The  dies  must  be  carefully 
fitted  to  the  sides  that  receive  them.  Dies 
cannot  be  employed  for  cutting  very  small 
screws. 

FINE  THREADED  SCREW  PLATES. 

At  the  present  day  these  can  always  be 
obtained  at  the  tool  shops ;  but  thirty  years, 
ago  it  was  not  so,  and  the  watchmaker  was. 
obliged  to  make  them  for  himself.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  method  was  adopted :  Take  a  screw 
formed  with  an  ordinary  plate  in  which  the 
thread  is  broad  as  compared  with  the  hollow. 
If  the  screw  does  not  satisfy  this  condition, 
it  must  be  modified  thus :  Having  ascer¬ 
tained  that  it  runs  true  on  its  points,  and  that 


BANKING  EBROR. 


89 


it  is  larger  than  will  be  ultimately  required, 
attach  a  ferrule  to  the  screw  and  place  it  be¬ 
tween  the  centers  of  the  lathe.  The  T-rest 
must  carry  a  smooth  horizontal  rod  of  hard¬ 
ened  steel.  Rotating  the  screw  with  a  bow, 
hold  a  slitting  file  in  the  hollow ;  the  file 
should  fit  into  this  hollow  accurately  and 
should  be  smoothed  on  its  two  sides,  only 
cutting  with  one  edge.  The  bar  of  hardened 
steel  will  determine  the  depth  to  which  the 
file  is  allowed  to  cut.  By  this  means  a  screw 
is  obtained  that  has  a  thread  thick  at  the 
bottom.  With  the  graver  remove  the  top 
of  this  thread,  round  off  its  corners  and 
harden  the  screw,  filing  three  facets  along 
its  entire  length  that  make  it  taper.  The 
tap  having  been  thus  prepared  is  employed 
for  cutting  a  thread  in  a  piece  of  steel,  not 
too  thick,  that-has  been  previously  annealed, 
and  in  which  a  hole  is  drilled  of  the  proper 
size.  The  thread  of  this  internal  screw 
will  be  thin  and  the  hollow  proportionately 
broad. 

The  plate  is  now  hammered  cold  with 
care,  until  the  thickness  is  so  far  diminished 
that  the  thread  and  hollow  are  as  nearly  as 
possible  of  equal  thickness.  Harden  it  and 
chamfer  the  ends  of  the  hole  with  a  conical 
steel  point  and  oil-stone  dust.  Then  clean  it 
and  cut  a  thread  on  a  piece  of  soft  steel 
which  may  be  formed  into  a  tap.  If  the 
operation  has  been  properly  conducted  this 
tap  will  satisfy  the  prescribed  conditions  and, 
when  hardened,  it  is  to  be  employed  as  a 
screw  plate ;  for  that  first  formed  must,  in 
consequence  of  the  hammering  to  which  it 
was  subjected,  present  irregularities  in  the 
hole,  and  can  only  be  used  to  cut  one  or 
two  taps  cautiously.  It  is  useless  for  making 
screws  or  tapping  brass. 


TO  CLEAR  A  STOPPED  HOLE  IN  A 
SCREW  PLATE. 

RILL  a  hole  through  the  center  of  the 
piece  of  metal  that  fills  up  the  hole,  tak¬ 
ing  care  to  maintain  it  central,  and  to  employ 
a  drill  that  is  sufficiently  small  to  avoid  all  risk 
of  contact  with  the  screw  thread.  Pass  a 
broach  through  this  hole,  and,  after  tighten¬ 
ing  it  with  a  few  gentle  blows  with  the  ham¬ 
mer,  turn  it  in  such  a  direction  that  it  tends 
to  unscrew  the  broken  screw,  which  will,  in 
nearly  every  case,  be  removed  without  diffi¬ 
culty  by  this  means. 


THROW  AWAY  BAD  SPRINGS. 

HE  vibration  of  the  balance  and  the 
time-keeping  qualities  of  the  watch  are 
more  frequently  destroyed  by  untrue  and 
badly  put  springs.  Repairs  to  springs,  except 
of  a  trifling  character,  are  generally  false  econ¬ 
omy.  An  hour  may  be  spent  trying  to  re¬ 
shape  and  flatten  a  bad  spring  in  vain,  which 
can  be  replaced  in  a  few  minutes  by  an  ex¬ 
pert  hand  possessing  a  good  stock  of  springs, 
and  nothing  pays  so  well  for  keeping. 


THE  CUTTING  OF  HOLLOWS,  ETC. 

HE  cutting  of  hollows  in  pinion  faces 
and  rivets  is  perhaps  the  finest  test  of 
skill  with  the  graver,  as  a  sharp,  well-pointed, 
yet  strong,  graver  must  be  used,  and  the 
graver  cutting'  clean  without  burr  or  rough¬ 
ness,  leaving  the  hollow  a  bright  gray.  It 
was  the  practice  years  ago  to  polish  hollow, 
but  there  is  no  skill  in  the  operation,  and  it 
has  gone  out  of  fashion.  The  value  of  hol¬ 
lows  to  rivets  and  pinions,  when  the  pivots 
are  close  to  them,  is  very  great,  as  they  pre¬ 
vent  the  oil  running  away  from  the  pivots 
and  shoulders.  _ 

LOSS  OF  ESCAPE  WHEEL. 

HOULD  an  escape  wheel  and  pinion 
be  lost,  they  can  be  replaced  by  sector¬ 
ing  the  fourth  wheel  for  the  size  of  the  pinion, 
or  a  pinion  whose  leaves  are  rather  smaller 
than  the  same  number  of  teeth  of  the  wheel 
may  be  tried  in  the  depthing-tool,  taking  the 
depth  from  the  fourth  and  scape  holes.  The 
scape  wheel  corresponds  in  number  on  the 
gauge  with  the  hole  in  the  cylinder  gauge,  in 
which  it  fits ;  but  before  using  it  will  be  as 
well  to  see  if  the  cylinder  passes  freely  be¬ 
tween  two  teeth  of  the  wheel,  and  that  one 
tooth  of  the  wheel  has  shake  sufficient  for 
freedom  in  the  inside  of  the  cylinder. 


.  BANKING  ERROR. 

NEW  hairspring  will  sometimes  cause 
the  banking  error.  There  is  a  tendency 
of  late  years  to  put  too  many  turns  in  the 
hairsprings  of  cylinder  watches.  A  large 
number  of  turns  in  a  lever  balance  spring  is 
a  gfeat  advantage,  owing  to  the  greater  vi¬ 
bration  necessary  and  desirable  ;  but  when 
the  arc  of  vibration  is  small,  as  in  cylinder 
and  vertical  watches,  long  springs  do  not 
have  all  their  turns  properly  in  action,  and 
offering  not  sufficient  resistance  to  the  bal- 


9o 


TO  REGULATE  A  FIXE  WATCH. 


ance,  allow  it  to  travel  greater  distances  too 
easily.  A  balance  without  the  balance  spring 
strikes  the  banking  at  every  vibration,  and 
the  number  of  turns  and  tension  of  the  spring 
are  the  means  to  be  used  to  prevent  this. 

TO  FIT  IN  NEW  SCAPE  WHEEL. 

HE  old  wheel  was  defective,  the  teeth 
being  bent  and  too  short,  so  that  the 
action  was  not  safe ;  the  effect  being  that 
the  scape  tooth,  instead  of  dropping  on  the 
locking  face  of  the  pallet  jewel,  and  drawing 
the  fork  over  to  the  banking  pin,  dropped  on 
the  impulse  face,  and  thereby  caused  the 
fork  to  travel  the  opposite  direction  and  bring 
the  guard  pin  up  against  the  roller,  which 
would  either  cause  the  watch  to  stop  or  vary. 
N o  doubt  some  of  my  readers  have  often,  in 
listening  to  a  watch  ticking  when  in  the  case, 
heard  an  occasional  scraping  noise,  and  an 
accompanying  dropping  off  in  the  motion, 
and  perhaps  it  would  run  on  again  for  some 
time  before  another  scrape  would  take  place. 
If  you  have,  you  can  in  all  probability  trace 
the  trouble  to  a  very  shallow  depthing  or  an 
untrue  scape  wheel,  which  caused  the  guard 
point  of  fork  to  rub  against  the  tail  roller. 
Pick  out  a  new  'wheel  that  you  think  is  about 
the  correct  size  and  run  it  on  a  small  turning 
arbor,  and  insert  it  with  pallets  in  depthing 
tool,  and  examine  the  action  very  carefully. 
If  the  inside  edge  of  the  entrance  pallet 
catches  against  the  back  of  a  scape  tooth, 
the  wheel  is  too  large,  as  it  sticks  on  the  in¬ 
side  and  would  consequently  have  too  much 
drop  on  the  outside.  If  the  outer  edge  of 
disengaging  pallet  jewel  catches  against  the 
back  of  a  scape  tooth  the  wheel  is  too  small, 
and  there  would  be  too  much  drop  on  the 
inside ;  if  correct  the  tooth  should  drop  just 
nicely  safe  on  the  locking  faces  of  the  pallet 
jewels,  and  the  drop  should  be  about  equal, 
that  is,  when  the  scape  tooth  leaves  the  im¬ 
pulse  face  of  the  entrance  or  engaging  pallet 
jewel,  the  distance  the  wheel  has  to  travel 
before  coming  in  contact  with  the  locking 
face  of  the  disengaging  pallet  jewel  should 
be  the  same  practically  as  it  is  when  the 
tooth  leaves  the  edge  of  impulse  face  of  dis¬ 
engaging  pallet,  and  the  wheel  again  comes  in 
contact  with  locking  face  of  engaging  pallet. 

THE  MEANING  OF  “ADJUSTED.” 

ATALOGUES  and  lists  of  prices  fre¬ 
quently  speak  of  “  adjusted  ”  move¬ 
ments,  which  term  is  also  applied  frequently 


to  cheap  watches.  The  term  is  a  very  elas¬ 
tic  one,  and  can  be  stretched  so  as  to  cover 
a  multitude  of  sins.  It  varies,  according  to 
whether  it  is  applied  to  the  balances,  the 
movements,  etc.  An  adjusted  balance  means 
a  chronometer,  or  expansion  balance,  which 
is  adjusted  for  changes  of  temperature,  so 
that  it  will  keep  the  same  rate  in  warm  or  cold 
weather.  This  adjustment  is  made  more 
close  or  perfect  in  fine  watches  than  in  cheap 
ones.  A  great  many  are  sold  as  “  adjusted,” 
that  have  never  been  adjusted  at  all. 

But  there  are  other  adjustments  besides 
that  for  heat  and  cold — as  the  adjustment  for 
the  positions,  which  enables  the  watch  to  keep 
the  same  rate  whether  hanging  up  or  lying 
down,  or  in  any  other  position,  while  carry¬ 
ing,  etc.  ;  the  adjustment  for  isochronism, 
which  is  an  adjustment  of  the  balance  spring 
to  secure  isochronal  vibration  of  the  balance  ; 
the  rating  or  timing  is  often  called  the  adjust¬ 
ment  for  rate,  etc.  An  adjusted  movement, 
or  one  “  fully  adjusted,”  should  have  all  of 
these  adjustments,  but  an  adjusted  balaiice 
is  only  adjusted  for  heat  and  cold. 

An  expansion  balance,  the  rim  of  which 
is  not  cut  entirely  through,  is  certainly  not 
adjusted,  and  cannot  be.  This  is  a  simple 
test  for  some  kinds  of  cheap  bogus  “  ad¬ 
justed  ”  watches.  But  the  methods  of  test¬ 
ing  cut  balances,  and  also  for  testing  the 
other  adjustments,  are  too  numerous  and  too 
lengthv  to  be  condensed  into  one  simple  ar¬ 
ticle,  but  will  be  given  more  fully  in  detail. 


TO  REGULATE  A  FINE  WATCH. 

SOME  time  ago  a  correspondent  desired 
to  know  how  to  regulate  a  very  fine 
watch  made  by  a  certain  favorably  known 
English  watchmaker.  He  said  that  although 
he  “  had  tried  altering  the  hairspring  by  tak¬ 
ing  up  and  letting  out,  yet  could  never  obtain 
the  desired  effect.” 

When  a  watch  has  no  regulator,  it  is  reg¬ 
ulated  by  the  timing  screws  in  the  balance 
rim,  at  the  end  of  the  center  bar.  They  are 
turned  verv  slightly  inward,  to  make  the 
watch  gain,  and  outward,  to  lose.  Both 
screws  must  be  turned  exactly  the  same 
quantity,  or  the  balance  will  be  thrown  out 
of  poise,  and  regular  running  will  be  impos¬ 
sible.  Should  the  amount  of  regulation 
wanted  be  too  much  to  be  easily  corrected 
by  these  screws,  it  shows  that  there  is  some 
fault  in  the  movement,  which  should  be 
looked  after  and  repaired.  This  may  be  in 


TO  PUT  AN  ADJUSTED  WATCH  IN  ORDER. 


91 


the  escapement,  or  elsewhere.  It  is  some¬ 
times  caused  by  the  balance  rim  having  be¬ 
come  bent  by  the  careless  handling.  But 
the  hairspring  should  never  be  disturbed  in 
a  fine  watch,  unless  in  some  very  exceptional 
circumstances.  Its  length  and  curvature  have 
probably  been  carefully  adjusted  to  secure 
isochronal  vibration  of  the  balance,  and  tak¬ 
ing  it  up  or  letting  it  out  will  at  once  dam¬ 
age  or  destroy  the  isochronism.  Even  tak¬ 
ing  up  a  hairspring  and  afterward  putting  it 
back  where  it  was  in  the  beginning  will  often 
spoil  it  for  fine  Tunning,  because  the  shape 
of  the  spring  and  the  condition  of  the  metal 
have  been  so  altered  by  the  pressure  of  the 
pin  in  the  hole,  the  bending  or  straightening 
of  the  coil,  etc.,  as  to  unfit  it  for  isochronal 
action.  It  is  difficult,  in  fact,  for  a  workman 
who  is  not  fully  posted  in  fine  watch  wrork, 
to  handle  a  fine  movement  without  injuring 
it  in  some  wray,  although  he  may  not  know 
how  he  did  it,  or  discover  the  fact  till  the 
owner  complains  of  its  inferior  performance. 


TO  PUT  AN  ADJUSTED  WATCH  IN 
ORDER. 

E  have  heard  so  many  complaints  com¬ 
ing  from  members  of  the  trade  in  re¬ 
gard  to  this  matter,  that  we  thought  perhaps 
the  pointing  out  of  the  difficulty  concerning 
the  remedy  therefor  would  be  of  profit  to  all 
concerned.  Ten  years  ago  we  hardly  sold 
one  adjusted  watch  a  year;  now  a  large 
portion  of  the  watches  we  sell  are  adjusted 
movements,  I  having  sold  eight  the  past 
month  (April),  and  they  are  the  best  adver¬ 
tisement  that  a  jeweler  can  have. 

If  a  wratch  was  going  immediately  into 
the  hands  of  a  customer  without  any  prepara¬ 
tion  except  what  it  received  at  the  factory, 
I  would  rather  risk  a  well  made  medium- 
priced  watch  than  a  fine  adjusted  watch. 
The  reason  of  this  is  that  the  adjusted  move¬ 
ment  is  usually  three  times  as  long  in  stock 
as  the  medium  grade  that  they  have  calls  for 
every  day,  and  it  may  have  been  out  on  ap¬ 
proval  and  have  been  monkeyed  with  more 
or  less  by  some  knowing  ones.  If  the  fol¬ 
lowing  rules,  which  I  practice  on  every  ad¬ 
justed  watch  I  receive,  are  carried  out,  I  will 
guarantee  satisfaction  not  only  to  the  buyer, 
but  to  the  seller,  for  it  is  a  satisfaction  to  sell 
a  good  time-keeper. 

i  st. — When  you  receive  the  movement, 
look  it  carefully  over  outside  to  see  that  it 
has  received  no  apparent  injury  ;  then  tak¬ 


ing  out  the  slip  under  the  balance,  observe 
the  motion  in  different  positions  and  see  that 
it  has  not  only  the  same,  but  a  good  motion 
in  any  and  all  positions,  with  the  mainspring 
one-half  wound  up. 

2d. — Place  a  bristle  or  fine  broach  in  the 
train  so  as  to  stop  the  motion ;  see  that 
neither  pallet  hits  against  the  scape  wheel  so 
as  to  hold  the  fork  to  one  side ;  then  with 
your  strongest  glass,  observe  that  the  hair¬ 
spring,  just  where  it  goes  through  the  pins, 
is  exactly  in  the  center,  with  about  the  thick¬ 
ness  of  the  hairspring  each  side,  or  perhaps 
less.  Also  observe  whether  it  is  true  in  the 
round  or  flat ;  if  everything  is  all  right  ap¬ 
parently,  you  can  proceed  to  the  first  test. 
If  the  hairspring  is  not  in  the  center  of  the 
pins  wffien  the  balance  is  at  rest,  the  stud 
must  be  turned  until  it  stands  so,  but  the 
pins  must  not  be  stirred  under  any  consid¬ 
eration,  and  the  banking  pins  must  not  be 
moved.  If  the  watch  is  not  adjusted  to 
position,  the  first  test  should  be  made  with 
pendant  up  (don’t  put  the  movement  in  the 
case  yet).  Wind  it  entirely  up,  set  the  sec¬ 
onds  hand  exactly  with  the  seconds  hand  of 
the  regulator,  and  let  it  run  for  1  2  hours ; 
make  an  observation  and  set  down  just  how 
much  it  has  gained  or  lost ;  leave  it  in  the 
same  position  and  set  it  again  with  the  reg¬ 
ulator  ;  in  1 2  hours  more  observe  the  varia¬ 
tion.  Say  in  the  first  12  hours  it  gained  30 
seconds,  and  in  the  next  12  hours  it  only 
gained  20;  10  seconds  difference  between 
the  first  and  last  coils  of  the  mainspring.  If 
the  hairspring  is  isochronized,  5  seconds  is 
as  much  variation  as  should  be  allowed,  if 
the  observations  on  the  works  and  hairspring 
have  found  them  correct. 

In  a  movement  costing  over  $15.00  I 
should  send  it  back  if  I  had  found  in  these 
preliminary  trials  the  variation  between  the 
first  and  the  last  observations  exceeded  five 
seconds,  or  if  the  movement  was  running 
fast  or  slow  to  exceed  one  minute  either  way 
per  day,  for  if  the  regulator  has  to  be  moved 
much  the  isochronism  of  the  spring  will 
suffer. 

If  the  watch  is-  adjusted  to  position  it 
should  be  tried  in  different  positions,  each 
tim^  setting  it  exactly  with  the  regulator  and 
using  the  same  strength  of  mainspring  for 
different  positions,  and  if  in  a  6-hour  trial  in 
each  position,  it  should  not  vary  more  than 
three  seconds  from  the  standard  or  vertical 
adjustment,  I  should  retain  it. 

Some  may  consider  these  conditions  rather 


92 


THE  KNACK  OF  PIVOTING. 


severe,  but  if  the  movement  was  in  the  con¬ 
dition  described  before  being  tested,  I  have 
not  had  to  return  but  three  out  of  hundreds 
tested  and  sold. 


CARE  OF  THE  EYES. 

T  happens  occasionally  that,  while  turn¬ 
ing,  a  splinter  of  the  metal  will  fly  into 
the  eye.  Never  try  to  expel  it  by  rubbing, 
as  it  simply  irritates  the  eye  and  drives  the 
chip  still  further  into  it.  It  is  better  to  raise 
the  upper  lid  or  draw  it  over  the  lower,  so 
that  when  returning  to  its  place,  it  slides  over 
the  lower  eyelashes,  which  will  thereby  sweep 
it  clean,  as  it  were.  This  process  will,  in 
the  majority  of  cases,  suffice  to  remove  the 
chip  or  other  foreign  body  ;  if  not,  the  object 
may  be  gotten  out  with  a  strip  of  white  paper 
or  a  camel’s-hair  brush.  Never,  however,  let 
any  one  use  a  hard  instrument ;  if  this  is 
necessary  to  be  done,  it  is  most  advisable  to 
send  for  or  go  to  a  physician. 


TO  LUBRICATE  CLICK-WORK,  ETC. 

HEN  putting  together  the  barrel  parts, 
never  forget  to  lubricate  the  click-work, 
more  particularly  that  of  the  going-barrel,  as 
the  injury  occasioned  by  its  working,  while 
dry,  would  soon  show  itself.  The  main¬ 
spring  is  to  be  lubricated  only  slightly.  The 
stop-finger  should  always  be  fastened  with  a 
steel  pin  ;  it  is  more  securely  retained  thereby. 
The  barrel  is  mounted  in  the  plate,  and 
the  spring  is  wound  a  few  teeth  to  apply  oil 
to  the  escapement. 

THE  KNACK  OF  PIVOTING. 

THE  repairer  who  is  the  happy  owner  of 
an  American  lathe  (and  right  here  let  me 
say  the  scope  of  usefulness  of  this  tool  is  so 
much  greater  than  that  of  any  others  I  have 
ever  used,  that  the  latter  simply  drop  clear 
out  of  sight)  will  readily  echo  the  opinion  ex¬ 
pressed  to  me  by  a  brother  repairer.  When 
asked  how  he  liked  his  new  lathe,  he  ejacu¬ 
lated,  “  Like  it !  I  do  not  think  that  a  bet¬ 
ter  tool  exists  ;  I  am  prepared  with  it  to  do 
any  kind  of  turning,  from  a  cambric  needle 
to  a  sheet  anchor.”  Supposing,  however, 
that  we  do  not  get  an  order  for  a  sheet  anchor 
every  day,  and  only  have  a  balance  staff  of 
a  low-grade  American  with  the  upper  pivot 
broken,  and  our  customer  not  willing  to  pay 
for  a  new  staff,  requires  the  insertion  of  a 
new  pivot.  Before  proceeding  farther,  I  will 


devote  a  little  space  to  the  explanation  of  a 
small  device  for  holding  pivot  drills,  which 
I  think  is  ahead  of  some  found  in  material 
stores,  as  no  set  screw  is  required  and  the 
drill  is  always  centered. 

This  drill  chuck  is  made  by  securing  a 
^j-inch  brass  chuck  in  your  lathe,  and  turning 
the  end  down  to  fit  snugly  in  the  taper  hole 
in  the  spindle  of  the  tail  stock,  but  should  fit 
tighter  near  the  shoulder,  so  it  will  close  on 
the  drill,  when  pressed  in  tightly ;  the  prin¬ 
cipal  being  the  same  as  that  of  the  American 
lathe  chucks. 

After  it  is  fitted  and  cut  off,  place  it  in 
tail  spindle  and  drill  a  hole  through  it  just 
to  fit  the  wire  you  intend  to  use  for  pivot 
drills.  Mark  the  relative  positions  of  chucks, 
spindle  and  tail  stock  by  little  dots  so  that 
they  can  be  replaced  in  the  same  position  to 
bring  the  drill  true.  Now,  with  a  fine  saw, 
split  the  chuck  as  indicated  by  the  heavy  line 
in  the  center,  and  it  is  complete,  and  will 
pay  you  for  your  trouble  a  thousand  times. 

I  now  take  a  No.  6  chuck  and  put  it  in  my 
lathe,  insert  the  staff  and  stone  off  the  stub 
of  the  broken  pivot,  down  to  the  shoulder. 
Try  the  truth  of  its  running  by  sliding  the  T 
up  close,  and  resting  a  small  screw-driver  on 
it  so  that  the  point  will  just  touch  the  lower 
side  of  the  staff  near  the  end,  rotate  and  see 
if  it  runs  true  ;  if  any  light  can  be  seen  be¬ 
tween  the  screw-driver  and  the  staff  at  any 
part  of  the  revolution,  it  is  not  true,  and  must 
be  loosened  and  turned  in  the  chuck  a  little. 
Keep  on  trying  till  it  runs  perfectly  true. 
If  there  is  no  point  at  which  it  can  be  set  to 
run  true,  the  only  remedy  is  wax,  but  I  sel¬ 
dom  find  one  that  will  not  run  true  when  set 
in  the  proper  position  in  the  chuck.  When 
you  get  it  true,  tighten  it  up  for  keeps.  Take 
the  measurement  with  a  height  gauge  from 
the  balance  arm  to  the  top  of  the  pivot, 
making  allowance  for  the  part  broken  off. 
Few  staffs  are  so  hard  that  a  properly  made 
and  tempered  drill  will  not  cut  them  ;  if  it 
will  not,  draw  the  temper  in  the  staff  slightly, 
with  a  wheel  protector  covering  the  wheel, 
being  careful  not  to  blue  the  balance  arms. 
Nothing  makes  a  much  more  unsightly  job 
than  having  the  balanced  arms  blued  or  al¬ 
most  blackened  as  I  have  seen  them,  half 
way  to  the  rim.  If  they  should  become 
slightly  colored  by  heat  it  may  be  removed  by 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  cleaning  thoroughly 
with  alcohol  after,  to  prevent  its  rusting.  In¬ 
sert  the  drill  in  the  little  chuck  previously  de¬ 
scribed,  press  the  chuck  firmly  in  the  spindle, 


THE  MOTIVE  POWER  OF  CLOCKS. 


93 


and  all  is  ready  to  drill.  Take  hold  of  the 
rubber  button  at  the  end  of  tail-stock  spindle, 
and  press  the  drill  against  the  work.  If  the 
chuck  and  drill  have  been  made  with  proper 
care,  one  can  center  and  drill  a  staff  with  his 
eyes  shut.  If  the  tail-stock  spindle  should 
not  be  true,  it  might  be  prudent  to  have  a 
little  dot  on  the  spindle,  and  also  one  on  the 
little  chuck  to  correspond  with  it  to  necessi¬ 
tate  its  coming  true  every  time.  Drill  the 
hole  about  one  millimeter  in  depth,  although 
this  may  be  varied  to  suit  circumstances. 
Now  take  a  needle  in  the  pin  vise,  a  trifle 
larger  than  the  hole  you  have  drilled,  and 
draw  the  temper  in  it,  never  beyond  a  blue, 
then  file  it  down  by  the  thumb  and  finger 
motion,  till  the  end  will  just  start  in  the  hole. 
It  should  be  tapered  a  very  little,  but  if  too 
much,  it  will  loosen  and  work  out  in  turning. 
Drive  it  in  tightly  with  a  light  hammer,  and 
cut  it  off  with  a  sharp-pointed  graver,  a  little 
longer  than  is  indicated  by  the  height  gauge 
previously  referred  to,  so  that  it  may  be 
shortened  to  the  exact  length  by  stoning.  , 
Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  cutting  it 
off,  and  in  the  first  turning  of  the  pivot,  to 
keep  the  graver  sharp,  and  not  use  too  much 
pressure  or  the  pivot  will  become  loosened 
in  the  staff.  Turn  and  polish  the  pivot  the 
same  as  you  would  on  a  new  staff.  In  turn¬ 
ing  the  back  slope  at  the  base  of  the  cone, 
cut  away  a  little  of  the  metal  of  the  old  part 
of  the  staff,  to  be  sure  that  the  shoulder  of 
the  new  pivot  is  even  with  the  old,  making 
an  invisible  joint.  When  I  say  that  I  use 
needles  for  drills,  pivots,  etc.,  I  do  not  mean 
to  say  that  I  am  partial  to  them ;  they  are 
good,  and  so  is  Stubb’s  steel  or  other  wire 
of  equal  quality ;  but  as  they  are  cheap 
and  easily  obtained,  of  any  size,  I  mostly  use 
them.  If  the  hole  you  drill  for  a  pivot  breaks 
out  at  the  side,  or  you  find  the  hole  is  much 
out  of  true,  discard  it  entirely  and  make  a 
new  staff.  Any  attempt  at  soldering  or  botch¬ 
ing  should  not  be  indulged  in  if  one  ever 
wishes  to  be  a  master  of  the  art. 


THE  MOTIVE  POWER  OF  CLOCKS. 

LOCKS  not  propelled  by  springs  are 
actuated  by  weights  fastened  to  the  end 
of  a  cord,  which  is  wound  around  a  barrel. 
The  power  of  the  weight  increases  or  de¬ 
creases  according  to  the  diameter  of  the  bar¬ 
rel.  The  radius  of  the  barrel  is  a  one-armed 
lever,  but  by  its  union  with  the  barrel  wheel 
it  becomes  two-armed.  For  this  reason  the 


power  with  which  the  barrel  wheel  depths 
into  the  pinion  is  proportioned  to  the  draw¬ 
ing  power  of  the  weight  or  its  ponderosity,  as 
the  length  of  the  radius  of  the  barrel,  multi¬ 
plied  with  the  ponderosity  of  the  weight, 
to  the  length  of  the  radius  of  the  barrel 
wheel. 

If,  for  instance,  the  ponderosity  is  2  kilo¬ 
grams,  the  radius  of  the  pinion  2  centimeters, 
and  the  radius  of  the  barrel  wheel  6  centi¬ 
meters,  then  the  power  with  which  the  latter 
depths  into  the  pinion  is  2  x  2  ::  6  z=  2/3 
kilogram. 

In  the  clock  train  the  power  decreases 
with  each  wheel  that  depths  into  a  pinion 
by  so  much  as  the  radius  of  the  pinion  is 
contained  in  the  radius  of  the  wheel  depth- 
ing  into  it.  We  may  also  say  “  diameter  ” 
in  place  of  “  radius,”  as  the  proportion  re¬ 
mains  the  same.  When,  for  instance,  the 
barrel  wheel  depths  with  a  power  of  750 
grams  into  a  pinion  of  8  millimeters  in  di¬ 
ameter,  and  this  arbor  carries  a  wheel  of  50 
millimeters  in  diameter,  then  this  wheel  ex¬ 
erts  a  force  of  only  1 20  grams  upon  the  next 
pinion.  Because  750  x  8  :  :  50  =  120 
grams.  In  this  mariner  the  power  may  be 
calculated  up  to  the  scape  wheel. 

If,  however,  the  original  power  were  to 
be  retained,  it  then  would  become  necessary 
that  each  wheel  should  depth  into  the  next, 
having  the  same  diameter ;  in  this  manner, 
however,  the  time  necessary  for  the  scape 
wheel  to  make  its  required  number  of  revo¬ 
lutions,  while  the  barrel  wheel  makes  one 
revolution,  could  be  obtained.  This  power 
may,  indeed,  be  increased,  if  the  actuation 
of  the  wheels  upon  the  pinions  be  reversed, 
so  that  the  latter  act  upon  the  former.  For 
instance :  A  weight  of  1  kilogram  draws  on 
a  barrel  of  72  millimeters  in  diameter;  a 
pinion  of  16  millimeters  in  place  of  the  bar¬ 
rel  wheel  depths  into  a  wheel  of  48  millime¬ 
ters  diameter  ;  the  arbor  of  this  wheel  carries 
a  pinion  of  a  diameter  of  8  millimeters.  The 
power  with  which  this  last  pinion  depths  into 
the  next  wheel  isi  x  72  :  16x48  :  8  = 
26  kilograms. 

With  such  an  arrangement,  naturally,  it 
would  be  possible  to  lift  a  heavy  body  by 
the  expenditure  of  a  little  power,  but  it  would 
go  increasingly  slower,  the  lighter  the  pon¬ 
derosity  would  become  ;  because  the  weight 
of  1  kilogram  would  have  to  sink  679  milli¬ 
meters  to  revolve  the  pinion  of  8  millimeters 
only  once.  In  the  case  of  clocks  it  does  not 
so  much  depend  upon  the  loss  of  time  to  in- 


94 


THE  MOTIVE  POWER  OF  CLOCKS. 


crease  the  power,  but  rather  upon  the  gain 
of  time,  even  if  this  cannot  be  effected  in 
another  manner  than  at  the  expense  of  power. 
'  Neither  is  it  desirable  to  wind  the  clock  every 
few  minutes,  nor  yet  to  make  the  cord  un¬ 
necessarily  long ;  and  for  this  reason  the 
train  is  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that, 
as  already  observed,  the  scape  wheel  has  to 
make  many  revolutions  while  the  barrel  wheel 
rotates  only  once. 

CALCULATION  OF  THE  TIME. 

Every  timepiece,  with  regard  to  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  its  wheels,  may  be  divided  into  three 
parts.  The  first  part  of  the  wheels,  from  the 
barrel  wheel  to  the  center  wheel,  solely  con¬ 
ditions  the  length  of  time  during  which  a 
clock  can  go  without  being  rewound. 

The  center  wheel,  upon  the  arbor  of  which 
sits  the  cannon  pinion  with  the  minute  hand, 
must,  since  the  hand  has  to  accomplish  its 
revolution  in  one  hour,  also  revolve  once  in 
an  hour.  When,  therefore,  the  pinion  of  the 
center  arbor  has  8  leaves  and  the  barrel 
wheel  144,  then  the  8  pinion  leaves,  which 
makes  one  revolution  per  hour,  would  require 
the  advancing  of  8  teeth  of  the  barrel  wheel, 
which  (8  :  144)  is  equal  to  the  eighteenth 
part  of  its  circumference.  But  when  the 
eighteenth  part  in  its  advancing  consumes 
1  hour,  then  the  entire  barrel  wheel  will  con¬ 
sume  18  hours  to  accomplish  one  revolution. 
If,  now,  10  coils  of  the  weight  cord  were 
laid  around  the  barrel,  the  clock  would  then 
run  10  x  18  =  180  hours,  or  7^  days,  be¬ 
fore  it  is  run  down. 

Question. — How  long  will  a  clock  run  with 
8  coils  of  cord  around  the  barrel — the  barrel 
wheel  having  144  teeth,  the  first  wheel  84 
teeth,  with  a  pinion  of  1  2  leaves,  the  second 
wheel  80  teeth,  with  a  pinion  of  10  leaves, 
and  the  center  wheel  having  a  pinion  of  8 
leaves? 

Answer. — Y/  x  {J  X  -8g°-  X  9  =  9,072 
hours,  or  378  days. 

The  clock  would  therefore  run  378  days. 

As  will  be  seen  from  above  example,  the 
number  of  wheel  teeth  are  multiplied  with 
each  other,  and  the  same  thing  is  done  with 
the  number  of  pinion  leaves,  after  which  the 
product  of  the  former  is  divided  by  that  of 
the  latter,  the  result  being  the  number  of 
given  hours  of  the  clock  with  one  coil  of  the 
cord.  This  number  multiplied  with  that  of 
the  coils  of  the  cord  gives  the  entire  time 
during  which  the  clock  will  go  until  run 
down. 


CALCULATING  THE  TIME  OF  OSCILLATION, 

LENGTH  OF  PENDULUM,  AND  NUMBER  OF 

OSCILLATIONS. 

The  second  part  of  the  wheel  work,  from 
the  center  wheel  to  the  escape  wheel,  is  in 
the  number  of  its  teeth  controlled  by  the 
length  of  the  pendulum,  and  the  reverse ; 
the  length  of  the  pendulum  is  controlled  by 
the  proportion  of  the  number  of  wheel  teeth 
and  pinion  leaves  of  this  second  part.  For 
instance,  a  seconds  pendulum  is  to  be  used  in 
a  clock  ;  the  center  wheel  can  then  he  made 
with  64  teeth,  the  third  wheel  with  60  and  a 
pinion  of  8  leaves,  the  escape  wheel  with  30 
and  a  pinion  of  8.  The  scape  wheel,  each 
tooth  of  its  30  teeth  being  dropped  by  the 
anchor  after  two  beats  (or  1  tooth  every  2 
seconds),  accomplishes  its  revolution  in  60 
seconds,  or  1  minute.  The  third  wheel  has 
meanwhile,  as  it  gears  into  a  pinion  with  8 
teeth,  only  progressed  (8:  60)  the  7^  part 
of  its  circumference,  and  consequently  would 
accomplish  its  entire  revolution  only  in  7  x/2 
minutes.  While  the  third  wheel  (the  pinion 
of  which  has  also  8  leaves)  has  made  one 
revolution  in  ~Q/2  minutes,  the  center  wheel 
has  advanced  only  by  8  teeth  or  (8  :  64)  the 
one-eighth  distance  of  its  circumference,  and 
would  therefore  consume  8  x  7^  =60 
minutes,  until  it  accomplishes  one  revolution. 

With  a  proportion  like  the  above,  to  wit, 
providing  the  scape  wheel  of  a  seconds  pen¬ 
dulum  with  30  teeth,  a  seconds  hand  can  be 
mounted  upon  the  arbor  of  the  scape  wheel, 
since  the  wheel  makes  one  revolution  in  60 
beats  of  the  pendulum.  Still,  the  proportion 
of  the  number  of  teeth  can  also  be  changed 
according  to  desire ;  for  instance,  center 
wheel,  60  teeth;  third  wheel,  50  teeth  and 
a  10  leaf  pinion;  scape  wheel,  60  teeth  and 
a  1  o  leaf  pinion ;  so  that  in  this  proportion, 
when  the  center  wheel  has  made  one  revolu¬ 
tion,  the  third  wheel  has  already  (10  :  60) 
=  6  ;  the  scape  wheel,  however,  at  one  rev¬ 
olution  of  the  third  wheel  (10  :  50)  could 
have  made  5  revolutions  ;  consequently  (5  x 
6)  —  30  revolutions,  while  the  center  wheel 
has  made  one  ;  to  reduce  this  to  time  would 
be  equal  to  30  revolutions  in  one  hour. 
Naturally  a  seconds  pendulum  would  have 
to  be  used  for  this  arrangement,  but  no  sec¬ 
onds  hand  could  be  mounted  because  the 
scape  wheel  would  accomplish  one  revolution 
only  in  two  minutes. 

Example. — To  find  the  length  of  a  pen¬ 
dulum  when  the  center  wheel  has  72  teeth, 
the  third  wheel  60  teeth  and  a  6  leaf  pinion, 


THE  MOTIVE  POWER  OF  CLOCKS. 


95 


and  the  scape  wheel  30  teeth  and  a  6  leaf 
pinion. 

Since  we  know  that  the  lengths  of  the  pen¬ 
dulum  are  proportioned  to  each  other  in¬ 
versely  as  the  squares  of  the  numbers  of 
oscillation,  we  calculate  first  how  many  oscil¬ 
lations  the  clock  makes  per  hour,  which  we 
ascertain  as  follows : 

The  center  wheel  makes  one  revolution 
per  hour ;  the  third  wheel  6:72  =  12  rev¬ 
olutions  ;  the  scape  wheel  makes  for  each 
one  revolution  of  the  third  wheel  6  :  60  — 
1  o  revolutions,  or  with  1 2  revolutions  1  o  x 
12  =  120  in  one  hour.  Each  tooth  causes 
two  beats,  therefore  the  entire  wheel  2  x  30 
=  60;  consequently  120  revolutions  cause 
60  x  120  =  7,200  oscillations. 

The  entire  calculation  can  be  made  shorter 
as  follows : 

“V“  X  X  60  =  7,200. 

As  is  well  known,  the  length  of  a  seconds 
pendulum  is  994.07  millimeters,  and  makes 
3,600  oscillations  per  hour.  Consequently 
is  proportioned  the  square  of  3,600  :  to  the 
square  of  7,200  =  x:  994.07  ;  reducing  this 
we  have  the  square  of  1  to  the  square  of  2  = 
x  :  994.07  ;  orixi:2X2  =  je:  994.07  ; 
consequently,  1  :  4.  =  x  :  994.07,  whereby 
we  find  that  x  =  248.51  millimeters. 

In  place  of  the  center  wheel,  any  other 
wheel  may  occupy  the  center  of  the  move¬ 
ment,  and  the  seconds  hand  may  be  in  the 
center  of  the  dial.  For  instance,  the  center 
wheel  has  64  teeth  ;  the  first  third  wheel  has 
60  teeth  with  an  8  leaf  pinion ;  the  second 
third  wheel,  upon  the  arbor  of  which  the  sec¬ 
onds  hand  is  mounted,  and  which,  therefore, 
has  its  place  in  the  center,  has  60  teeth  with 
an  8  leaf  pinion  ;  the  scape  wheel  has  8  teeth 
with  an  8  leaf  pinion,  and  the  number  of  os¬ 
cillations  is : 

“S4  X  X  -6^  X  16  —  7,200. 

The  pendulum,  therefore,  as  its  time  of 
oscillation  is  only  one-half  that  of  the  seconds 
pendulum,  has  ^  x  =  %  the  length  of 
the  seconds  pendulum,  or  248.51  millimeters. 

The  second  third  wheel,  which  here  is  the 
fourth  wheel,  makes  in  one  hour  (64  :  8  x 
60  :  8)  =  60  revolutions  ;  therefore,  one  rev¬ 
olution  per  minute.  The  wheel  must  have 
60  teeth  in  order  to  divide  the  revolution 
more  equally  into  seconds.  The  wheel  pro¬ 
gresses  one  tooth  per  second. 

A  table  of  the  pendulum  lengths  is  to  be 
found  in  every  work  treating  on  horology, 
and  therefore  need  not  be  reiterated  here. 


TO  FIT  IN  A  SCAPE  PINION. 

The  next  consideration  is  the  scape  pin¬ 
ion.  Choose  one  that  has  been  truly  cut 
and  well  polished,  notice  particularly  that  the 
leaves  are  all  of  the  same  thickness ;  if  not 
throw  it  away,  it  is  of  no  use.  Without  dis¬ 
cussing  how  to  pick  out  a  pinion  theoretic¬ 
ally  correct  with  relation  to  the  4th  wheel 
(which  I  will  do  in  a  subsequent  article),  I 
will  just  say,  place  the  new  pinion  in  the 
depthing  tool,  also  the  4th  wheel  and  pinion, 
and  set  the  tool  so  that  the  points  of  the 
two  centers  are  exactly  the  distance  apart 
that  the  4th  and  scape  holes  are,  revolve  the 
wheel  and  pinion,  keeping  a  slight  friction 
on  scape  pinion  to  be  able  to  notice  well 
the  action,  and  see  that  when  one  tooth  has 
finished  its  lead,  the  following  one  comes 
into  action  with  the  following  leaf  without 
a  drop ,  and  also  that  a  butting  action  does 
not  take  place  between  a  tooth  and  leaf  by 
their  coming  in  contact  too  soon  before  the 
line  of  centers.  If  such  is  the  case  the 
pinion  is  too  large ;  if  there  is  a  drop,  the 
pinion  is  too  small. 

Insert  the  pinion  in  a  chuck  either  by  the 
arbor  part,  or  by  the  pinion  leaves,  if  the 
pinion  will  not  run  true  when  chucked  on 
arbor  part,  in  which  case  be  careful  in  tight¬ 
ening  up  the  chuck  not  to  draw  it  up  or 
tighten  as  you  would  on  a  plain  piece  of 
wire  for  bushing,  as  there  would  be  the  dan¬ 
ger  of  flattening  the  edges  of  the  pinion,  at 
the  same  time  it  can  be  chucked  sufficiently 
tight  to  remain  as  placed,  and  without  dam¬ 
aging  the  leaves.  Turn  the  bottom  end  of 
arbor  true,  and  finish  the  bottom  pivot  first, 
having  its  shoulder  at  such  a  distance  from 
the  face  of  the  pinion  that  the  4th  wheel  will 
be  about  in  the  center  of  the  leaves,  consid¬ 
ered  lengthwise,  then  reverse  the  pinion  in 
the  chuck,  and  mark  the  point  in  the  up¬ 
per  shoulder.  This  distance  can  be  gotten 
several  ways  ;  an  inside  measuring  tool 
may  be  bought  or  made ;  if  you  possess 
a  little  ingenuity,  one  of  your  own  make 
would  be  the  best,  or  you  could  make  it 
to  suit  all  cases,  while  the  one  made  for 
sale  will  not  always  enter  sufficiently  far 
between  the  plates.  Another  way  is  to 
take  a  piece  of  brass  wire,  filed  perfectly 
flat,  and  make  it  of  the  requisite  length,  so 
that  when  introduced  between  the  plates  and 
resting  on  the  scape  jewels  or  surfaces  the 
shake  will  be  of  the  desired  extent,  and  then 
measure  with  ordinary  calipers  from  that ;  or 
the  old  pinion  can  be  used  as  a  guide  b\ 


g  6 


RULES  FOR  DEPTHING. 


making  the  necessary  allowance  if  the  end- 
shake  is  too  great,  and  still  another  way  will 
sometimes  answer,  namely,  measuring  the 
length  of  the  pallet  staff,  which  occasionally 
is  the  same  as  the  scape  pinion.  Of  course 
these  are  only  make-shift  ways,  and  the 
proper  way  is  to  have  a  carefully  made  meas¬ 
uring  gauge.  Measure  the  total  length  and 
finish  top  pivot  and  the  upper  end  of  arbor 
for  the  scape  wheel  collet  to  fit  on  ;  this  must 
be  slightly  tapered,  and  turned  very  smooth 
and  true  and  well  polished,  and  great  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  get  it  so  small  that  the 
scape  collet  will  go  down  too  far  or  be 
loose ;  this  very  defect  often  is  the  cause  of 
poor  motion  and  stoppages  in  English  lev¬ 
ers,  and  in  examining  such  watches  for  re¬ 
pairs,  never  neglect  to  grasp  the  scape  pinion 
tightly  and  see  that  the  scape  wheel  is  not 
loose.  Sometimes  I  have  found  that  the 
hole  in  collet  has  been  closed  to  one  side, 
thereby  causing  the  wheel  to  be  out  of  true 
in  the  round,  thus  making  a  serious  defect  in 
wheel  and  pallet  action.  The  proper  way  in 
such  a  case  is  to  make  a  new  collet. 


THE  USE  OF  THE  CUTTING  BUR¬ 
NISHER. 

OR  the  ordinary  every-day  watch,  pivots 
and  shoulders  are  sufficiently  well  fin¬ 
ished  with  a  cutting  burnisher,  one  side 
of  which  is  rubbed  on  a  board  or  strip  of 
lead  charged  with  emery,  or  a  few  rubs  on 
the  small  stone  used  by  shoemakers  to  whet 
their  knives  for  leather  cutting,  is  a  handy 
substitute,  and  gives  the  requisite  cutting 
power ;  and  then  a  few  rubs  with  a  bur¬ 
nisher,  polished  on  a  well-used  burnishing 
board,  on  which  smooth  emery  has  been  dis¬ 
tributed,  will  give  a  perfectly  smooth  and 
black  pivot.  The  best  Clerkenwell  pivoters 
finish  their  pivots  with  the  smooth  burnisher 
in  this  way  to  harden  them,  though  they 
have  been  previously  highly  polished  with  a 
soft  steel  polisher  which  leaves  the  shoulder 
perfectly  square  and  highly  polished. 


SCREWED  JEWELS. 

HE  screwed  jewel,  against  which  sev¬ 
eral  well-founded  objections  may  be 
urged,  may  be  improved  in  such  a  way  as  to 
make  it  much  less  liable  to  failure.  There 
is  not  the  slightest  necessity  for  countersink¬ 
ing  the  screws  in  the  upper  plate ;  they 
might,  without  the  least  detriment  to  their 


functions,  have  flat  heads,  rounded  at  the 
top,  as  they  merely  serve  to  hold  the  jewel 
down  in  its  place,  thereby  reserving  the 
whole  thickness  of  the  plate  for  the  hold  of 
the  screws.  The  jewel  setting  might  be  dot¬ 
ted,  as  usual,  for  always  having  it  in  its  same 
place  in  its  sink,  which  is  not  without  impor¬ 
tance  ;  and  if  it  should  be  thought  necessary 
to  insure  this  position  of  the  jewel,  even 
against  careless. repairers,  who  might  not  pay 
any  attention  to  the  dotting,  this  might  easily 
be  attained  by  drilling  a  very  small  hole  in 
the  bottom  of  the  countersink,  into  which  a 
pin  might  be  driven,  and  for  the  reception 
of  which  the  jewel  setting  ought  to  have  a 
small  groove.  _ 

JEWELS  IN  WATCHES. 

MOVEMENT  with  plain  set  jewels  is 
in  no  way  inferior  to  one  with  screwed 
jewels,  even  in  the  very  exceptional  case  of 
the  replacement  of  a  jewel  hole.  The  move¬ 
ment  with  screwed  jewels  has  a  more  ele¬ 
gant  appearance,  but  it  implies,  if  not  done 
with  the  greatest  care  and  discernment,  a 
vast  deal  of  trouble  in  the  manufacturing, 
and  still  more  so  in  the  repairing.  Not  only 
must  all  the  screws  and  jewels  be  taken  out 
for  thoroughly  cleaning  a  watch  and  put  in 
again,  but  the  very  little  thickness  in  which 
the  screws  have  to  take  their  hold  is  a  great 
source  of  annoyance  to  the  repairer, especially 
in  the  English  watches,  with  their  thin  upper 
plates  of  brass,  rendered  quite  soft  by  gild¬ 
ing,  and  with  screws  of  rather  coarse  threads. 
Any  screw  failing  in  its  hold  has  to  be  replaced 
by  one  of  the  next  number  of  threads  having 
by  its  greater  thickness  still  less  chance  of  a 
sound  hold,  and  very  often  it  is  necessary  to 
make  other  holds  at  fresh  places.  If,  now, 
the  screwed  jewel  presents  the  advantage  of 
easy  replacement  of  a  broken  jewel  without 
leaving  any  lasting  mark  of  the  operation, 
this  small  advantage  may  be  considered  to 
be  neutralized  by  the  above-mentioned  draw¬ 
backs.  _ 

RULES  FOR  DEPTHING. 

T  may  be  accepted  as  a  rule  that  the 
following  conditions  are  necessary  for 
a  good  depthing:  i.  That  the  pinion  be 
well  proportioned  to  the  wheel.  2.  That 
both  parts  run  true.  3.  That  this  division 
be  mathematically  correct.  4.  That  the 
wheel  teeth  as  well  as  the  pinion  leaves  be 
shaped  properly  and  in  proportion  to  each 
other. 


THE  ART  OF  TURNING. 


97 


TO  INSPECT  DEPTHINGS. 

HE  depthing  of  watches,  as  they  are 
invisible,  are  generally  examined  by 
the  toach.  This  sort  of  examination,  how¬ 
ever,  requires  practice  of  years,  and  even  the 
experienced  repairer  may  occasionally  be  de¬ 
ceived  by  a  shallow  depthing.  Whenever  it 
can  be  done,  small  holes  should  be  opened 
for  inspecting,  to  bring  both  the  senses  of 
sight  and  feeling  into  play.  The  examina¬ 
tion  of  the  depthing  in  the  depthing-tool 
cannot  be  recommended  or  relied  on  in  all 
cases.  _ 

VISIBLE  DEPTHINGS. 

HEN  the  depthing  can  be  seen  pay 
attention  to  the  following  points :  i . 
The  wheel  tooth  must  enter  the  pinion  undis¬ 
turbed  and  with  sufficient  shake  between  the 
back  of  the  wheel  tooth  and  the  next  pinion 
leaf.  2.  The  first  engagement,  or  the  exact 
point  of  beginning  of  the  driving,  must  take 
place  on  the  line  of  center.  This,  however, 
is  possible  only  with  the  center  pinion  in 
cylinder  watches,  and  with  ten  or  more  leaf 
pinions.  Those  with  a  lower  number  of 
leaves  will  always  have  driving  before  the 
line  of  centers,  which  increases  with  the  de¬ 
crease  in  the  number  of  leaves.  If  the  driv¬ 
ing  occurs  too  far  before  this  line  of  centers, 
it  may  either  be  caused  by  an  unduly  large 
pinion,  or  pinion  leaves  of  unduly  pointed 
rounding,  and,  finally,  by  too  shallow  a 
depthing.  _ 

CARE  IN  REPAIRING. 

HEN  you  clean  a  watch,  see  that  the 
holes  are  well  pegged  out  and  the 
pinions  free  from  all  foreign  substances. 
Many  watches  of  good  construction  fail  to 
give  satisfaction  because  some  trifling  fault 
has  been  overlooked  by  the  over-quick  work¬ 
man.  A  man  may  clean  a  watch  in  half  an 
hour,  and  it  may  stop  from  the  fact  that  the 
pinions  are  clogged  with  the  abundance  of 
chalk  used  in  the  process,  or  in  the  incon¬ 
siderate  haste  a  loose  jewel  may  be  over¬ 
looked,  or  a  screw  left  not  fully  turned  in. 
Carelessness  in  adjusting  the  hairspring 
leaves  the  watch  in  such  a  condition  that 
its  owner  cannot  depend  upon  it. 


RECOURSE  IN  TIMING  A  WATCH. 

ALTHOUGH  first-class  watchmakers  do 
■  not  admit  of  the  process  explained 
below,  still,  when  the  repairer  is  timing  a 


medium  or  low-grade  watch,  he  may  have 
recourse  to  the  following :  When  the  watch 
gains  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  loses  with 
pendant  up,  the  ends  of  the  pivots  of  the 
balance  wheel  may  be  flattened  to  increase 
the  friction  while  lying  down,  so  as  to  make 
the  friction  the  same  in  that  position  as 
when  the  pivots  are  rubbing  against  the  sides 
of  the  pivot  holes  while  the  watch  is  in  a  ver¬ 
tical  position.  _ 

THE  ART  OF  TURNING. 

HE  art  of  turning  with  the  bow  and 
common  turns  is  so  valuable  to  the 
watch  repairer,  says  M.  Ganney,  that  no  op¬ 
portunity  should  be  lost  by  young  watch¬ 
makers  to  acquire  facility  in  this  branch  of 
the  business,  as  advancing  years  render  it 
almost  impossible  to  atone  for  any  neglect 
of  this  subject  in  early  youth.  A  certain 
amount  of  daily  practice  is  the  only  sure 
means  of  acquiring  it,  and  it  was  at  one 
time  the  usual  plan  of  teaching  a  youth  his 
business  to  let  him  have  at  least  two  hours 
a.  day  at  turning,  as  the  ordinary  watch 
repairing  business,  unlike  escape  making 
and  finishing  new  work,  does  not  give  the 
opening  for  turning  talent  to  be  devel¬ 
oped  ;  and  the  supply  of  material  now  be¬ 
ing  so  prevalent,  instead  of  making  new 
pieces  as  required,  it  behooves  all  having 
apprentices  to  make  provision  in  this  respect 
by  making  the  learner  produce  himself  all 
screws,  arbors,  plugs  and  stoppings,  and 
rough  out,  for  the  other  workmen,  the  pieces 
that  they  finish  and  put  into  the  watches. 
The  spectacle,  now  too  common,  of  young 
men  who  have  served  a  number  of  years  and 
quite  unable  to  replace  a  broken  piece  of 
watch  work,  would  become  rare.  The  usual 
routine  of  large  and  small  clock  work  to 
commence  with,  and  finishing  with  coarse 
and  fine  watches,  is  admirably  adapted  to 
develop  the  mechanical  ideas  of  the  learner  ; 
but  the  turning  must  be  supplemented  with 
more  than  what  is  required  ordinarily  in 
the  course  of  the  business  of  watch  repair¬ 
ing. 

Almost  any  sort  of  turns  will  do  good  piv¬ 
oting,  the  only  requirement  being  rigiditv 
of  centers  when  fixed,  and  firmness  in  the 
rest,  which  must  be  brought  as  close  to  the 
work  as  possible,  and  the  center  that  holds 
the  pivot  that  is  turning  must  be  as  close 
as  possible  to  the  hole  in  the  turns.  For 
this  reason  many  pivoters  prefer  the  plain¬ 
est  possible  turns  with  a  piece  of  brass  for 


98 


HAND  TURNING  IN  WATCH  WORK. 


a  rest,  having  another  piece  of  brass  riv¬ 
eted  on  it,  which  is  simply  put  against  the 
turns,  and  the  two  screwed  up  in  the  vise, 
the  work  being  brought  close  to  the  rest  by 
the  centers.  This  primitive  and  despised 
plan  is  better  than  using  the  Swiss  turns, 
which  being  made  to  elongate  so  as  to  take 
in  all  sizes  common  to  the  various  jobs  in 
use,  is  deficient  in  the  prime  element  of  ri¬ 
gidity,  and  the  rest  that  usually  accompanies 
them  is  three  times  the  width  it  ought  to  be, 
and  should  be  filed  away  to  allow  the  short¬ 
est  possible  amount  of  center  to  be  used. 
When  a  long  center  projects  the  work  invari¬ 
ably  becomes  loose,  as  the  pressure  on  such 
a  long  lever  is  more  than  the  binding  screw 
can  counteract.  What  are  known  as  Eng¬ 
lish  pivoting  turns,  when  the  rest  is  short¬ 
ened,  answers  all  the  requirements  of  fine 
turning,  as  the  centers  are  held  firm  by  the 
split  hole  in  which  they  fit,  being  closed 
throughout  its  length  on  the  center  by  a 
screw  working  from  the  back,  and  not  liable 
to  accidental  disturbances  by  a  touch  in 
working,  and  all  parts  very  strong  and  rigid. 
The  centers  usually  supplied  with  turns  are 
not  of  much  use,  as  all  the  holes  are  made 
in  the  center  of  the  steel,  and  this  prevents 
the  work  coming  close  to  the  rest  and  ren¬ 
ders  good  or  fine  turning  impossible,  besides 
breaking  both  fine  graver  points  and  pivots 
by  the  vibration  of  the  graver.  Ordinary 
round  steel  must  be  fitted  rather  loosely,  or, 
as  dirt  accumulates  in  the  holes,  there  will 
be  an  amount  of  force  required  in  moving 
the  centers  difficult  to  apply  and  dangerous 
to  the  work  in  hand,  as  the  center  must  be 
moved  lightly  in  all  directions  with  one  hand 
whilst  the  work  is  held  lightly  in  position  for 
fixing  with  the  other.  The  back  center 
must  be  a  pointed  one  with  only  one  hole 
or  chamfer  in  it,  made  with  a  fine  punch  as 
near  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  steel,  when  full 
size,  as  convenient.  The  surrounding  steel 
must  be  all  filed  away  with  a  half-round 
potence  file,  forming  an  irregular  hollow 
cone  for  a  quarter  of  an  inch ;  this  may  be 
considered  the  finest  or  finishing  back  cen¬ 
ter,  and  should  have  a  hole  in  which  the 
finest  pivot  point  can  rotate  without  side 
motion.  The  other  end  of  the  center  should 
be  made  a  center  of  the  same  kind,  but 
much  stouter  and  larger,  to  hold  an  arbor, 
when  the  pinion  is  first  commenced  on  for 
turning.  The  fine  point  to  the  center  is  to 
allow  it  to  pass  freely  up  any  ferrule  in  which 
the  work  is  held,  and  all  strength  compatible 


with  freedom  should  be  obtained,  and  the  hole 
at  the  center  being  at  the  side  or  eccentric 
allows  the  work  to  be  raised  or  lowered  or 
brought  close  to  the  rest  as  may  be  desired, 
and  also  in  a  straight  line  with  the  holes  in 
the  other  center  at  which  it  is  being  turned. 
The  right  hand  center  is  simply  left  full  size 
and  both  ends  filed  quite  flat,  and  small  dots 
made  around  its  extreme  edge  with  a  sharp 
punch  completes  the  apparatus  for  turning. 
The  ends  of  all  centers  should  be  made  red 
hot  and  plunged  in  water;  if  hardened  all 
over  they  may  break  when  dropped  or  pulled 
roughly.  One  or  two  holes  or  dots  may  be 
made  so  close  to  the  edge  as  to  burst,  or  a 
slight  nick  cut,  in  which  the  point  of  a 
pivot  rests,  when  being  polished.  As  the 
various  holes  wear  through  they  may  be  used 
for  polishing  pivots  on,  and  holes  that  wear 
too  deep  and  become  dangerous  thereby  to 
the  work  by  the  friction  they  generate,  must 
be  restored  to  use  by  grinding  the  center  on 
the  oil-stone.  Many  neglect  to  harden  cen¬ 
ters,  but  the  advantages  of  hardening  are 
very  great — the  friction  is  much  less,  and 
the  constant  wear  and  change  of  soft  centers 
prevents  the  certainty  and  accumulation  of 
experiences  in  the  use  of  a  tool  which  in¬ 
sures  perfection  in  such  a  delicate  operation 
as  fine  turning.  Another  center,  called  a 
centering  one,  is  quickly  made  by  filing  the 
plain  steel  center  as  a  right  angle  on  each 
side  with  its  face  and  cutting  a  recess  on 
each  side ;  an  arbor  or  pinion  point  rest¬ 
ing  on  it,  exposing  its  extreme  end,  may  be 
truly  centered  by  a  very  smooth  old  file ;  a 
new  one  will  have  too  much  power  over 
it  and  push  it  off  the  center.  Great  light¬ 
ness  and  rapidity  are  necessary  in  centering 
truly.  _ 

HAND  TURNING  IN  WATCH  WORK. 

T  should  be  the  fixed  object  of  every 
young  man,  says  Henry  Bickley,  who 
wishes  to  become  a  watchmaker  to  master 
the  art  of  turning ;  not  only  because  it  will 
enable  him,  if  a  jobber,  to  work  in  new 
pieces  with  skill  and  precision — in  itself  an 
object  worth  striving  for — but  also  because, 
in  the  process  of  learning  to  turn,  the  eye 
and  the  hand  receive  an  education  unattain¬ 
able  by  any  other  means.  A  thorough  con¬ 
ception  of  form  and  truth,  as  well  as  deli¬ 
cacy  of  touch,  are  the  outcome  of  the  art 
of  turning.  Think  how  much  the  watch¬ 
makers’  art  is  dependent  on  the  possession 
of  these  qualities,  and  but  what  a  poor  repre- 


HAND  TURNING  IN  WATCH  WORK. 


99 


sentative  of  the  trade  must  he  be  who  has 
them  not! 

Turning,  like  all  other  branches  of  skill, 
•can  only  be  mastered  by  slow  and  patient 
effort,  plodding  onward  step  by  step  from 
the  beginning.  No  hurry,  no  slurring  of 
difficulties,  but  patiently  attacking  and  van¬ 
quishing  each  as  it  arises.  For  want  of 
proper  grounding  in  the  preliminary  stages 
many  men  are  never  able  to  turn  at  all  in 
the  proper  sense  of  the  word.  Badly  taught, 
most  likely,  in  the  first  instance,  with  no  clear 
idea  of  what  is'required,  and  deprived  of  the 
practice  without  which  they  can  never  suc¬ 
ceed,  they  rush  forward,  evading  the  difficul¬ 
ties  in  their  way  instead  of  surmounting 
them,  till  the  goal  of  their  ambition,  a  bal¬ 
ance  staff,  is  reached.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
say  that  the  staff  is  usually  a  very  bad  one  ; 
its  merits  being  quite  undiscernible  to  any 
but  the  maker.  He,  however,  is  decidedly 
proud  of  the  job.  Has  he  not  gained  his 
ambition,  what  more  is  there  to  learn  ?  And 
so  he  quietly  subsides.  This  is  no  fancy 
picture.  I  have  come  across  many  such  per¬ 
sons,  who,  when  put  to  the  test,  have  been 
unable  to  do  anything,  even  to  the  making 
•of  a  screw,  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 

There  is  no  better  mode  of  learning  to  turn 
than  to  practice  first  of  all  in  soft  steel  or  even 
brass  till  proper  command  is  acquired  of  the 
"raver  and  bow.  The  latter  should  be  tol¬ 
erably  strong  to  begin  with,  with  good-sized 
steel  wire  and  a  large  ferrule  and  graver. 
Then  let  the  learner  try  to  make  a  big  screw, 
taking  another  screw  as  a  copy.  The  wire 
must  first  be  centered  quite  true,  starting  on 
the  filing  block  and  finishing  on  the  center¬ 
ing  runner,  and  a  pivot  turned  on  it  to  form 
the  screw  top.  The  graver  must  be  held 
firmly  on  the  rest  at  a  point  slightly  above 
the  center  of  the  wire.  In  this  apparently 
simple  piece  of  work,  if  persevered  in  till  it 
is  properly  done,  the  learner  will  take  in  four 
valuable  lessons.  He  will  learn  in  the  first 
place  to  turn  straight,  as  the  pivot  must  be 
so  formed  if  a  proper  thread  is  to  be  put  on 
it ;  secondly,  he  will  learn  to  turn  squarely 
in  forming  the  shoulder  for  the  back  of  the 
screw  head ;  thirdly,  he  will  learn  to  turn  to 
size,  if  he  makes  the  screw  tops,  as  he 
should  do,  to  fit  a  certain  hole  in  the 
screw  plate ;  and  lastly,  and  most  impor¬ 
tant  of  all,  he  will  learn  to  turn  true.  On 
this  latter  point  I  think  it  well  to  make  a 
slight  digression,  having  met  with  a  strange 
confusion  in  some  minds  as  to  what  consti¬ 


tutes  truth  in  turning.  We  speak  of  a  piece 
of  work  as  being  true  when  its  circumfer¬ 
ence  forms  as  nearly  as  possible  a  perfect 
circle — in  other  words,  when  it  is  round. 
Now,  as  the  truth  of  the  work  as  left  from 
the  graver  depends  entirely  on  the  centers, 
it  follows  that  if  they  are  not  round,  neither 
will  the  work  be ;  especial  care  must  there¬ 
fore  be  taken  to  fix  the  centers  in  the  first 
instance.  Lay  the  end  of  the  piece  on  the 
centering  runner,  giving  it  a  good  speed  with 
the  bow,  then  turn  along  it  for  a  short  dis¬ 
tance  and  carefully  observe  it ;  if  the  center 
and  the  part  turned  over  do  not  seem  round, 
turn  and  center  it  again.  If  the  piece  be 
much  out  of  round,  turn  off  the  extreme  point 
to  form  a  new  center  before  running  it  with 
the  file,  repeating  the  operation  till  perfect 
truth  is  obtained.  This  must  of  course  be 
done  to  both  centers,  and  frequent  observa¬ 
tion  made  of  them  during  the  progress  of  the 
work.  Want  of  care  and  observation,  even 
at  the  last  moment,  may  cause  a  good  piece  of 
work  to  be  spoiled  ;  for  if  the  centers  should 
get  but  the  slightest  degree  out,  the  part 
turned  last — which  in  a  finished  piece  is  al¬ 
ways  the  pivot — will  be  oval,  and  its  effect¬ 
iveness,  in  any  case  seriously  diminished, 
will  in  a  balance  staff  be  destroyed.  Thus 
far  as  to  centers  and  centering.  This  little 
digression  will  not  be  lost,  as  I  have  met 
with  inexperienced  persons  who  have  thought 
and  argued  that,  because  a  thing  is  true  to 
the  center  it  must  of  necessity  be  true,  a 
fallacy  that  in  some  instances  had  taken 
deeper  root  than  I  should  have  thought  pos¬ 
sible. 

But  to  return  to  the  screw  making.  From 
large  screws  the  learner  should  gradually  pass 
on  to  small  ones,  adapting  his  bow  and  fer¬ 
rule  to  the  work  as  he  goes  along  ;  and  when 
he  can  make  a  jewel  screw  quite  true,  with  a 
good  thread,  and  a  well-shaped  head  with 
the  shoulder  at  the  back  turned  clean  and 
square,  without  either  lump  or  nick  in  the 
corner,  he  may  think,  as  regards  soft  metal, 
that  he  has  done  very  well.  It  seems  in 
some  respects  a  pity  that  material  for  repair¬ 
ing  is  now  so  easily  obtained.  In  days 
gone  by,  when  screws  were  wanted  for  job¬ 
bing  (and  for  new  work,  too,  for  that  matter) 
they  were  made  by  the  apprentice,  who,  by 
this  means,  got  an  amount  of  useful  instruc¬ 
tion  and  practice  in  turning  he  does  not  get 
now.  I  know  I  shall  be  told  that  to  make 
screws  when  they  can  be  bought  for  almost 
next  to  nothing  does  not  pay,  that  time  ia 


I  oo 


HAND  TURNING  IN  WATCH  WORK. 


money,  and  so  forth.  To  this  I  reply  that 
skill  must  be  paid  for  in  some  shape  or  other, 
that  youth  is  the  time  to  acquire  it,  when 
the  perceptions  are  quick  and  time  not  so 
valuable  as  afterwards,  and  that  if  the  young 
watch  jobbers  of  to-day  are  to  learn  turning 
at  all,  they  must  do  as  all  the  best  men  in  the 
trade  have  had  to  do — begin  at  the  beginning. 
Besides,  to  take  the  matter  on  its  merits,  I  am 
not  sure  that  it  would  not  often  be  cheaper 
to  make  screws  than  to  buy  them.  The 
screws,  as  we  get  them,  usually  want  so 
much  alteration,  that  to  one  who  can  handle 
his  tools  the  making  of  a  screw  would  take 
very  little,  if  any,  longer  than  the  fitting  of 
one. 

Having  so  far  mastered  the  making  of 
screws,  the  learner  may  now  try  his  hand  at 
tempered  steel,  following  much  the  same 
procedure  as  with  the  soft  metal.  A  piece 
of  good-sized  steel  wire  should  be  rough- 
centered  on  the  filing  block,  hardened  and 
brought  back  on  the  bluing  pan  till  toler¬ 
ably  soft.  A  light  blue  color  will  give  about 
the  right  temper :  if  left  harder  than  this  it 
will  be  liable  to  glaze  easily  and  give  trouble. 
After  centering  it  in  the  manner  just  de¬ 
scribed,  turn  a  good-sized  pivot  with  the 
point  of  the  graver,  keeping  it  straight  and 
the  shoulder  clean  and  square.  Begin  with 
pivots  as  large  as  the  No.  io  hole  in  La- 
tard’s  screw  plate,  and  do  not  reduce  them 
in  size  till  able  to  make  them  of  a  good  shape 
with  the  point  of  the  graver,  smooth  and 
quite  true.  Then  gradually  make  them 
smaller,  proceeding  by  easy  stages  till  the 
smallest  sizes  are  reached.  The  same  re¬ 
marks  apply  to  conical  pivots  as  to  straight 
ones — the  learner  must  begin  with  large 
ones  and  gradually  work  his  way,  striving  in 
all  cases  to  produce  the  exact  shape  required. 
Not  only  pivots,  but  all  the  different  forms 
to  be  seen  on  staffs  and  pinions,  such  as 
back  slopes,  hollows,  etc.,  should  be  prac¬ 
ticed  on  rough  steel.  One  of  the  most  diffi¬ 
cult  lessons  for  the  learner  is  the  turning  in 
of  pieces,  such  as  staffs  and  pinions,  to  exact 
height  or  length  to  meet  ah  end-shake.  It  is 
very  mortifying,  when  the  piece  is  completed, 
to  find  that  it  is  too  long  or  too  short,  ancl 
very  elaborate  and  ingenious  gauges  have 
been  constructed  to  overcome  this  among 
other  difficulties.  But  it  is  at  least  doubtful 
if  some  of  these  instruments  are  not  calcu¬ 
lated  to  make  the  learner’s  troubles  greater 
instead  of  less.  Gauges,  to  be  really  useful, 
must  be  simple  ;  and  it  may  be  said  of  them, 


almost  more  than  of  any  other  tool,  that 
there  is  as  much  in  the  use  as  in  the  con¬ 
struction.  There  is  really  but  one  way  of 
meeting  these  difficulties,  and  that  is  by  at¬ 
tacking  them  systematically.  It  is  too  much 
to  expect  that  a  youth,  so  soon  as  he  can 
hold  a  graver,  should  be  able  to  execute 
work  requiring  great  nicety  of  judgment, 
even  with  the  aid  of  the  finest  gauges.  Let 
him  take  an  old  frame  and  practice  fitting: 
pieces  by  copying  the  old  staffs  and  pinions. 
The  pinion  gauge,  or  a  space  filed  in  a  piece 
of  sheet  brass,  will  be  the  only  gauge  neces¬ 
sary  at  first. 

Take  one  of  the  pinions  that  has  a  proper 
end-shake  in  the  frame  and  measure  off  the 
distance  between  the  pivot  shoulders ;  if  the 
end-shake  is  wrong,  adjust  the  gauge  tn 
correct  it.  Then  turn  pivots  on  either  end 
of  a  piece  of  steel,  with  the  shoulders  a 
proper  distance  apart  to  fit  the  gauge.  The 
correctness  of  the  height  will  of  course  be 
proved  by  trying  it  on  the  frame.  Only 
large  pivots  should  be  made  at  first,  and, 
the  height  having  been  struck  in  the  gauge, 
care  must  be  taken  in  turning  the  pivots  not 
to  back  the  shoulders.  It  is  just  at  this 
point  that  learners  generally  fail :  in  turning 
the  pivots  they  cut  into  the  shoulders  and 
get  the  piece  too  short,  or,  anxious  to  avoid 
this,  they  allow  for  it  and  leave  the  piece 
too  long.  It  is  work,  as  I  have  said,  call¬ 
ing  for  nice  judgment  with  a  keen  apprecia¬ 
tion  of  trifles,  and  must  be  gone  over  many 
times  before  the  worker  becomes  thoroughly- 
familiar  with  it.  Making  a  pallet  staff  to  a 
full-plate  lever  watch  is  capital  practice  in 
this  kind  of  work.  Before  knocking  out  the 
old  staff,  take  accurate  measurement  of  the 
height  of  the  top  pivot  shoulder  above  the 
lever,  also  of  the  length  of  the  staff  between 
the  two  shoulders.  Take  a  thin  piece  of  tem¬ 
pered  steel  wire  and  turn  it  down  a  sufficient 
length  to  form  the  staff,  fitting  it  to  the  hole 
in  the  pallets  and  keeping  it  slightly  taper  ; 
polish  and  glass-burnish  it ;  then  gently 
drive  it  tight  into  the  pallets  and  mark  off 
the  height  for  the  top  shoulder ;  remove  the 
pallets  and  make  the  pivots,  being  careful 
that  they  fit  the  holes  with  very  little  side- 
shake.  The  next  step  should  be  to  practice 
making  pivots,  straight  and  conical,  to  jewel 
holes.  The  pivots,  to  be  quite  true,  must 
be  turned  the  exact  shape,  and,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  to  the  right  size  before  being  pol¬ 
ished  or  burnished. 

All  this  should  be  preliminary  to  making 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  LATHE. 


101 


balance  staffs,  fitting  cylinders,  and  such  like 
-ambitious  efforts  ;  so  that,  when  these  higher 
parts  are  reached,  the  ground  round  about 
will  be  so  far  cleared  as  to  make  their  accom¬ 
plishment  comparatively  easy.  It  has  been 
said  that  no  one  can  claim  to  be  master  of 
an  art  till  he  can  play  with  it.  As  applied 
to  watch-making  this  can  only  be  a  half-truth, 
as  our  work  is  not  of  a  kind  to  be  played 
with.  But,  stated  in  another  form,  the  idea 
is  true  enough :  for  in  watch-making,  as  in 
other  things,  mastery  only  comes  with  a  com¬ 
plete  loss  of  self-consciousness,  when,  from 
long  and  constant  practice,  the  faculties 
move  together  in  unison  without  apparent 
effort.  To  all,  therefore,  who  would  excel  in 
turning,  my  last  words  would  be  : — begin  at 
the  beginning,  make  sure  of  each  step  as  you 
advance,  and  work  away. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  LATHE. 

R.  AMBROSE  WEBSTER,  the  head 
of  the  American  Watch  Tool  Co.,  con¬ 
tributes  the  following  article  to  the  Jewel¬ 
ers’  Circular  on  the  subject  of  above  head¬ 
ing,  upon  which  he,  of  all  others,  is  perhaps 
the  best  qualified  to  speak.  He  says : 

There  is  no  tool  on  the  watchmaker’s 
bench  that  is  so  expensive,  valuable,  or  at¬ 
tractive  as  a  nickel-plated  American  watch¬ 
maker’s  lathe.  It  is  expensive  because  in  its 
■construction,  though  there  is  a  comparatively 
small  amount  of  material  used,  a  large 
amount  of  expensive  labor  is  necessary.  It 
is  valuable  because  it  is  ready  for  use  at  a 
moment’s  notice,  and  furnishes  the  capability 
to  polish  pivots  and  staffs,  and  perform  any 
of  the  numerous  operations  so  constantly  re¬ 
quired  in  the  repairing  of  watches.  It  is  at¬ 
tractive  through  its  highly  bright  appearance 
and  delicacy  and  beauty  of  form.  Through 
this  attractiveness,  the  lathe  proves  of  value 
as  an  advertisement  to  the  owner,  for,  when 
a  customer,  upon  entering  his  shop,  discerns 
the  neat  and  trim  American  lathe,  instead  of 
the  rough-looking  affairs  he  remembers  were 
universally  used  in  his  youth,  he  argues  that 
the  possessor  of  the  better  tools  must  per¬ 
form  the  better  work.  The  efficiency  of  the 
American  lathe  is  undeniable  ;  skilled  work¬ 
men  agree  that  they  can  do  from  20  per 
cent,  to  2  5  per  cent,  more  with  it  than  with 
the  old  styles.  The  best  manufactures  have 
been  copied  in  England,  France,  Germany, 
and  Switzerland. 

As  very  few  watch  repairers  ever  consider 


the  progressive  steps  in  the  development  of 
the  lathe  from  its  original  form  used  in  pre¬ 
historic  ages,  down  to  its  present  perfect 
construction,  I  think  a  review  of  this  step  in 
simple  outline,  will  prove  of  interest  and 
value.  In  the  first  illustration  the  crude, 
primitive  lathe  is  depicted.  It  will  be  no¬ 
ticed  that  the  article  to  be  turned  has  both 
its  ends,  or  bearings,  fastened  in  the  fork  of 
two  trees,  and  is  revolved  by  a  crank.  The 
operator,  or  turner,  holds  the  cutting  tool 
against  the  revolving  object,  his  hands  rest¬ 
ing  on  the  fork  of  a  tree-branch,  which  is 
driven  into  the  earth. 

There  are  several  minor  stages  between 
the  primitive  form  and  the  ingenious  Egyp¬ 
tian  iathe ;  but,  my  space  being  limited,  I 
will  hurry  to  a  description  of  this  machine. 
The  Egyptian  lathe  for  centuries  was  in  uni¬ 
versal  use  ;  and,  even  at  the  present  moment, 
in  some  out-of-the-way  places  still  exists. 
It  was  originally  made  wholly  of  rough 
wood,  and  was  composed  of  a  spindle  and 
pulley  mounted  upon  a  stand,  looking  more 
like  the  frame-work  of  the  door  of  a  log-cabin 
than  a  piece  of  machinery.  The  power  for 
driving  this  lathe  was  as  follows :  a  cord 
was  at  one  end  fastened  to  the  pulley,  the 
other  end  being  tied  to  a  branch  of  an  ad¬ 
jacent  tree,  which  was  bent  downward  to 
form  a  spring.  A  pressure  of  the  foot  in 
the  stirrup  produced  a  forward  rotary  motion 
which  was  reciprocated  backward  by  the  re¬ 
lease  of  the  foot-pressure  and  the  recoil  of 
the  tree-branch,  the  continual  pressures  and 
releases  producing  a  constant  reciprocal  ro¬ 
tary  motion.  As  years  became  generations, 
and  generations  centuries,  the  material  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  these  machines,  as  seen 
in  the  illustration,  was  to  change  to  iron, 
the  principle  of  regenerating  power  remained 
essentially  the  same,  a  springy  pole  being 
used  instead  of  a  tree-branch.  The  Egyp¬ 
tian  lathe  has  entirely  disappeared  in  Amer¬ 
ica,  but,  as  I  have  said,  still  exists  in  remote 
parts  of  Europe. 

Until  quite  recent  days,  the  fiddle-bow 
was  almost  every  watchmaker’s  principal 
tool,  and  is  now  utilized  by  many  mechanics. 
This  was,  or  rather  is,  but  a  modification  of 
the  reciprocal  rotary  motion  in  the  Egyptian 
lathe.  It  is  too  widely  known  to  bear  profit¬ 
ably  a  description  at  this  day. 

This  final  stage,  the  fully  developed  ma¬ 
chine,  is  shown  in  the  last  illustration,  which 
gives  an  improved  foot-wheel,  driving  to  a 
countershaft,  and  from  the  latter  to  the  lathe. 


102 


HOW  TO  FIT  WATCH  HANDS. 


Every  watchmaker’s  lathe  should  be  set  up 
thus  to  exercise  its  full  value  to  the  workman. 

To  consider  some  of  the  essentials  of  a 
perfect  lathe.  As  is  known,  every  article 
turned  will  be  of  the  form  of  the  bearing  of 
the  spindle ;  consequently,  if  the  bearing  is 
not  perfectly  round,  the  article  cannot  be 
perfectly  round  ;  the  shoulders  of  the  spindle 
must  be  perfectly  true,  or  the  truth  of  the 
turned  article  will  be  affected  ;  the  spindle  of 
the  lathe  should  revolve  with  uniform  free¬ 
dom,  and  must  not  have  hard  spots  during 
the  revolution  ;  the  general  use  of  spring 
chucks  requires  that  the  mouth  and  throat  of 
the  lathe  shall  be  perfectly  true  and  both 
hard,  and  that  the  chucks  shall  be  hard, 
and  ground  true  after  hardening ;  the  tail- 
stock  spindle  should  also  be  perfectly 
straight  and  round,  and  fit  accurately 
in  the  hole.  The  process  of  binding  the 
spindle  must  not  have  any  effect  upon  its 
alignment ;  it  is  also  absolutely  necessary 
that  the  fine  point  of  the  tail-stock  shall  ac¬ 
curately  match  and  align  with  the  point  of 
the  center  of  the  head-stock,  to  secure  which 
end  very  expensive  tools  and  machines  have 
been  made,  adding  largely  to  the  general 
cost  of  the  lathe.  The  latter  essential,  capa¬ 
ble  of  fulfilment  in  a  lathe,  proves  the  lathe 
to  be  fairly  perfect  in  construction.  Some 
manufacturers  are  producing  a  lathe  in  which 
the  tail-stock  may  be  reversed  upon  its  bed, 
and  either  end  perfectly  align  with  the  head- 
stock. 

Notwithstanding  that  lathes  possessing 
the  above  qualities  cost  fifteen  per  cent, 
more  than  those  built  without  particular  care, 
the  difference  in  the  efficiency  of  the  two 
varieties  is  a  larger  per  cent,  than  that  of  the 
difference  in  cost.  Every  investor  hopes  for 
the  return  of  a  good  dividend,  and  experience 
has  proved  that  a  perfect  lathe  pays  an  an¬ 
nual  dividend  of  fifty  per  cent. 


TO  EXAMINE  A  WATCH. 

EFORE  you  take  a  »watch  down  ex¬ 
amine  the  action  of  the  balance  wheel, 
and  you  will  quite  often  find  it  to  be  rubbing 
slightly  on  the  center  wheel,  the  stud,  or  the 
curb  pins  ;  push  the  balance  in  several  direc¬ 
tions  with  a  peg,  and  freely  apply  the  file  to 
the  offending  pieces.  If  center  wheel  and 
balance  are  touching,  consider  the  balance 
foul,  and  after  taking  it  out,  screw  the  cock 
on,  and  drive  it  over  with  a  blow  on  a  box¬ 


wood  peg  with  the  hammer ;  but  be  sure 
that  the  required  freedom  is  attained,  and 
that  the  balance  is  free  of  both  the  stud  and 
regulator  in  all  positions. 


THE  TRAIN  OF  WHEELS. 

XAMINE  the  train  of  the  wheels.  If 
the  scape-wheel  depthing  is  too  shal¬ 
low,  as  often  happens  when  there  is  much 
side-shake,  drive  the  scape-bridge  by  press¬ 
ure  from  behind,  if  freedom  should*  allow, 
the  second  pivot  hole  being  very  shallow.  A 
pivot  broach  pressed  by  the  finger  under¬ 
neath  in  opening  the  hole  will  cut  away  one 
side  of  the  hole,  into  which  a  French  bouchon 
must  be  inserted  and  riveted,  and  then  we 
have  a  depthing  as  the  result  of  a  few  mo¬ 
ments’  work,  the  wheel  being  uprighted  by 
driving  the  cock  in  the  customary  manner. 


FINAL  REVIEWS. 

HEN  the  repairer  has  corrected  the  de¬ 
fects  and  cleaned  the  watch,  and  is 
about  to  mount  it,  let  him  look  to  the  oil- 
sinks,  that  they  are  thoroughly  clean,  inspect 
the  jewel-holes  to  see  that  they  are  highly 
polished  and  firmly  set,  that  the  screws  are- 
all  securely  fastened,  and  when  he  finds 
everything  in  order,  he  may  commence  to 
mount  the  pieces. 


HOW  TO  FIT  WATCH  HANDS. 

HE  fitting  on  of  a  watch  hand,  al¬ 
though  slighted  in  many  shops,  is  a 
job  deserving  of  a  great  deal  more  care  than 
is  generally  bestowed  upon  it,  and  even  re¬ 
pairers  who  take  pains  with  their  work  neg¬ 
lect  several  important  points.  They  leave 
the  pipe  of  the  hour  wheel  too  long  and  that 
of  the  minute  hand  too  short,  and  when  they 
adjust  the  end-shake  of  the  hour  hand,  they 
lay  the  boss  on  the  hour  wheel  and  the  dial 
so  that  the  end-shake  of  the  center  wheel 
affects  that  of  the  hour  hand,  sometimes  giv¬ 
ing  it  too  much,  and  the  hour  hand  is  bent 
by  catching  the  minute  hand  either  in  setting 
the  hands  or  in  the  going  of  the  watch.  In 
fitting  the  hands  to  a  hunting  case,  the  ex¬ 
aminer  should  fit  the  glass  as  high  as  the 
case  will  admit ;  ascertain  the  space  available 
by  placing  a  piece  of  beeswax  on  the  dial 
and  pressing  the  glass  down  on  it,  and  then 
turning  the  cannon  pinion  until  it  projects 


PRINCIPAL  INVENTIONS  IN  HOROLOGY. 


103 


from  the  dial  the  height  of  the  beeswax. 
The  hour-wheel  pipe  should  rise  perceptibly 
above  the  dial,  and  the  end-shake  of  the 
hour  hand  be  adjusted  by  the  pipe  of  the 
minute  hand  and  that  of  the  hour  wheel.  If 
the  body  of  the  cannon  pinion  will  not  bear 
turning  in  fitting  it  to  the  hour  wheel,  then 
it  should  be  opened  in  the  mandrel,  as  it  can¬ 
not  be  kept  true  by  opening  the  hole  in  the 
fingers.  _ 

TO  REPAINT  THE  HOURS  ON  A  DIAL. 

HE  following  system  has  reference  to 
metallic  dials,  but  the  reader  will  be  able 
to  select  without  difficulty  the  parts  that  are 
applicable  to  altering  and  retouching  the 
figures  on  an  enamel  dial.  We  can  answer 
from  experience  for  its  being  successful,  but 
would  at  once  observe  that  it  cannot  be 
practiced  hastily,  because  some  skill  is  essen¬ 
tial  in  addition  to  patience  and  care ;  with 
them  success  is  certain.  Before  removing 
the  hour  figures  and  the  division  for  minutes, 
mark  them  with  a  fine  steel  point,  using  a 
lens  and  proceeding  with  great  caution. 
These  marks  will  remain,  so  that  after  the 
dial  has  been  colored  or  otherwise  treated,  it 
will  only  be  necessary  to  trace  over  them  with 
a  fine  brush  charged  with  ink.  The  short 
horizontal  lines  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  each 
figure,  termed  “  serifs,”  as  well  as  the  two  cir¬ 
cles  that  enclose  the  minute  division,  can  be 
drawn  with  a  sharpened  point  of  the  screw- 
bar  compass.  _ 

LIFTING  SPRINGS. 

IFTING  springs  of  watch  cases  are  often 
broken.  If  the  watchmaker  has  none 
of  the  right  size  on  hand,  and  has  no  time 
to  make  a  new  one,  he  can  mend  the  old 
spring  and  have  it  just  as  good  as  new. 
Place  them  close  together  and  bind  firmly 
to  a  piece  of  charcoal ;  then  solder  with 
18-karat  gold.  It  requires  a  strong  heat 
and  plenty  of  borax ;  next  finish  off  nicely, 
heat,  and  temper  in  the  usual  manner. 


SPOTTING. 

HE  process  of  finishing  chronometer 
and  watch  plates,  by  polishing  thereon 
equidistant  patches,  is  called  by  different 
names:  spotting,  snailing,  smoothing,  ston¬ 
ing,  damaskeening,  frosting,  etc.  The  plate 
to  be  spotted  is  fixed  to  the  top  of  a  slide 
rest,  and  the  marks  are  made  with  a  small 
bone  or  ivory  tube,  which  screws  into  the 


bottom  of  the  upright  spindle.  The  mate¬ 
rial  used  to  produce  the  pattern  is  a  mixture 
of  oil-stone  dust  and  sharp  rouge.  The  plate 
when  fixed  in  position  on  the  platform  of 
the  tool  is  dabbed  all  over  with  the  end  of 
the  finger  dipped  in  this  composition,  which 
must  not  be  at  all  dry  or  thick.  This  up¬ 
right  spindle  carrying  the  spotter  is  kept 
constantly  rotating  by  a  band  from  a  foot 
wheel.  A  spiral  spring  round  the  arbor  of 
the  spotter  keeps  it  off  the  work,  and  a  little 
pressure  on  a  knob  at  the  top  brings  the 
spotter  into  action.  The  pattern  is  made  by 
turning  the  handle  of  the  slide  rest  equal 
amounts  after  each  spot  until  a  row  is  fin¬ 
ished,  and  then  moving  the  transverse  slide 
an  amount  equal  to  the  pitch  of  the  pattern. 

A  wavy  or  watered  spotting  is  produced 
with  water-of-Ayr  stone  and  oil,  carefully 
prepared,  or  with  a  piece  of  wood  charged 
with  oil-stone  dust,  etc.  The  oiled  corner  of 
an  emery  buffstick  can  occasionally  be  used. 

To  obtain  wavy  undulations  on  a  smooth 
piece  of  metal,  the  finger  should  first  be 
placed  at  the  point  of  commencement  of  the 
undulations.  Resting  the  wood  or  stone 
against  this  finger,  it  is  moved  a  little  in  a 
straight  line,  and  then  in  a  series  of  semicir¬ 
cular  wave  lines,  from  right  to  left  or  left 
to  right.  The  finger  is  advanced  through 
a  definite  distance,  and  the  operation  re¬ 
peated,  and  so  on. 

A  very  good  watered  surface  can  be  pro¬ 
duced  with  soft  charcoal.  With  a  view  to 
increasing  the  regularity  in  the  marks,  a  rule 
may  be  laid  on  the  object,  against  which  the 
charcoal  is  brought.  Parallel  watering  is 
usually  done  mechanically,  in  about  the  same 
manner.  _ 

PRINCIPAL  INVENTIONS  Ik 
HOROLOGY. 

HE  JEWELERS’  CIRCULAR  is  fre¬ 
quently  asked  concerning  the  dates  of 
the  principal  inventions  in  horology,  and  it 
has  therefore  compiled  them  in  a  chrono¬ 
logical  form,  which  is  as  nearly  correct  as 
patient  research  can  make  it.  It  appears, 
however,  that  the  old  masters  were  not  as 
eager  to  obtain  a  patent  for  every  displace¬ 
ment  of  a  screw  or  introduction  of  a  pin,  as 
our  modem  watchmakers  are,  but  were  con¬ 
tent  with  the  knowledge  of  having  introduced 
a  new  escapement,  a  new  arrangement  of 
wheels,  etc.,  without  letting  everybody  know 
who  did  it.  The  invention  of  the  balance 
spring  is  ascribed  to  several ;  the  detached 


CEMENT  FOR  REPAIRING  A  DIAL. 


1 04 


lever  escapement  is  claimed  both  by  Switzer¬ 
land  and  England  ;  the  duplex  escapement 
is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Dr.  Hooke  ; 
Pierre  Leroy ;  Dutertre,  another  French 
watchmaker ;  again,  that  it  was  introduced 
into  England  by  Thomas  Tyrer,  after  whom 
it  was  also  called  Tyrer’s  escapement ;  and, 
finally,  that  it  was  invented  by  an  English¬ 
man,  named  Duplex.  The  reader  may 
choose. 

Watchmakers  of  the  past  century,  aided 
by  advancing  education,  gradually  began  to 
comprehend  more  fully  the  power  and  adap¬ 
tability  of  wheels  and  pinions  ;  new  escape¬ 
ments  were  planned  and  existing  ones  im¬ 
proved  ;  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  eight 
are  preserved  in  our  various  watch  collec¬ 
tions.  The  greatest  impulse,  however,  was 
given  by  the  introduction  of  the  pendulum, 
claimed  both  by  Huyghens  (pronounced 
Hoyghens)  and  Galileo,  and  the  balance 
spring,  most  probably  by  Dr.  Hooke.  The 
interesting  series  of  inventions  commences 
with  the  date  of  the  application  of  the  pend¬ 
ulum  to  clocks,  1656. 

1658.  Dr.  Hooke  invents  and  applies  the 
balance  spring. 

1675.  Barlow  and  Quare,  of  London, 
construct  the  repeating  timepiece,  first  for 
mantel-clocks,  next  for  watches.  The  for¬ 
mer,  a  priest,  furnishing  the  plans,  the  latter, 
a  watchmaker,  executing  the  work.  Besides 
this,  the  invention  is  also  claimed  by 
Tompion. 

1680.  Dr.  Robert  Hooke  constructs  the 
recoil  escapement  for  clocks. 

1691.  Daniel  Quare  applies  the  minute 
hand.  As  watchmakers  well  know,  the  time¬ 
piece  had  only  one  hand  until  then. 

1700.  Graham  invents  the  mercury  pend¬ 
ulum. 

1702.  Graham  invents  the  dead-beat  or 
“  Graham  ”  escapement,  and  the  cylinder 
escapement. 

1704.  Fatio,  of  Geneva,  introduces  watch 
jeweling,  for  which  he  ?'ec?ives  an  English 
patent ,  No.  371,  May,  1704. 

1720.  Harrison,  the  “extraordinary  gen¬ 
ius,”  invents  the  maintaining  power. 

1726.  Harrison  constructs  the  compen¬ 
sated  gridiron  pendulum. 

1754.  Caron  de  Beaumarchais  invents  the 
pin  escapement  for  watches,  which  is  claimed 
by  Lepaute,  but  after  a  lawsuit  awarded  to 
the  former. 

1754.  Mudge  invents  the  detached-lever 
escapement. 


1760.  Ellicott  constructs  a  peculiar  com¬ 
pensation  pendulum. 

1761.  Harrison,  sixty-seven  years  old,  in¬ 
vents  the  first  marine  chronometer. 

1765.  Pierre  Leroy  invents  the  compen¬ 
sated  balance. 

1770.  Stodges  constructs  the  half-quar¬ 
ter  repeating  escapement,  mostly  used  in 
English  watches. 

1770.  Duplex,  an  Englishman,  invents  the 
escapement  named  for  him. 

1780.  Arnold  invents  the  marine  chro¬ 
nometer  with  detent  escapement. 

1780.  Earnshaw  constructs  the  spring- 
detent  escapement  and  the  compensated 
balance,  both  substantially  as  now'  used  in 
chronometers. 

1792.  Breguet  invents  the  tourbillon  es¬ 
capement. 

It  was  stated  above  that  one  hundred  and 
eight  distinct  escapements  have  been  con¬ 
structed.  Four  of  these  only  withstood  the 
touchstone  of  time,  viz.,  detached  lever,  cyl¬ 
inder,  chronometer,  and  verge,  the  latter  of 
which  is  fast  becoming  obsolete.  Of  the 
remaining  three  escapements  again,  the 
chronometer  is  used  with  but  few  exceptions 
for  marine  timepieces,  while  the  cylinder  is 
used  only  sectionally  for  cheap  grades  of 
watches.  We  therefore  may  sum  up  by  say¬ 
ing  that  there  is  only  one  universal  escape¬ 
ment — the  detached  lever. 


TO  CLEAN  CORAL. 

FIRST  soak  them  in  soda  and  water  for 
some  hours ;  then  make  a  lather  of 
soap,  and,  with  a  soft  hair  brush,  rub  the 
corals  lightly,  letting  the  brush  enter  into  all 
the  interstices.  Pour  off  the  water,  and  re¬ 
place  with  clean  water.  Finally  dry  in  the 
sun. 


CEMENT  FOR  REPAIRING  A  DIAL. 

SCRAPE  pure  white  wax,  and  mix  with 
equal  parts  of  zinc  white ;  next,  melt 
the  mass  in  a  clean  vessel  over  the  alcohol 
flame,  and  let  get  cold.  The  cold  cement 
can  be  easily  pressed  into  the  cracks  of  the 
slightly  warmed  dial,  and  adheres  firmly, 
assuming  a  high  polish  when  scraped  with  a 
knife.  If  the  cement  has  become  too  hard, 
add  a  little  wax ;  if  still  too  soft,  a  little 
zinc  white.  Cleanliness  in  mixing  and  a  little 
heat  contribute  to  the  production  of  a  very 
white  wax. 


THE  TREATMENT  OF  GOLD,  SILVER,  ETC 


THE  MISSION  OF  THE  GOLDSMITH. 

HE  goldsmith  expresses  in  his  works 
the  sentiment  and  culture  of  his  age. 
The  more  exalted  this  sentiment,  the  purer 
are  the  conceptions,  and  the  more  artistic 
the  works  of  the  goldsmith.  A  sober  and 
ignorant  age  also  produces  only  a  miserable 
treatment  of  the  precious  metals.  Depraved 
taste  does  not  understand  to  array  itself  in 
an  artistic  manner ;  its  low  vanity  is  satisfied 
with  coarse,  unwieldy  trinkets,  or  the  glitter¬ 
ing  ornament  of  a  boastful,  pretentious  style  ; 
it  overloads  itself  with  bulk,  with  which  it 
strives  to  impose. 

The  goldsmith  was  originally  only  a  smith, 
who  fashioned  gold  and  silver  into  useful 
shapes,  as  the  latter  does  iron.  Growing 
culture,  however,  in  individual  people  not 
only  awakened  a  desire  for  the  possession  of 
useful  articles  from  the  precious  metals,  but 
the  possessor  also  wished  to  have  its  value 
augmented  by  more  exquisite  work  so  that, 
as  it  were,  the  possessor  would  be  distin¬ 
guished  among .  men  by  his  superior  orna¬ 
ments.  The  kings  demanded  diadems,  the 
heroes  golden  shields  and  weapons,  the 
nobles  handsome  dishes  and  vessels  for  their 
tables,  the  priests  gold  and  silver  ornaments 
for  the  temples,  and  the  ambitious  citizen, 
finally,  desired  spangles  and  bracelets,  rings 
and  chains,  to  serve  as  a  noble  distinguishing 
mark  of  his  self-respect.  The  tradesman  of 
whom  all  these  demands  were  made  exerted 
his  taste  and  ingenuity  to  always  produce 
something  better  and  purer.  The  goldsmith 
no  longer  cast  his  trinkets,  but  gave  them  finer 
forms  by  hammering  according  to  models ; 
he  embellished  them  by  engraving  into  them 
and  chasing  upon  them  arabesques,  flowers, 
figures,  and  entire  pictures,  and  still  enhanced 
this  style  by  adorning  these  designs  with 
jewels ;  he  skillfully  added  single  pieces  to 


form  a  whole  by  choosing  different  sub¬ 
stances — silver,  gold,  ivory,  and  jewels ;  he 
invented  enamel.  And  thus  the  tradesman 
became  an  artist,  one  of  the  highest  rank. 
He  was  called  on  to  adorn  architecture,  and 
became  the  chief  auxiliary  of  the  architect, 
the  sculptor,  the  painter.  The  Bible  and 
many  historians  of  the  Greek  speak  of  this 
rise  of  the  art  of  goldsmithing  among  the  old 
nations  of  culture.  Solomon’s  temple  glit¬ 
tered  in  the  pride  of  gold  adornment.  Ho¬ 
mer  exalts  the  golden  arms  of  Glaucus,  and 
the  inlaid  shield  of  Achilles.  Semiramis 
caused  gold  and  silver  statues  to  be  erected, 
and  the  greatest  of  all  Greek  artists,  Phidias, 
was  a  goldsmith,  who  built  temples,  and  in 
them  placed  statues  of  the  gods  in  a  hitherto 
unknown  perfection.  In  Samos,  Corinth, 
and  Athens,  the  most  excellent  goldsmiths 
manufactured  those  vessels,  ornaments,  and 
masterpieces  for  which  the  Romans  afterward 
paid  incredible  sums,  and  which  we  marvel 
at  to-day,  as  the  proof  of  the  eminence  of 
an  art  vocation. 

As  previously  stated,  the  goldsmith  charac¬ 
terizes  in  his  productions  the  grade  of  culture 
both  of  his  people  and  age.  During  the 
flourishing  period  of  Greece,  we  find  it  upon 
the  highest  pinnacle  of  the  art ;  gradually  it 
declines,  commensurate  with  the  increase  of 
ignorance  and  wars,  and  finally  the  sun  of 
culture  sets  behind  them.  In  Rome,  where 
the  conceptions  of  the  ideal  languished  and 
perished  in  the  viciousness  of  the  emperors 
and  the  brutality  of  the  people,  the  goldsmith 
finally  becomes  the  panderer  simply  for  the 
senseless,  boastful  lavishness,  and  his  art 
becomes  nothing  else  than  a  gradually  de¬ 
generating  imitation  of  Greek  works.  He- 
liogabalus  adorned  his  room  with  gold,  only 
dined  from  gold  plates,  drank  out  of  gold 
and  silver  vessels,  which  he  presented  to  his 


io6 


GOLD  AND  ITS  TREATMENT  IN  SMELTING  AND  ROLLING. 


companions,  servants,  and  the  hungry  mul¬ 
titude  before  his  palace,  after  nocturnal 
orgies ;  he  caused  gold  dust  to  be  strewn  in 
his  path,  in  order  to  show  that  he,  as  the  first 
of  Rome,  could  waste  its  possession  and 
blood.  Rut  art  had  no  companionship  with 
this  senseless  waste,  until,  after  a  night  of  a 
thousand  years,  a  new  era  began  to  dawn 
upon  it,  and  as  long  as  the  merciful  mission 
of  Christendom  shall  exist  the  art  of  the 
goldsmith  will  also  not  perish. 


GOLD  AND  ITS  TREATMENT  IN 
SMELTING  AND  ROLLING. 

E  will  here  state  that  it  is  our  desire  to 
go  through  a  kind  of  apprenticeship  in 
respect  to  the  processes  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  gold.  We  hope  that  the  in¬ 
formation  thus  afforded,  beside  being  very 
valuable  to  the  practical  workman,  by  giving 
him  facilities  which  will  result  in  the  more 
successful  performance  of  his  work,  will 
prove  useful  to  the  manufacturer  also,  by  im¬ 
parting  to  him  that  with  which  he  has  hitherto 
been  unacquainted.  We  shall  lay  most  stress 
upon  those  processes  of  art  workmanship  and 
management  in  which  we  venture  to  believe 
we  have  been  more  successful  than  most  of 
our  compeers. 

We  shall  commence  with  the  first  proced¬ 
ures  in  the  course  of  the  manufacture,  viz. : 
the  preparation  of  the  alloy  and  its  subse¬ 
quent  treatment  in  the  crucible,  in  order  to 
describe  minutely  the  processes  or  methods 
of  working  with  the  precious  metals. 

When  purchasing  the  materials  for  alloy¬ 
ing,  where  a  fair  average  trade  is  being  car¬ 
ried  on,  there  is  an  advantage  in  buying  cop¬ 
per  in  large  quantities ;  but  with  gold  and 
silver  the  reverse  is  the  case.  Irrespective 
of  the  disadvantage  of  the  cash  lying  idle, 
gold  being  always  bought  for  cash,  some  of 
its  particles  are  so  fine  and  minute  that  every 
time  it  is  moved  about  or  touched  some  por¬ 
tion  is  sure  to  be  lost ;  the  quantity  may,  per¬ 
haps,  be  very  small  indeed,  but  when  we 
take  into  consideration  the  extremely  valu¬ 
able  nature  of  gold  in  the  above  state,  the  loss 
in  the  course  of  the  year  may  be  something 
amazing.  For  these  and  other  reasons  which 
could  be  adduced,  we  recommend  the  pur¬ 
chase  of  gold  at  the  time  it  is  needed,  and 
sufficient  for  the  purposes  required. 

In  preparing  the  mixture  of  gold,  silver, 
and  copper  for  the  crucible  care  should  be 


taken  in  weighing  them  accurately  in  order 
to  prevent  improvement  or  deterioration  in 
the  qualities  of  the  gold  constantly  in  use. 
In  melting  all  qualities  it  is  a  wise  plan  to 
place  the  lightest  of  the  metals  to  be  melted 
at  the  bottom  of  the  crucible,  viz.  :  the  cop¬ 
per  first,  the  silver  next,  and  the  gold  last ; 
by  so  doing  the  melter  is  more  likely  to  get 
a  perfect  amalgamation  of  the  metals,  as  the 
gold,  being  the  heaviest,  is  sure  to  find  its 
way  to  the  bottom  of  the  pot.  When  spelter 
is  employed  it  must  not  be  put  in  until  the 
other  metals  are  melted ;  being  of  so  vol¬ 
atile  a  nature,  it  would  be  all  evaporated 
before  the  mixture  of  alloy  was  properly  in¬ 
corporated,  consequently  the  bar  of  gold 
would  fall  short  of  its  original  weight,  the 
quality  would  be  improved,  and  the  manu¬ 
facturer  would  be  unable  to  compensate  him¬ 
self  without  remelting  with  an  addition  of 
alloy. 

Plumbago  crucibles  are  the  best  for  all 
practical  melting  purposes,  and  with  care 
will  last  from  twenty  to  fifty  times ;  if  new, 
a  very  small  quantity  of  charcoal  powder 
should  be  put  into  the  pot  with  the  mixture 
of  alloy.  This  coats  the  surface  of  it,  and 
prevents  the  metals  from  adhering.  When  the 
gold  is  at  the  point  of  fusion,  fling  on  it  about 
a  tablespoonful  of  perfectly  pure  vegetable 
charcoal.  The  layer  of  charcoal  which  forms 
upon  the  surface  of  the  gold  in  the  crucible 
protects  the  mixture  from  the  action  of  the 
air,  which  would  refine  the  gold  by  destroy¬ 
ing  some  of  the  alloy.  When  perfectly  fused, 
the  mixture  must  be  well  stirred  with  an  iron 
stirrer  (consisting  of  a  long  round  piece  of 
iron  sharpened  at  the  point),  which  should 
previously  be  made  red  hot,  to  render  the 
whole  mass  uniform  in  quality.  The  pot  is 
then  quickly  withdrawn,  and  its  contents 
poured  into  a  suitable  ingot-mold,  previously 
warmed  and  greased,  to  prevent  adhesion. 
The  warming  of  the  mold  is  quite  indispen¬ 
sable  ;  but,  if  made  too  hot,  the  metal,  when 
poured  into  it,  will  spit  and  fly  about ;  be¬ 
sides  incurring  great  loss  of  gold,  danger¬ 
ous  results  may  thereby  happen  to  the  per¬ 
son  in  charge  ;  the  same  remark  applies  when 
the  ingot-mold  is  cold  ;  this  part  of  the  pro¬ 
cess  must  therefore  not  be  neglected,  but 
carefully  attended  to.  The  ingot-mold,  we 
may  state,  is  hot  enough  when  you  can  just 
touch  it  with  the  hand  for  a  second  or  two. 
In  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  if  the  gold  is  properly 
heated  in  the  melting  and  cast  all  right  with 
the  charcoal  flux  we  have  recommended,  the 


GOLD  AND  ITS  TREATMENT  IN  SMELTING  AND  ROLLING. 


working  qualities  in  its  subsequent  treatment 
will  be  found  all  that  could  be  desired  for 
any  purposes  whatever. 

When  it  is  desired  to  produce  very  tough 
gold,  use  as  a  flux  a  tablespoonful  of  char¬ 
coal,  as  before,  and  one  of  sal-ammoniac, 
adding  it  to  the  gold  on  the  eve  of  melting ; 
the  sal-ammoniac  burns  away  while  toughen¬ 
ing  the  gold,  leaving  the  charcoal  behind  to 
perform  the  functions  already  indicated.  The 
employment  of  the  mixture  of  sal-ammoniac 
will  bring  the  ingots  of  gold  up  bright  and 
clear ;  it  will  also  prevent  them  from  splitting 
or  cracking  at  the  rolling-mill,  and  in  subse¬ 
quent  working ;  if  proper  attention  has  been 
paid  to  it,  the  gold  will  then  be  found  tough 
and  pliable.  This  does  not,  however,  apply 
to  every  kind  of  alloy,  but  it  may  be  affirmed 
of  those  we  have  described,  and  can  be  safely 
and  thoroughly  depended  upon. 

The  furnace  used  by  most  jewelers  is  the 
ordinary  wind  furnace,  built  of  brick-work, 
which  is  admirably  suited  for  such  purposes  ; 
a  size  convenient  for  every  requirement  is  of 
the  following  dimensions  :  eight  inches  square 
inside,  and  sixteen  inches  deep  from  the 
grate  which  supports  the  fire. 

For  producing  tough  gold,  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  common  salt  as  a  fluxing  agent  is 
sometimes  strongly  recommended.  There  is 
not,  however,  much  to  be  said  for  its  use,  as 
it  produces  a  very  liquid  flux,  and  is  not  half 
so  clean  as  the  one  we  have  recommended. 
In  the  casting,  unless  very  great  care  is  ex¬ 
ercised,  it  runs  into  the  ingot-mold  with  the 
gold,  producing  a  brittle-like  substance,  and 
this  forces  itself  into  the  bar  of  gold,  the  sur¬ 
face  of  which  becomes  irregular  and  full  of 
holes ;  on  this  account  alone  it  is  objection¬ 
able,  in  preparing  clean  and  smooth  bars  of 
gold.  The  same  may  be  said  of  borax,  but 
that  is  still  largely  used  in  the  jewelry  trade 
for  melting  purposes.  Nevertheless  we  are 
confident,  from  long  practical  experience 
(the  result  of  many  years’  study  and  practice, 
during  which  time  we  have  worked  up  many 
thousand  ounces  of  gold),  that  there  is  no 
better  flux  than  a  mixture  of  sal-ammoniac 
and  charcoal,  for  every  possible  purpose  re¬ 
quired,  in  the  subsequent  treatment  of  the 
different  qualities  of  gold  ;  and  that  for  tough¬ 
ness,  cleanliness,  and  producing  good  worka¬ 
ble  properties  it  cannot  be  surpassed. 

In  melting  scrap  gold  from  the  workshop, 
care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  it  is  quite 
clean  and  free  from  organic  matter,  wax,  etc. 
To  effect  this  it  is  a  good  plan  to  heat  the 


1 07- 

scrap  in  an  iron  ladle  until  all  wax  or  grease 
is  removed ;  this  should  be  done  before  the 
workman  weighs  his  scrap  into  the  ware¬ 
house,  and  should  be  a  special  rule  of  every 
establishment.  It  has  a  great  tendency  to 
reduce  the  working  loss,  which  is  almost  un¬ 
avoidable.  This  kind  of  scrap  is  best  re¬ 
melted  by  itself,  and  the  same  flux  may  be 
employed  as  has  been  recommended  for  new  » 
gold  ;  if  the  bar  of  gold  should  split  in  rolling, 
it  is  due  to  the  presence  of  some  foreign 
metal,  such  as  lead  or  tin,  or  it  may  be  iron 
or  steel.  Then  remelt  the  bar  with  two  parts 
carbonate  of  potash  and  one  part  of  nitrate 
of  potash  (saltpeter),  the  saltpeter  will  draw 
the  iron  or  steel  into  the  flux,  leaving  the 
alloy  of  gold  free.  If  lead  or  tin  should  get 
into  the  gold,  very  serious  results  follow — a 
very  small  portion  being  sufficient  to  split  a 
large  bar  and  render  it  totally  unworkable 
and  exceedingly  brittle ;  when  broken,  the 
grains  appear  close  and  pale.  Bi-chloride 
of  mercury  (corrosive  sublimate)  is)  the  best 
flux  to  use  when  these  defects  make  their 
appearance,  in  the  proportion  of  two  parts 
charcoal  to  one  of  corrosive  sublimate,  when 
all  will  go  right  again.  Sandiver  is  also  a 
very  useful  flux  when  iron  or  steel  gets  into 
the  gold.  Such  gold,  when  remelted,  always 
loses  in  weight,  some  of  the  alloy  being  lost 
on  account  of  the  many  small  pieces  of  gold 
of  which  the  scrap  consists.  This,  of  course, 
improves  the  quality ;  therefore  it  is  neces¬ 
sary,  in  order  to  keep  the  gold  of  one  stand¬ 
ard,  to  add  some  small  portion  of  alloy, 
either  silver  or  copper  ;  but,  as  the  scrap  may 
contain  a  little  solder,  copper  will  be  the  best 
td  use.  The  following  calculations  may  be 
relied  upon  for  the  different  qualities : 

TABLE  OF  CALCULATIONS. 

Wet-colored  scrap .  .  3  gr.  copper  per  ounce.. 

1 2 -karat  scrap .  6  gr.  copper  per  ounce- 

1  o-karat  scrap .  9  gr.  copper  per  ounce- 

9-karat  scrap . 1 2  gr.  copper  per  ounce. 

Any  gold  bearing  the  English  Hall-mark 
make  no  additions. 

All  qualities  of  scrap  should  be  well-sorted 
and  undergo  the  action  of  a  magnet  before 
remelting,  and  the 'greatest  care  exercised  in 
keeping  every  quality  separate. 

Sometimes  in  remelting  scrap  gold  it  is 
necessary  to  make  some  addition,  either  in 
fine  gold  or  alloy,  for  the  purpose  of  improv¬ 
ing  or  reducing  the  quality.  This  happens 
when  different  qualities  of  goods  are  required 


1 08 


THE  MELTING  OF  GOLD. 


on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  and  it  may  not 
be  convenient  to  procure  fine  gold  at  the 
time  sufficient  for  the  purpose ;  this  is  very 
often  the  case  with  beginners  who  have  em¬ 
barked  in  business  with  a  limited  capital, 
which  may  already  be  partially  invested  ;  to 
such  persons  the  advice  we  may  give  may 
prove  serviceable.  There  may  be  possibly 
existing  at  the  time  in  the  work-shops  a  large 
quantity  of  scraps  of  the  regular  quality,  and 
if  the  proper  rules  for  alloying,  in  reference 
to  reducing  and  improving  the  qualities,  were 
understood  thoroughly,  use  might  be  made 
of  it  in  the  above  direction,  not  only  to  the 
pecuniary  interest  of  the  man  of  business, 
but  also  to  the  advantage  of  all  parties  con¬ 
cerned.  We  shall  be  as  simple  and  as  con¬ 
cise  as  possible  in  our  modes  of  calculation, 
and  will  employ  the  usual  arithmetical  signs. 
In  preparing  the  scrap  for  reducing,  great 
care  must  be  taken  in  selecting  it  free  from 
solder  or  other  impurities,  otherwise  the  cal¬ 
culation,  as  regards  extreme  accuracy,  will 
be  thrown  out ;  and  sometimes  this  is  of  im¬ 
portance,  but,  more  commonly  speaking, 
when  the  quality  is  not  for  some  special  pur¬ 
pose,  the  difference  likely  to  result  is  of  little 
importance.  The  numeral  20  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  tables  will  always  be  consonant,  because 
it  represents  the  number  of  pennyweights  in 
one  ounce  of  gold.  The  multipliers  and  di¬ 
visors  will  be  different,  and  will  vary  with 
the  quality  of  gold  required. 

As  an  example,  suppose  we  want  to  find 
how  much  pure  gold  will  be  required  to  be 
added  to  1  ounce  of  g-karat  scrap  in  order 
to  raise  it  to  15-karat  gold,  we  should  pro¬ 
ceed  thus : 

20  x  15  =  300 
20  x  9  =  180 
300 —  180  =  120 
120-L  9  =  13  dwts.  8  grs. 

Therefore  to  every  ounce  of  9-karat  gold 
we  shall  have  to  add  13  dwts.  8  grs.  of  fine 
gold  to  make  1 5-karat  gold.  The  divisor  9 
does  not  represent  the  quality  of  scrap  about 
to  be  improved,  but  is  the  difference  between 
the  quality  manufactured  and  the  numeral 
24,  which  represents  the  number  of  karats  in 
one  ounce ;  consequently,  when  it  is  desired 
to  improve  the  scrap,  the  divisor  will  always 
represent  the  difference  between  the  quality 
as  improved  by  the  addition  of  fine  gold  and 
24.  When  it  is  desired  to  reduce  the  scrap 
the  reverse  will  be  the  case  ;  the  divisor  will 
always  indicate  the  quality  to  be  made. 


Let  us  take  another  case  as  illustration  of 
what  we  mean.  Suppose  it  is  desired  to 
reduce  some  scrap  in  quality,  no  alloy  being 
suitable  to  be  found  in  the  alloy  book,  we 
shall  have  to  make  a  sort  of  guess-work  or 
haphazard  calculation.  If  we  adopt  the  sys¬ 
tem  we  are  recommending  it  will  become 
very  simple.  To  reduce  18-karat  scrap  in  or¬ 
der  to  make  1 5 -karat  gold  we  shall  proceed 
as  follows : 

20  x  18  =  360 
20  X  15  =  300 
360  —  300  =r  60 
60-4-  15=4  dwts. 

To  every  ounce  of  18-karat  scrap  must  be 
added  4  dwts.  of  alloy.  This  case  clearly 
illustrates  the  difference  in  the  divisor  be¬ 
tween  reducing  and  improving  the  quality. 
If  it  is  of  importance  to  know  how  much 
mixture  of  alloy  should  be  added  to  one 
ounce  of  fine  gold,  in  order  to  produce 
qualities  of  inferior  standard,  the  numeral  24 
becomes  consonant,  thus  to  produce  18  kar¬ 
ats  : 

20  x  24  =  4F0 
20  x  18  =  360 
480  —  360  —  120 
120-4-  18  =  6  dwts.  16  grs. 

Therefore,  in  making  18-karat  gold,  to 
every  ounce  of  fine  gold  a  mixture  of  alloy 
consisting  of  6  dwts.  16  grs.  must  be  added. 
The  above  examples  represent  almost  every 
case,  and  any  others  which  may  arise  out  of 
them  may  be  safely  calculated,  taking  these  as 
basis  or  starting  point. 


THE  MELTING  OF  GOLD. 

HE  melting  of  gold  is  a  work  performed 
nearly  every  day  in  the  goldsmith  shop, 
and  would  hardly  be  considered  as  one  occa¬ 
sioning  great  difficulty.  Larger  quantities  are 
melted  in  a  crucible,  either  in  a  coal  fire  or 
in  a  gas  furnace.  This  method,  where  gas  is 
cheap,  is  to  be  highly  recommended,  on  ac¬ 
count  of  great  convenience  and  cleanliness. 

MELTING  ON  COAL. 

It  is  really  a  cause  of  astonishment  that 
there  are  so  many  shops  into  which  the 
melting  of  gold  on  coal  has  not  yet  been 
introduced,  although  it  will  be  seen  at  a 
glance  that  it  must  be  very  convenient — of 
course  when  a  small  quantity  only  is  to  be 
melted;  from  25  to  30  grams  (16  to  19 


THE  MELTING  OF  GOLD. 


dwts.)  may  be  melted  on  a  piece  of  coal. 
The  round”  branch  coals  are  to  be  preferred. 
See  that  they  are  thoroughly  charred,  and 
contain  no  cracks.  Cut  one  end  obliquely 
and  in  it  make  a  medium  deep  hole,  into 
which  lay  the  gold.  In  order  to  keep  out 
the  air  and  confine  the  heat  within,  put  on  a 
small  covering  coal.  As  in  the  procedure 
when  using  a  crucible,  add  the  alloy  only 
when  the  gold  is  in  a  fusing  state ;  the  labor 
of  the  operation  may  be  facilitated  by  adding 
a  small  piece  of  borax. 

BORAX  AND  SALTPETER  AS  FLUXES. 

Borax  has  the  property  of  slightly  dull¬ 
ing  the  color  of  the  gold,  and,  if  a  lively 
color  is  desired,  add  also  a  little  saltpeter 
— but  only  a  little,  as  this  agent  attacks  the 
copper  as  alloy,  especially  when  preparing 
red  gold.  This  effect  might  be  prevented 
by  adding  a  little  charcoal  dust.  The 
warmed  ingot-mold  is  placed  in  a  conven¬ 
ient  position,  with  a  piece  of  sheet  tin  under¬ 
neath  ;  it  may  happen  when  least  expected 
that  the  coal  splits,  or,  that,  in  shaking  in 
place  of  stirring,  a  little  gold  flies  or  runs 
over.  When  the  gold  has  been  melted  well 
expose  it  to  a  soft  flame  for  one  moment 
longer,  and  when  it  shows  a  nice  button,  pour 
it,  but  not  with  too  great  haste. 

THE  BEST  MOLD  FOR  CASTING. 

An  open  ingot-mold  should  never  be  used 
in  casting ;  the  gold  cast  in  it  invariably 
labors  under  the  disadvantage  of  being  im¬ 
pure,  or  cracked  upon  the  entire  surface ; 
such  a  bar  will  never  have  as  regular  a  form 
as  when  cast  in  a  closed  mold.  The  gold¬ 
smith  may  himself  manufacture  such  a  mold 
very  readily  and  in  a  simple  manner. 

MALLEABILITY  OF  THE  INGOT. 

Freshly  alloyed  gold  is  best  suited  to 
stand  further  working;  its  not  being  easily 
workable  is  frequently  due  to  the  lack  of 
care  exercised  in  the  melting  and  casting. 
In  spite  of  all  patience  in  the  repetition  of 
the  melting  and  the  most  painstaking  care, 
however,  it  will  have  happened  to  some  of 
my  readers  that  the  gold  proved  to  be 
brittle.  It  is  to  be  supposed  that  an  an¬ 
nealing  fluid  would  contribute  to  its  tough¬ 
ness.  Most  suitable  for  this  is  perhaps  the 
ordinary  nitric  acid,  as  it  cleans  at  the  same 
time  the  surface,  and  perhaps  creates  a  thin 
film  of  pure  gold.  It  is  perhaps  best  not  to 


i  ocy 

anneal  it  while  too  hot.  Much  is  also  con¬ 
tributed  to  the  ductility  of  the  gold  by  ham¬ 
mering  it ;  strike  it  a  few  times  on  all  sides, 
and  only  then  bring  it  between  the  rollers. 
Both  8-  and  14-karat  gold  must  be  glow- 
heated  very  often;  but  18-karat  is  best 
worked  up  to  finishing  without  glow-heating 
it,  as  it  is  almost  sure  to  crack  in  this  pro¬ 
cess.  If,  however,  it  will  not  stand  at  all 
melt  it  again,  and  when  liquid  add  a  small 
quantity  of  corrosive  sublimate.  This  has 
the  property  of  expelling  the  air,  for  which 
1 8-karat  gold  has  a  great  affinity ;  in  other 
words,  it  assists  it  in  becoming  compact. 
The  expert  workman  will  know  by  the  very 
sound  whether  gold  is  ductile  or  not.  If  it 
gives  a  clear  ring  when  thrown  down  it  is 
good ;  if,  however,  the  sound  is  dull,  count 
on  its  being  brittle. 

TO  CORRECT  CRACKED  GOLD. 

Should  the  gold  crack  only  at  a  few  places, 
the  defect  may  be  corrected  by  welding. 
Coat  it  with  borax  and  lay  it  upon  the  coal 
in  such  a  manner  that  it  lies  upon  it  every¬ 
where.  Then  heat  it  until  it  almost  melts ; 
it  will  then  be  found  that  the  jagged  places 
have  run  together  again,  and  will  not  re¬ 
open  in  the  succeeding  working  processes. 
This,  of  course,  applies  only  to  18-karat  gold. 
If,  however,  it  will  not  become  tough  in  spite 
of  all  endeavors,  it  is  best  to  use  the  particu¬ 
lar  piece  for  14-karat,  and  try  another  alloy. 
It  is  a  first  indispensable  condition  to  use 
only  the  finest  kind  of  copper  for  alloying. 

THE  USE  OF  SCRAP  GOLD. 

The  use  of  scrap  gold,  when  used  for  14- 
karat,  sometimes  occasions  great  difficulties.. 
It  is  best  to  dispense  with  the  many  remelt¬ 
ings  and  refine  it  well  at  once,  for  which 
the  following  method  can  be  highly  recom¬ 
mended.  The  gold  to  be  refined  is  weighed 
exactly,  and  with  a  corresponding  quantity 
of  saltpeter  placed  into  a  crucible.  Upon 
this  invert  a  smaller  crucible  with  a  hole 
through  its  bottom,  and  then  lute  the  joint 
well  with  clay.  Place  the  crucible  in  the 
furnace,  and  at  first  heat  slowly ;  when  the 
vapor  issues  quietly  from  the  air-hole  the 
gold  is  melted ;  keep  it  in  this  condition  for 
one-half  hour  longer ;  you  may  then  be  sure 
that  the  saltpeter  has  operated  well,  and  has 
refined  the  gold.  When  cold,  break  the 
lower  crucible  carefully,  so  as  not  to  injure 
the  perforated  one,  which  may  be  used  again 


I  I  o 


TO  ALLOY  GOLD. 


.at  some  future  time.  Then  weigh  the  but¬ 
ton,  add  the  wanting  quantity,  melt  together, 
and  cast.  It  will  then  be  malleable. 

MELTING  WASTE. 

In  most  shops  only  the  entirely  clean  gold 
filing  dust  is  melted.  Everything  else  is 
added  to  the  waste,  which  is  melted  to¬ 
gether  once  about  every  two  months,  and 
sent  to  the  assayer  for  refining.  This 
method  is  under  all  circumstances  the  most 
convenient,  as  the  jeweler  works  thus  only 
with  good  gold  and  is  seldom  called  upon 
to  refine.  In  many  establishments,  even, 
when  it  is  ascertained  that  a  purchased  lot 
of  gold  is  not  as  pure  as  it  should  be,  it  is 
thrown  into  the  waste.  Before  melting,  heat 
this  waste  well  in  a  pan,  draw  a  magnet 
through  the  pile  and  take  out  all  the  iron. 
Then  mix  it  well  with  potash  or  fluxing 
powder,  place  everything  into  a  good-sized 
crucible,  strew  upon  the  surface  a  layer  of 
salt,  which  prevents  the  boiling  over,  and 
place  the  crucible  into  the  furnace.  Since, 
especially  in  the  melting  of  waste,  the  cruci¬ 
ble  bursts  easily,  great  care  is  to  be  exercised 
in  regulating  the  heat  well,  and  that  the  char¬ 
coals  lie  always  compact  during  the  melting. 
To  prevent  the  crucible  from  sinking  down 
to  the  grate  when  the  coals  underneath  have 
been  burned  away,  it  is  well  to  place  it  on 
the  lower  half  of  an  old  one.  When  the 
waste  begins  to  behave  more  quietly,  and 
emits  a  whiter,  beady  vapor,  the  metal  has 
been  melted  ;  either  cast  at  once,  or  else  let 
the  crucible  get  cold,  and  melt  clean.  When 
doing  the  latter,  and  a  clean  button  with 
rounded  edges  and  smooth,  arched  surfaces 
is  found,  the  melting  is  successfully  per¬ 
formed  ;  but,  if  it  is  flat  and  sharp-cornered, 
it  still  contains  foreign  metal.  Preserve  and 
add  it  to  the  next  melting  of  scrap.  It  will 
decidedly  not  pay  to  attempt  to  refine  the 
scrap,  as  the  assayer  can  do  it  much  cheaper 
and  better. 


TO  ALLOY  GOLD. 

T  is  not  always  convenient  to  obtain  pure 
gold  to  modify  our  alloys ;  consequently 
gold  coin  is  used  which  is  900  fine,  and  as  our 
books  and  instructions  I  believe  without  ex¬ 
ception  only  give  the  rules  for  pure  or  fine 
gold  as  it  is  termed,  I  will  give  the  rules  for 
compounding  alloys  of  any  fineness  less  than 
from  standard  American  gold  coin.  The 
rule  for  calculating  the  proportions  is  the 
one  known  in  the  arithmetics  as  alligation. 


There  is  a  feature  of  the  calculations  which 
should  be  taken  into  consideration,  and  that 
is  the  absurd  usage  of  a  24-karat  standard. 
All  our  alloys  should  be  on  a  decimal  basis. 
If  we  look  for  a  composition  of  brass  or  bell- 
metal  in  any  work  on  metallurgy  we  find  the 
proportions  invariably  given  in  hundredths, 
and  so  in  the  present  case,  as  our  coin  stand¬ 
ard  is  in  one  thousandths,  let  us  use  the  same 
standard  in  all  gold  alloys  and  call  18-karat 
gold  TdSwo  fine-  I  presume  most  of  my  read¬ 
ers  are  familiar  with  the  rules  of  alligation  ; 
still  one  would  be  very  excusable  for  not 
recollecting  them,  as  in  business  life,  except 
to  jewelers,  they  are  seldom  called  into  use. 
The  method  of  working  the  rule  is  as  fol¬ 
lows  :  We  will  first,  however,  give  the  deci¬ 
mal  equivalent  for  the  different  alloys  in 
one  thousandths : 

Fineness  in  Fineness  in 


Karats. 

ioooths. 

Karats.  ioooths. 

24  - 

IOOO 

12  —  .500 

23  = 

•958 

11  =  .458 

22  = 

•9W 

10  =  .416 

2  I  = 

•875 

9  —  -375 

20  — 

•833 

8  -  -333 

I9  = 

.792 

7  =  .292 

l8  = 

■75° 

6  =  .250 

17  = 

.708 

5  ==  .208 

16  — 

.667 

4  =  -i67 

15  = 

.625 

3  =  -I25 

14  = 

•583 

2  -  .083 

13  = 

•542 

1  =  .042 

The  reader  need  not  be  told  that  to  con¬ 
vert  the  karat  expression  into  decimals,  he 
should  add  cyphers  to  the  karats  fine  given 
and  divide  by  24  ;  as,  for  instance,  what  is 
the  decimal  of  18-k.  ?  Add  000  which  re¬ 
duces  it  to  thousandths  and  divide  by  24  ; 
18.000  -f  24  =  .750.  The  alligation  method 
is  worked  as  follows :  Suppose  we  have 
some  1  o-k.  scrap  we  wish  to  raise  to  14-k. , 
by  adding  gold  coin  900  fine  we  would  work 
it  thus :  Write  the  desired  fineness  in  deci¬ 
mals  to  the  left  (14-k.  in  decimals  being  583) 
thus : 

416  =  317 
900  =  167 

then  to  the  right  put  the  decimal  of  10-k., 
416  (see  table),  and  below  this  put  the  gold 
coin  decimal  of  900.  Still  farther  to  the 
right  we  write  the  difference  between  583 
and  900,  not  opposite  to  the  900,  but  opposite 
the  416  or  1  o-k.  decimal,  while  opposite  the 
900  we  write  the  difference  between  583  and 
416.  Now,  the  meaning  of  this  is,  if  we 


GOLD  AND  ITS  ALLOYS. 


I  1 1 


take  317  parts  of  10-k.  gold  and  add  167 
parts  of  coin  gold,  we  will  have  a  mixture 
(alloy)  of  14-k.  gold.  To  prove  this  let  us 
suppose  the  317  and  167  represents  dwts.  of 
gold,  the  first  of  10-k.  fine  is  worth  say  40 
cts.  a  dwt.,  and  the  second,  coin  gold  worth 
86  cts.,  4  mills  a  dwt.  Now,  317  and  167 
added  together  as  14-k.  alloy  will  make  484 
dwts.,  and  this  at  56  cts.  a  dwt.  (4  cts.  a 
karat  fine),  amounts  to  $271.04.  To  form 
this  484  dwts.  of  14-k.  alloy,  we  used  167 
dwts.  of  coin  gold  worth  86.4  cts.  a  dwt. 
and  317  dwts.  oT  10-k.  worth  40  cts.  a  dwt. 
The  first  amounts  to  $144.28  and  the  latter 
$126.80;  added  together  they  amount  to 
$271.08,  the  4  cts.  discrepancy  arising  from 
the  decimals  on  the  10  and  14-k.  as  will  be 
seen  by  taking  a  series  which  have  perfect 
decimal  expression.  Even  the  slight  loss 
noticed  could  be  reduced  to  a  fraction  of  a 
cent  by  carrying  the  decimal  expression  out 
two  figures  farther.  The  truth  or  accuracy 
of  the  rule  will  be  demonstrated  by  taking 
such  an  expression  as  the  following  which 
give  perfect  decimals,  when  we  will  raise 
some  12-k.  to  18-k.  stated  thus: 

(  COO  =  I  CO 
7C0  s  0  0 

'  J  (  900  —  2^0 

In  this  case  every  150  parts  of  12-k.  will 
require  250  parts  of  coin  900  fine.  We  will 
suppose  we  have  30  dwts.  of  12-k.  we  raise 
to  18-k. ;  we  make  the  statement  of  150 
parts  of  12-k.  require  250  parts  of  900,  what 
will  30  parts  require — thus  : 

150  :  250  :  :  30  :  the  required  amount. 
We  work  it  out  as  follows  : 

250  x  30  =  7>5°°  '5°  =•  5°> 

the  required  dwts.  of  coin  gold  900  fine. 
Now,  to  see  how  this  will  pan  out  by  values 
as  above  where  no  loss  from  decimals  will 
occur.  We  have  80  dwts.  of  18-k.  from  the 
30  dwts.  of  12-k.  and  50  dwts.  of  coin  gold ; 
now,  50  dwts.  at  72  cts.  is  $57.60.  And  30 
dwts.  of  12-k.  at  48  cts.  is  $14.40,  and  50 
dwts.  of  coin  gold  at  86.4  cts.  is  $43.20, 
which  added  to  $14.40  gives  us  $57.60,  the 
same  result  as  before.  In  calculations  it  is 
as  well  to  use  grains ;  as,  for  instance,  we 
had  26  dwts.,  14  grains  of  gold,  we  would 
express  it  thus,  534  ;  it  would  make  no  differ¬ 
ence  with  the  method  of  stating  the  question 
as  in  illustration  of  the  last  proposition  of  30 
dwts.  only  we  would  say  720  grs. ;  thus : 

150  :  250  :  :  720  :  1,200  (grs.). 


It  is  almost  needless  to  say  1,200  divided 
by  24  gives  the  dwts. 


GOLD  AND  ITS  ALLOYS. 

IGHTEEN-karat  gold,  from  the  pecul¬ 
iar  nature  of  its  alloy,  can  be  wrought 
into  almost  any  article  of  exquisite  beauty 
and  delicate  workmanship ;  if  properly  cast, 
it  is  both  malleable  and  tenacious.  It  is  also 
exceedingly  ductile.  A  hardness  is  imparted 
to  this  quality  of  gold,  which  admirably 
adapts  it  to  the  manufacture  of  jewelry  of 
the  highest  order.  There  is,  perhaps,  a  diffi¬ 
culty  in  preparing  eighteen-karat  gold,  not 
experienced  in  some  other  alloys  ;  this  defect 
soon  shows  itself  when  subjected  to  the 
breaking-down  mill,  by  little  cracks  all  over 
the  surface  of  the  bar  of  gold ;  and  when 
this  appearance  presents  itself,  it  is  by  far  the 
most  economical  plan  to  remelt  it  at  once 
than  to  go  on  with  the  breaking-down  ;  for 
when  the  process  of  slitting  is  attempted,  the 
gold  will  all  fly  into  little  fragments,  and  the 
probability  is  that  some  will  be  lost.  The 
prevailing  opinion  in  the  trade  is,  that  this 
want  of  unity  or  amalgamation  of  the  par¬ 
ticles  of  the  gold  and  alloy  is  due  to  the 
copper  which  is  employed.  Our  experience 
teaches  us — having  tried  every  kind  of  cop¬ 
per,  from  the  bean-shot  down  to  the  best 
refined  Swedish  wire,  for  the  purpose  of  pro¬ 
ducing  eighteen-karat  gold  rather  cheaper — 
that  we  have  invariably  found  that  there  is 
not  so  much  in  the  quality  of  the  copper  as 
in  the  quantity  used.  This  we  wish  to  state 
for  the  benefit  of  the  goldsmiths’  trade. 
Formerly  we  used  a  rather  large  proportion 
of  copper,  in  order  to  effect  a  small  saving 
per  ounce,  but  the  misfortune  to  which  we 
have  just  alluded  sometimes  presented  itself, 
and  after  trying  all  sorts  of  copper,  with  no 
certainty  of  permanent  success,  we  thought 
of  the  plan  of  alloying  with  more  silver  and 
less  copper.  In  this  we  succeeded,  and  now 
never  meet  with  a  bar  exhibiting  the  defects 
after  rolling  just  described. 

It  is  the  most  economical  plan,  when  these 
defects  appear,  to  reduce  the  bar  to  the  regu¬ 
lar  nine-karat  quality.  It  is  only  right  to 
say  that  we  always  found  eighteen-karat  gold 
alloyed  with  bean-shot  copper,  a  more  diffi¬ 
cult  and  harder  alloy  to  work  with  than  when 
the  refined  wire  was  used.  One  great  draw¬ 
back  in  shot  copper  (which  is  very  injurious 
in  alloying,  particularly  in  this  quality),  is 
that  it  may  contain  lead  or  tin  ;  and  half  a 


112 


GOLD  AND  ITS  ALLOYS. 


grain  of  either  in  an  ounce  of  this  gold  will 
prevent  it  from  working.  This  quality  of 
gold  is  now  always  manufactured  fully  up  to 
the  standard  fineness. 

COLORS  OF  GOLD. 

Yellow  gold — pure  or  fine  gold,  24  parts. 

Red  gold — fine  gold,  1 8  parts  ;  copper,  6 
parts. 

Green  gold — fine  gold,  1 8  parts  ;  silver,  6 
parts. 

Blue  gold — fine  gold,  18  parts;  iron,  6 
parts. 

White  gold — fine  gold,  1 2  parts  ;  silver,  1  2 
parts. 

Platinum,  or  fine  silver,  may  be  employed 
for  white  gold.  Red  and  white  are  generally 
employed  for  flowers,  green  for  leaves,  while 
the  stems  or  sprays  may  be  made'  of  yellow 
or  fine  gold.  Blue  gold  may  be  used  for 
special  purposes  of  ornamentation.  This 
latter  alloy  requires  great  practical  knowl¬ 
edge,  as  it.  presents  many  difficulties  in  its 
preparation  ;  these  are  best  overcome,  first, 
by  melting  the  gold,  and  then  introducing 
some  iron  wire  into  the  molten  mass,  until 
the  proper  quantity  of  alloy  is  formed.  Then 
the  crucibles  must  be  withdrawn,  and  the 
composition  poured  out  into  an  ingot-mold 
prepared  for  its  reception.  This  alloy  must 
not  be  quenched  in  water,  but  allowed  to 
cool ;  the  ingot  of  gold  to  be  perfect  should 
exhibit  no  signs  of  porosity  ;  if  it  turns  out 
of  the  ingot-mold  in  proper  condition,  it 
must  be  well  hammered  upon  the  edge,  and 
annealed  in  order  to  render  the  grain  more 
close  and  prevent  it  cracking  in  the  rolling- 
mill.  This  process  may  be  wisely  repeated 
upon  the  surface,  and  the  ingot  again  put 
through  the  fire.  The  gold  is  then  ready  for 
the  breaking-down  mill,  and  may  be  safely 
wrought  into  wires  or  sheets  of  different 
sizes. 

Fifteen-karat  gold  is  another  alloy  largely 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  colored  jewelry. 
This  quality,  to  our  mind,  is  second  to  none 
with  respect  to  works  of  art  in  jewelry,  both 
in  regard  to  taste  and  appearance  as  well  as 
durability.  It  can  be  made  to  look  quite 
equal  to  the  finest  gold,  and  in  addition  it  is 
easy  of  manipulation  ;  almost  any  article  can 
be  easily  made  from  it,  whilst  the  hardness 
which  nine  parts  of  alloy  impart,  is  not  such 
as  to  prove  a  hindrance  or  a  difficulty  in  the 
manufacture,  but  unites  with  it  that  amount 
of  strength  and  durability  which  is  so  essen¬ 
tial  in  costly  articles  of  jewelry.  These  ad¬ 


vantages  make  articles  of  this  gold  wear 
much  better  than  when  made  of  a  softer 
material ;  they  also  keep  their  form  and 
shape  a  considerable  time  longer. 

Thirteen-karat  gold  is  called  common 
when  speaking  of  colored  goods,  for  the 
reason  that  it  is  about  the  lowest  quality  that 
can  be  conveniently  colored  to  look  rich  and 
beautiful.  A  slightly  inferior  quality  (12^- 
karat)  can  be  colored,  but  thirteen-karat  is 
about  the  usual  kind  employed  in  all  respect¬ 
able  colored-gold  houses.  In  Birmingham 
a  very  large  quantity  of  gold  is  weekly  em¬ 
ployed  in  manufactures  of  this  kind. 

Twelve-karat  gold  is  the  best  of  the  bright 
golds,  and  is  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  colored ;  although  any  of  the  qualities 
that  are  described  in  speaking  of  colored 
gold  may  be  made  bright  by  a  little  variation 
in  the  mixture  of  alloy.  No  gold  inferior 
to  twelve-karat  will  color  to  present  that 
appearance  which  characterizes  the  higher 
qualities.  Twelve-karat  gold  finished  bright 
has  a  fine,  rich,  sparkling  appearance,  and 
when  the  workmanship  is  good  is  very  im¬ 
posing  ;  it  is  a  good  quality  to  work  upon, 
being  tolerably  soft  and  ductile,  as  well  as 
possessing  good  malleable  properties. 

Ten-karat  gold  sustains  all  the  character¬ 
istics  of  the  former  quality,  both  as  regards 
facility  of  manufacture  and  finish.  A  large 
quantity  of  goods  is  made  of  this  quality  in 
Birmingham. 

Nine-karat  gold  is  regularly  manufactured 
into  all  kinds  of  bright  goods,  and  this  qual¬ 
ity,  when  made  fully  up  to  the  standard  of 
fineness,  is  of  a  good  appearance.  After  all, 
the  quality  which  is  most  extensively  em¬ 
ployed  in  every  possible  description  of  manu¬ 
facture,  is  usually  below  this  standard,  prob¬ 
ably  it  is  about  8)4  karats;  and  if  alloyed 
according  to  the  appended  table  will  stand 
the  aqua  test  perfectly  well.  Nine-karat  of 
the  mixture  of  alloy  given  in ‘the  table  will 
stand  more  than  ordinary  treatment  from  the 
hands  of  the  workman,  and  may  be  touched 
and  removed  from  the  annealing  pan  while 
still  red  hot,  without  injury  to  any  subsequent 
manipulation  of  it ;  it  may  also  be  quenched 
at  any  degree  of  heat  in  pickle  or  water,  if 
any  advantage  is  likely  to  accrue  from  it ; 
but  we  strongly  object  to  the  continuous 
quenching  of  gold  alloys  at  every  subsequent 
process  of  annealing,  partly  because  every 
time  the  metal  is  quenched  in  sulphuric  acid 
pickle,  a  portion  of  alloy  in  these  low  qualities 
is  dissolved.  This  improves  the  quality  of 


GOLD  AND  ITS  ALLOYS. 


i  13 


the  gold,  by  which  the  manufacturer  does 
not  receive  any  benefit,  but  is  actually  a 
loser.  Moreover,  we  shall  see  that,  when 
we  come  to  the  processes  of  soldering,  this 
pickling  or  boiling-out  is  perfectly  indispen¬ 
sable. 

Nine-karat  alloys,  if  alloys  with  too  much 
spelter,  will  not  present  the  characteristics 
we  have  just  named  in  respect  to  treatment ; 
if  shaken  or  touched  while  hot,  they  are  very 
brittle  and  difficult  to  work ;  consequently 
they  take  longer  in  working,  and  therefore 
the  same  quantity  of  goods  cannot  be  pro¬ 
duced  in  a  given  time  with  these  alloys  as 
with  those  we  have  just  described.  The 
great  point  in  the  manufacture  of  gold  articles 
should  be  to  get  the  greatest  amount  of  real 
work  out  of  the  smallest  amount  of  material, 
so  as  to  make  the  least  possible  waste  or 
scrap  for  remelting ;  for  this  reason  we  say 
that  the  alloys  which  mostly  tend  to  this  ob¬ 
ject  are  the  best  for  jewelers  to  use  in  their 
manufactures. 

Eight-karat  gold  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  jewelry,  and  is  often  styled 
nine-karat  No.  2,  in  some  of  the  workshops 
where  this  quality  is  somewhat  extensively 
•employed.  In  order  to  stand  the  aqua  test 
it  must  be  alloyed  with  more  silver  than  or¬ 
dinary  nine-karat  gold,  and  when  finished 
appears  rather  paler  to  the  eye  ;  this  may  be 
a  partial  guide  as  to  quality,  but  not  always 
a  sure  one ;  if  properly  alloyed  it  works  ex¬ 
ceedingly  well  in  any  process  of  preparation, 
from  the  ingot-bar  down  to  the  finished  ar¬ 
ticles  ;  but,  of  course,  judgment  must  be 
used  by  the  workman  as  to  the  proper  periods 
for  annealing ;  if  this  be  neglected  the  gold 
will  become  hard  and  brittle,  and,  as  to  the 
process  of  preparing  proceeds,  it  will  break 
and  fall  to  pieces. 

Seven-karat  gold  is  generally  termed  com¬ 
mon  gold,  and  is  about  the  lowest  quality 
manufactured  ;  it  requires  extra  care  in  work¬ 
ing  on  account  of  the  very  large  proportion 
of  silver  it  contains,  which  increases  the  fusi¬ 
bility  of  this  alloy.  Care  must  necessarily  be 
taken  in  annealing  and  soldering.  The  in¬ 
creased  proportion  of  silver  is  requisite  to 
enable  the  articles  manufactured  from  it  to 
stand  the  gold  test  of  aqua  fortis.  Gold 
chains  of  this  quality  are  now  very  seldom 
made.  The  common  alloys  of  gold  have 
much  lower  fusible  point  than'  those  of  a 
superior  quality. 

Pure  silver  has  a  brilliant  white  color,  and 
is  the  whitest  of  all  the  metals ;  none  surpass 


it  in  luster ;  and  in  hardness  it  ranges  be¬ 
tween  pure  gold  and  pure  copper.  It  is 
more  fusible  than  copper  or  gold,  melting  at 
a  bright  red  heat  or  at  1,873°  F.  It  is  com¬ 
monly  used  for  the  purpose  of  alloying  gold 
in  its  pure  state,  but  if  too  much  be  ac^led  it 
makes  the  gold  pale. 

Pure  copper  has  a  reddish  appearance,  and 
is  the  only  metal  of  that  color ;  it  is  both 
malleable  and  ductile,  hence  it  is  used  as  an 
alloy  for  gold.  In  fusibility  it  stands  be¬ 
tween  silver  and  gold.  It  is  a  very  useful 
metal,  a  large  number  of  cheap  alloys  being 
manufactured  from  it. 

Composition  is  a  mixture  of  copper  and 
zinc,  and  is  used  by  jewelers  in  alloying. 
Some  of  them  profess  to  have  secrets  with 
regard  to  color,  which  is  produced  by  differ¬ 
ent  proportions  of  the  composition. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  form  hard  gold, 
this  metal  may  be  safely  employed,  although 
it  will  not  be  wise  to  use  too  much,  about 
four  dwts.  to  the  ounce  of  fine  gold  being 
ample  ;  if,  as  we  have  already  observed,  too 
much  be  added,  it  will  make  the  gold  brittle 
and  unworkable.  With  less  silver  and  more 
composition  an  alloy  is  formed  equal  in  ap¬ 
pearance  to  one,  two  or  three  karats  higher, 
but  it  is  very  difficult  to  work,  and  after  be¬ 
ing  some  time  in  wear  it  changes  color. 
This  alloy  cannot  be  attempted  in  very 
inferior  qualities,  as  it  will  not  stand  the 
acid. 

TABLE  OF  ALLOYS. 

For  23  karats — 23  parts  gold,  y2  part  cop¬ 
per,  )/2  part  silver. 

For  22  karats — 22  parts  gold,  1  part  cop¬ 
per,  1  part  silver. 

For  20  karats — 20  parts  gold,  2  parts 
copper,  2  parts  silver. 

For  18  karats — 18  parts  gold,  3  parts 
copper,  3  parts  silver. 

For  15  karats — 15  parts  gold,  6  parts  cop¬ 
per,  3  parts  silver. 

For  13  karats — 13  parts  gold,  8  parts  cop¬ 
per,  3  parts  silver. 

For  12  karats — 12  parts  gold,  8 y2  parts 
copper,  3j4  parts  silver. 

For  10  karats — 10  parts  gold,  10  parts 
copper,  4  parts  silver. 

For  9  karats — 9  parts  gold,  ioy  parts 
copper,  y/2  parts  silver. 

For  8  karats — 8  parts  gold,  10 y2  parts 
copper,  5  y2  parts  silver. 

For  7  karats — 7  parts  gold,  9  parts  cop¬ 
per,  8  parts  silver. 


GOLD  SOLDERS. 


1 1 4 


For  composition — 16  parts  copper,  8  parts 
spelter  (purified  zinc). 

The  above  table  represents  the  full  stand¬ 
ard  quality  of  alloy  (used  in  England) ;  if  it 
be  needful  to  make  an  inferior  alloy,  which 
is  often  the  case  in  the  manufacture  of 
jewelry,  the  same  calculation  in  respect  to 
the  inferior  metals  will  do,  but  a  small  por¬ 
tion  of  fine  gold  must  be  deducted  till  it 
brings  the  alloy  down  to  the  value  required. 

VARIOUS  GOLD  ALLOYS. 

The  following  mixtures  will  answer  all  the 
ordinary  purposes  of  the  manufacturing  jew¬ 
eler  for  his  gold  alloys  : 

Gold ,  2  2  karats ,  for  wedding  rings  or  med¬ 
als  :  22  parts  fine  gold,  i  fine  silver,  i  copper. 

Gold,  1 8  karats ,  bright :  18  parts  fine  gold, 
4  fine  silver,  2  copper. 

Gold,  18  karats ,  colored:  18  parts  fine 
gold,  4  copper,  2  silver. 

Gold,  1 5  karats ,  bright :  15  parts  fine  gold, 
6  fine  silver,  3  copper,  or  1 5  parts  1 8  kt. 
bright  gold,  2  fine  silver,  1  copper,  or  1 5 
parts  18  kt.  colored  gold,  2  y2  fine  silver,  y 
copper. 

Gold,  15  karats ,  colored:  15  parts  fine 
gold,  6  copper,  3  fine  silver,  or  1  5  parts  18 
kt.  colored  gold,  2  copper,  1  fine  silver,  or 
15  parts  18  kt.  bright  gold,  2^  copper,  y2 
fine  silver. 

Gold,  1  2  karats :  12  parts  fine  gold,  8  fine 
gold,  4  copper,  or  12  parts  18  kt.  colored 
gold,  4  fine  silver,  2  copper,  or  12  parts  18 
kt.  bright  gold,  3  fine  silver,  3  copper,  or  1  2 
parts  1  5  kt.  colored  gold,  2  fine  silver,  1  cop¬ 
per,  or  1 2  parts  1 5  kt.  bright  gold,  1  y2  fine 
silver,  1  *4  copper,  3  parts  fine  gold,  1  2  parts 
of  9  kt.  gold,  or  3  parts  18  kt.  colored  gold, 
6  parts  9  kt.  gold,  or  3  parts  1 5  kt.  colored 
gold,  3  parts  9  kt.  gold. 

Gold,  9  karats :  9  parts  fine  gold,  8  fine 
silver,  7  copper,  or  9  parts  fine  gold,  7  fine 
silver,  5  copper,  3  brass,  or  9  parts  18  kt. 
colored  gold,  6  fine  silver,  3  copper.  9  parts 
1  8  kt.  colored  gold,  5  fine  silver,  2  copper,  2 
brass,  or  9  parts  18  kt.  bright  gold,  5  fine 
silver,  4  copper,  or  9  parts  15  kt.  colored 
gold,  4  fine  silver,  2  copper,  or  9  parts  15  kt. 
colored  gold,  3  fine  silver,  1  copper,  2  brass. 

HARD  GOLD  ALLOY. 

A  very  hard  gold  alloy  which  may  be 
used  for  many  purposes,  is  obtained  by 
melting  together  three  parts  gold,  two  parts 
silver,  four  parts  copper,  and  one  part  pal¬ 


ladium.  The  mixture  is  of  a  brownish-red 
color  and  assumes  a  high  polish.  We  should 
think  that  it  would  be  excellent  for  jewel 
holes  ;  a  good  hard  alloy  would  be  preferable 
to  colored  glass  jewels  seen  in  many  low- 
grade  watches. 

NOTES  ON  ALLOYS. 

Mr.  Guthier,  in  his  work  on  “  Metal  Al¬ 
loys,”  gives  a  few  suggestions  on  the  subject 
of  fusing  the  metals :  1 .  The  melting  pot 

should  be  red  hot  (a  white  heat  is  better), 
and  those  metals  first  placed  in  which  require 
the  most  heat  to  fuse  them.  2.  Place  the 
metals  into  the  melting  pot  in  strict  order, 
following  exactly  the  different  fusing  points 
from  the  highest  degree  of  temperature  re¬ 
quired,  down  to  the  lowest,  in  regular  order, 
and  being  especially  careful  to  refrain  from 
adding  the  next  metals  until  those  already  in 
the  pot  are  completely  melted.  3.  When 
the  metals  fused  together  in  the  crucible 
require  very  different  tempjeratures  to  melt 
them,  a  layer  of  charcoal  should  be  placed 
upon  them,  or  if  there  is  much  tin  in  the  al¬ 
loy,  a  layer  of  sand  should  be  used.  4.  The 
molten  mass  should  be  vigorously  stirred 
with  a  stick,  and  even  while  pouring  it  into 
another  vessel,  the  stirring  should  not  be  re¬ 
laxed.  5.  Another  hint  is  to  use  a  little  old 
alloy  in  making  new,  if  there  is  any  on  hand, 
and  the  concluding  word  of  caution  is  to 
make  sure  that  the  melting  pots  are  abso¬ 
lutely  clean  and  free  from  any  traces  of  for¬ 
mer  operation. 


GOLD  SOLDERS. 

AS  it  is  difficult  to  procure,  at  the  time 
.  when  most  wanted,  alloys  for  solders 
that  are  the  most  suitable  and  advantageous 
for  the  various  kinds  of  work  without  no  little 
inconvenience  in  effecting  a  proper  composi¬ 
tion,  we  here  append  a  list  suitable  for  all 
the  qualities  of  colored  gold  work  as  manu¬ 
factured  by  jewelers  and  goldsmiths  : 

GOLD  SOLDER  SUITABLE  FOR  I  8-KARAT  WORK. 

oz.  dwts.  grs. 

Gold,  fine .  1  o  o 

Silver,  fine .  o  6  o 

Copper  wire .  o  4  o 


1  1  o  o 

Or  3  dwts.  of  copper  and  dwt.  of  composi¬ 
tion  instead  of  all  copper. 


GOLD  SOLDERS. 


1 1  5 


GOLD  SOLDER  SUITABLE  FOR 

18 

-KARAT  WORK. 

OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Gold,  fine . 

I 

O 

O 

Silver,  fine . 

0 

7 

O 

Gopper  wire . . 

0 

5 

I  2 

I 

1  2 

I  2 

Or  4  dwts.  of  copper  and  1 

dwts.  of  com- 

position  instead  of  all  copper. 

GOLD  SOLDER  SUITABLE  FOR 

1 6 

-K. 

\RA1 

'  WORK. 

OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Gold,  fine . 

I 

O 

O 

Silver,  fine- . 

0 

8 

O 

Gopper  wire . 

0 

7 

O 

115  o 

Or  5  dwts.  of  copper  and  2  dwts.  of  com¬ 
position  instead  of  all  copper. 


take  5  dwts.  gold,  13  dwts.  silver  and  6  dwts. 
copper.  Melt  and  cast  into  bars ;  as  s'oon 
as  it  can  be  handled,  break  into  pieces  and 
throw  into  the  melting  pot ;  while  the  pot  is 
hot  add  1 5  grains  of  brass  and  melt  again  ; 
when  thoroughly  mixed,  cast  into  a  bar  and 
roll  it  out  thin  for  use.  Another  solder, 
much  used  for  low  grade  gold,  is  made  as 
follows :  3  dwts.  gold,  2  silver,  ^2  copper ; 
melt  as  above,  and  at  the  second  melting 
add,  when  fused,  %  dwt.  zinc  in  small  pieces, 
and  as  soon  as  mixed  pour  into  the  mold. 
This  solder  runs  at  a  dull  red  heat ;  three- 
fourths  dwt.  zinc  in  place  of  one-half  would 
flow  sooner,  but  would  be  apt  to  eat  into  the 
work  if  too  high  or  too  low  heat  was  used. 
But  that  would  be  of  little  consequence  if 
the  article  to  be  soldered  was  of  brass. 


GOLD  SOLDER  SUITABLE  FOR  I  5-ICARAT  WORK. 

oz.  dwts.  grs. 


Gold,  fine . 

.  .  .  .  r  0 

Silver,  fine . 

Copper  wire . 

.  .  .  .  010 

2  0  0 

Or  7^  dwts.  of  copper  and  2  y2  dwts.  of 
composition  instead  of  all  copper. 


SOFT  GOLD  SOLDER  FOR  1 4  KARATS. 

Melt  equal  parts  of  14-karat  gold  and  sil¬ 
ver  solder,  and  hammer  it  into  thin  sheets 
upon  the  anvil.  This  solder  will  satisfy 
all  the  demands  of  a  watch  repairer.  It 
is  advisable  to  use  silver  solder  for  a  low- 
grade,  say  6-  or  8-karat  gold  goods,  which 
consists  of  2  parts  fine  silver  and  1  brass, 
with  the  addition  of  a  gram  of  tin. 


GOLD  SOLDER  SUITABLE  FOR  1 4-KARAT  WORK. 

oz.  dwts.  grs. 

Gold,  fine .  i  o  o 

Silver,  fine .  o  12  12 

Copper  wire .  o  12  12 


250 

Or  9 dwts.  of  copper  and  3  dwts.  of  com¬ 
position  instead  of  all  copper. 

GOLD  SOLDER  SUITABLE  FOR  ANY  COLORED 
WORK. 

oz.  dwts.  grs. 


Gold,  fine . 

O 

0 

Silver,  fine . 

.  .  .  .  0 

15 

O 

Copper  wire . 

I  2 

1 2 

2 

7 

1  2 

Or  gl/2  dwts.  of  copper  and  3  dwts.  of  com¬ 
position  instead  of  all  copper. 

EASILY  FLOWING  YELLOW  HARD  SOLDER. 

A  yellow  solder  is  frequently  required  in 
country  shops  ;  it  must  flow  at  a  low  heat, 
and  be  a  hard  solder  at  the  same  time. 
Of  course,  each  shop  contains  its  own  rec¬ 
ipe,  each  one  possessing  its  own  merits, 
but  the  following  will  be  found  as  good  as 
the  best :  For  an  easy  flowing  5-karat  solder, 


SOFT  GOLD  SOLDER  FOR  8  AND  1 4  KARATS. 

A  nice  soft  solder  for  8-  and  14-karat 
gold  consists  of  1.5  parts  fine  silver,  0.5 
part  fine  copper,  1.6  parts  14-karat  gold, 
and  0.4  part  zinc ;  the  first  three  metals  are 
well  melted  and  mixed  together,  and  when 
well  in  a  fluid  state,  the  zinc  is  added,  the 
whole  left  for  a  few  moments  in  fusion,  until 
it  melts,  not  volatilizes,  and  then  cast. 

GOLD  SOLDER. 

To  make  a  gold  solder,  instead  of  reduc¬ 
ing  the  quality  of  your  gold  with  copper, 
silver,  or  brass,  use  a  silver  solder  com¬ 
posed  of  three  dwts.  coin  silver  and  one  dwt. 
English  pins.  I  never  keep  gold  solder  by 
me  ;  when  I  make  a  piece  of  jewelry,  as  soon 
as  I  get  the  gold  worked  out,  I  take  a  piece 
of  it,  and  reduce  it  with  about  its  own  weight 
of  the  silver  solder,  with  the  blow-pipe  on 
charcoal.  It  matters  not  if  the  work  is  to  be 
bright  or  colored,  it  always  comes  out  sat¬ 
isfactory.  I,  however,  make  colored  work 
always  of  at  least  1  5  karats.  By  what  I  have 
said,  my  solder  will  be,  say,  8  karats.  Some 
will  say,  perhaps,  that  such  solder  will  not 
color  ;  neither  will  it,  but  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  when  pieces  of  gold  are  solder. d 


RESTORING  THE  COLOR  OF  GOLD  AFTER  HARD  SOLDERING. 


1 16 


together,  the  surface  melts  and  combines 
with  the  solder,  thereby  improving  8  karats 
to  1 2  karats.  This,  of  course,  will  be  a  very 
easy  running  solder,  intended  for  light  work, 
and  where  a  large  number  of  pieces  are  to  be 
joined  ;  for  a  heavy  job,  do  not  reduce  it 
quite  as  much.  _ 

SOFT-SOLDERING  ARTICLES. 

OISTEN  the  parts  to  be  united  with 
the  soldering  fluid,  then,  having  joined 
them  together,  lay  a  small  piece  of  solder 
upon  the  joint,  and  hold  over  the  lamp,  or 
direct  the  blaze  upon  it  with  the  blow-pipe, 
until  fusion  is  apparent.  Withdraw  them 
from  the  blaze  immediately,  as  too  much 
heat  will  render  the  solder  brittle  and  unsat¬ 
isfactory.  When  the  parts  to  be  joined  can 
be  made  to  spring  or  press  against  each 
other,  it  is  best  to  place  a  thin  piece  of  solder 
between  them  before  exposing  to  the  lamp. 
When  two  smooth  surfaces  are  to  be  soldered 
one  upon  the  other,  you  make  an  excellent 
job  by  moistening  them  with  the  fluid,  and 
then  having  placed  a  sheet  of  tinfoil  between 
them,  holding  them  pressed  together  over  your 
lamp  till  the  foil  melts.  If  the  surfaces  fit 
nicely,  a  joint  may  be  made  in  this  manner 
so  close  as  almost  to  be  imperceptible.  The 
bright  looking  lead  which  comes  as  a  lining 
<of  tea  boxes,  is  better  than  tinfoil. 


SOLDERING  FLUID. 

AN  exchange  gives  the  following  recipe 
for  making  a  soldering  fluid  for  soft- 
soldering  jewelry.  Dissolve  sheet  zinc  in 
hydrochloric  acid  until  the  acid  will  take  up 
no  more  zinc.  Turn  off  the  clear  liquid  and 
dilute  it  with  alcohol  in  place  of  water. 
When  diluted  with  water,  it  must  retain  acid 
enough  to  rust,  but  with  alcohol  the  dilution 
can  go  on  until  the  acid  is  not  perceptible  by 
the  tongue.  _ 

SOLDERING  A  RING  WITH  A  JEWEL. 

N  order  to  prevent  the  bursting  of  the 
jewels  of  a  ring,  when  soldering  the 
latter  for  repairs,  take  a  juicy  potato,  cut  it 
into  halves,  make  a  hollow  in  both  portions  in 
which  that  part  of  the  ring  with  the  jewels 
fits  exactly,  so  that  that  part  of  the  ring  to 
be  soldered  protrudes.  Then  wrap  the  jew¬ 
eled  portion  in  fine  silk  paper,  place  it  in  the 
hollow,  and  bind  up  the  closed  potato  with 
binding  wire.  Now,  solder  with  easily-flow¬ 
ing  gold  solder — not  upon  a  coal,  but  by 


holding  the  potato  in  the  hand.  Another 
good  way  to  do  the  same  job  is  to  fill  a 
small  crucible  with  wet  sand,  bury  that  part 
of  the  ring  with  jewels  in  the  sand,  and  then 
solder.  _ 

TO  REMOVE  SOLDER  STAINS. 

HE  removal  of  solder  stains,  to  a  certain 
extent,  depends  on  the  nature  of  the 
article  you  are  soldering.  If  you  are  solder¬ 
ing  gilt  metal,  German  silver  or  silver,  you 
may  scrape  it  off.  If  you  use  pickle,  you 
will  leave  a  stain  that  will  require  to  be  pol¬ 
ished  off.  If  soldering  bright  gold  you  can 
use  pickle  rubbed  on  with  a  cork.  With 
colored  gold,  it  would  be  better  to  use  a 
little  color.  Pickle  is  merely  nitric  acid  and 
water,  in  the  proportion  of  half  a  gill  of  acid 
to  a  pint  of  water. 


TO  REMOVE  SOFT  SOLDER  FROM 
GOLD  AND  SILVER  WORK. 

HE  following  method  is  given  by  Mr. 
A.  Watt :  Place  the  soldered  article  in 
a  hot  solution  of  perchloride  of  iron — made 
by  dissolving  crocus  or  jewelers’  rouge  in 
muriatic  acid — diluting  the  solution  with  four 
times  its  bulk  of  water,  and  there  leaving  it 
until  the  solder  is  removed.  A  formula 
recommended  by  Qee  for  this  purpose  is 
composed  of  protosulphate  of  iron  (green 
copperas),  2  oz.  ;  nitrate  of  potassa  (salt¬ 
peter),  1  oz.  ;  water,  10  oz.  Reduce  the 
protosulphate  of  iron  and  nitrate  of  potassa 
to  a  fine  powder,  then  add  these  ingredients 
to  the  water  and  boil  in  a  cast-iron  saucepan 
for  some  time  ;  allow  the  liquid  to  cool,  when 
crystals  will  be  formed ;  if  any  of  the  liquid 
should  remain  uncrystallized,  pour  it  from  the 
crystals  and  again  evaporate  and  crystallize. 
The  crystallized  salt  should  be  dissolved  in 
muriatic  acid  in  the  proportion  of  1  oz.  of 
the  salt  to  8  of  acid.  Now  take  1  oz.  of  this 
solution  and  add  to  it  4  ozs.  of  boiling  water 
in  a  pipkin,  keeping  up  the  heat  as  before. 
In  a  short  time  the  most  obstinate  cases  of 
soft  solder  will  be  cleanly  and  entirely  over¬ 
come  and  the  solder  removed  without  the 
work  changing  color. 


RESTORING  THE  COLOR  OF  GOLD 
AFTER  HARD  SOLDERING. 

HERE  are  different  ways,  according  to 
the  effect  desired,  as  for  plain  or  mat 
gold,  Roman  or  Etruscan,  etc.  To  describe 


SEPARATING  GOLD  FROM  GILT  ARTICLES. 


all  would  make  quite  a  good-sized  book. 
The  simplest  and  easiest  way  is  to  expose  all 
parts  of  the  article  to  a  uniform  heat,  allow 
it  to  cool,  then  boil  it  until  bright  in  a  pickle 
made  with  about  ounce  of  sulphuric  acid 
to  one  ounce  of  rain  water.  Another  way 
is  to  first  pickle,  then  color.  Anneal  and 
boil  in  a  pickle  made  of  nitric  acid  and 
water,  then  again  anneal  black  and  dip  in  a 
coloring  mixture  made  as  follows :  Put  into 
the  coloring  pot  or  a  No.  io  black-lead  cru¬ 
cible  9  oz.  12  dwts.  of  saltpeter,  and  4  oz. 
15  dwts.  of  table  salt.  Heat  it  up  without 
water,  then  add  hot  water  enough  to  make 
a  thick  paste ;  let  it  boil,  add  6}4  oz.  of 
muriatic  acid  and  stir  it  up  well.  In  using, 
keep  up  a  quick  and  lively  fire,  and  the  mixt¬ 
ure  should  boil  up  till  it  fills  the  crucible — 
which  should  have  been  previously  well  an¬ 
nealed  to  avoid  breaking.  The  mixture  re¬ 
moves  more  or  less  of  the  gold,  and  the 
operation  should  therefore  be  performed  as 
quickly  as  possible.  With  good  gold  1  ]/2  to 
2  minutes  will  be  long  enough  to  expose  it 
to  the  mixture.  The  article  should  be  con¬ 
stantly  stirred  about,  taking  care  not  to  let 
any  of  the  surface  get  out  of  the  color,  as  the 
vapors  will  affect  the  work.  Then  rinse  it  in 
a  pickle,  dip  in  hot  water,  wash  well  in  am¬ 
monia,  again  dip  in  hot  water  and  dry  thor¬ 
oughly  in  hot  sawdust.  This  color  may  be 
used  with  gold  ranging  between  12  and  20 
karats  fine,  but  the  finest  coloring  can  be  got 
with  about  1 5-karat  gold.  If  not  thoroughly 
dried  the  work  is  liable  to  become  spotted. 
Much  practice  is  needed  to  be  successful. 


WHEN  WRONG  SOLDER  IS  USED. 

HEN  colored  gold-work  intended  for 
coloring  has,  by  mistake,  been  soldered 
with  silver  solder,  which  renders  it  unfit  for 
the  purpose,  it  can  be  prepared  again  for  the 
operation  by  being  placed  in  tolerably  strong 
nitric  acid,  of  good  commercial  quality  and 
free  from  muriatic  acid,  as  the  latter  would 
cause  the  mixture  to  be  decomposed,  with 
liberation  of  chlorine  and  dissolution  of  the 
gold.  The  nitric  acid  solution,  if  chemically 
pure  acid  is  employed,  will  entirely  free  the 
work  from  all  traces  of  the  wrong  solder, 
breaking  it  up  and  dissolving  it  without  in¬ 
juring  in  any  way  the  articles  operated  upon. 
After  the  solder  has  been  removed,  and  the 
work  taken  from  the  solution  or  acid,  it 
should  be  rinsed,  annealed  and  boiled  out  in 
dilute  sulphuric  acid — commonly  called  oil 


1  17 

of  vitriol — before  re-soldering  again  with 
the  proper  solder.  The  nitric-acid  solution 
should  be  of  good  strength,  although  not  too 
strong ;  a  good  mixture  consists  of  one  part 
of  acid  to  four  of  water.  It  should  be  used 
hot,  and  the  necessary  heat  can  be  kept  up 
to  the  point  required  by  means  of  a  gas  jet. 


TO  REMOVE  SOFT  SOLDER. 

OW  to  get  rid  of  soft  solder  on  such 
jobs  as  one  has  to  hard  solder.  Boil 
the  job  in  a  mixture  of  crocus  and  muriatic 
acid.  Take  4  ounces  of  muriatic  acid  and 
add  y2  an  ounce  of  crocus  in  a  bottle  ;  shake 
the  mixture  well.  Take  of  this  mixture  1 
ounce  and  add  4  ounces  of  hot  water,  and 
keep  it  hot  over  a  lamp  or  gas  flame ;  put 
your  article  in,  and  in  a  short  time  the  soft 
solder  will  be  dissolved  off. 


SEPARATING  GOLD  FROM  GILT 
ARTICLES. 

RON  and  steel  articles,  says  A.  Rose- 
leur,  are  ungilt  without  any  injury  to 
themselves,  by  dipping  them  into  a  bath  of 
10  parts  of  cyanide  of  potassium  and  100 
parts  of  water,  and  connecting  them  with 
the  positive  pole  of  a  battery.  A  wire  or 
foil  of  platinum  is  fixed  to  the  negative  pole. 
This  is  inverting  the  position  of  the  poles, 
and  in  this  case  the  gold  applied  upon  the 
iron  or  steel  is  dissolved  in  the  solution  of 
cyanide,  and  partly  deposited  upon  the  plati¬ 
num  anode,  from  which  it  is  removed  in  a 
regular  gold  bath.  When  there  is  only  a  film 
of  gold  upon  iron  or  steel,  it  may  be  removed 
by  the  cyanide  alone  without  the  aid  of  elec¬ 
tricity,  but  the  method  is  slow. 

Silver,  copper,  and  their  alloys,  may  also 
be  ungilt  by  this  process,  but  the  cyanide 
dissolves,  at  the  same  time,  the  gold  and  part 
of  the  other  metals ;  it  is,  therefore,  prefer¬ 
able  to  operate  as  follows:  For  ungilding 
silver,  it  is  heated  to  a  cherry-red  heat,  and 
immediately  thrown  into  a  pickle  of  more  or 
less  diluted  sulphuric  acid.  The  gold  scales 
off  and  falls  to  the  bottom  in  the  shape  of 
spangles.  The  operation  is  repeated  until 
gold  no  longer  appears  upon  the  surface  of 
the  silver,  which  is  then  white  and  frosty. 
This  process  is  not  adapted  to  light  and  hol¬ 
low  articles,  for  which  the  preceding  process 
is  better.  For  copper  and  its  alloys,  in  small 
articles  such  as  false  jewelry,  thinly  gilt, 
either  by  battery  or  by  dipping,  use  the  fol- 


REFINING  GOLD  THAT  WILL  NOT  WORK. 


1 18 

lowing  bath  :  sulphuric  acid,  io  parts;  nitric 
acid,  i  part ;  hydrochloric  acid,  2  parts. 

The  large  quantity  of ‘sulphuric  acid  allows 
of  the  solution  of  gold,  whilst  it  does  not 
sensibly  attack  copper  or  its  alloys.  The 
sulphuric  acid  is  put  alone  into  a  stoneware 
jar,  and  the  mixture  of  hydrochloric  and 
nitric  acids,  kept  in  a  stoppered  bottle,  is 
gradually  added  to  it  as  the  operation  pro¬ 
ceeds.  The  same  sulphuric  acid  may  last  a 
long  time  if  it  is  kept  well  covered,  and  its 
dissolving  action  promoted  by  successive  ad¬ 
ditions  of  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids.  The 
articles  should  be  often  withdrawn  to  watch 
the  operation,  which  is  terminated  when  no 
gold  is  seen,  and  when  the  copper  has  ac¬ 
quired  a  uniform  blackish-gray  coat ;  or,  by 
plunging  the  objects  into  the  compound 
acids,  they  will  be  perfectly  cleansed  when 
the  gold  has  all  dissolved. 

Saltpeter  and  common  salt  may  be  substi¬ 
tuted  for  nitric  acid  and  hydrochloric  acid  ; 
the  salts  must  be  finely  powdered  and  stirred 
with  a  glass  rod. 

For  large  objects,  such  as  clocks  or  chan¬ 
deliers,  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  6t>° 
Beaume,  is  put  into  a  glass  or  stoneware  ves¬ 
sel  supporting  two  brass  rods.  One  of  these 
rods  is  connected  by  a  conducting  wire  with 
the  last  carbon  of  a  battery  of  two  or  three 
Bunsen’s  inserted  elements,  and  supports  the 
objects  to  be  ungilt,  which  are  entirely  cov¬ 
ered  by  the  sulphuric  acid.  The  other  rod 
supports  a  copper  plate,  facing  the  object, 
and  is  connected  with  the  last  zinc  of  the 
battery.  The  electric  fluid  traverses  the  sul¬ 
phuric  acid,  and  carries  the  gold  from  the 
positive  to  the  negative  pole ;  as  the  copper 
plate  is  not  prepared  for  retaining  the  gold, 
it  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  bath  in  a  black 
powder,  which  is  easily  recovered.  So  long 
as  the  sulphuric  acid  is  concentrated,  and 
even  under  the  action  of  the  galvanic  cur¬ 
rent,  it  does  not  sensibly  corrode  the  copper. 
As  it  rapidly  absorbs  the  dampness  of  the 
atmosphere,  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  con¬ 
tained  should  be  kept  perfectly  closed,  when 
the  ungilding  process  is  not  in  active  opera¬ 
tion,  and  the  pieces  for  ungilding  should  be 
put  in  perfectly  dry. 

If  it  is  intended  to  sacrifice  the  gilt  articles 
of  copper  or  silver,  let  them  remain  in  pure 
nitric  acid,  which  dissolves  all  the  metals  ex¬ 
cept  gold,  which  either  floats  on  the  surface 
of  the  liquid  as  a  metallic  foil,  or  falls  to  the 
bottom  as  a  blackish  powder.  If  the  liquor 
is  diluted  with  distilled  water  and  filtered,  all 


the  gold  will  remain  in  the  filter  and  the  solu¬ 
tion  will  contain  the  other  metals. 


STRIPPING  GOLD  FROM  GOLD- 
PLATED  WARE. 

CCORDING  to  the  following  process 
the  gold  may  be  stripped  from  a  gold- 
plated  article,  no  matter  whether  it  was  fire 
— or  electrically  gilt.  When  stripping  with 
the  battery  do  as  follows  :  Suspend  the 
article  in  place  of  the  anode  in  an  almost 
exhausted  bath,  previously  warmed.  In 
place  of  the  goods  a  piece  of  sheet  copper, 
insulated  in  some  manner,  is  best.  After  the 
current  has  been  active  for  a  short  time  the 
gold  will  be  found  to  be  entirely  stripped 
from  the  article.  The  gold  is  recovered  by 
diluting  the  stripping  fluid  with  double  the 
quantity  of  water  and  adding  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  iron.  The  gold  will  be  precipi¬ 
tated  in  powder  form,  and  may  then  be 
melted. 

The  gold  may  also  be  stripped  by  means 
of  a  mixture  of  200  parts  sulphuric  acid,  40 
parts  hydrochloric  acid,  and  20  parts  nitric 
acid,  in  which  it  will  gradually  dissolve. 
The  articles  must  always  be  entered  in  this 
mixture  in  a  perfectly  dry  condition.  To 
recover  the  gold,  dilute  this  acid  mixture  with 
from  10  to  12  times  its  quantity  of  water, 
and  add  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron.  'The 
gold  will  also  in  this  instance  be  precipitated 
in  the  form  of  powder,  and  may  then  be 
smelted  in  the  well-known  manner. 

If  the  article  is  of  a  shape  to  be  scraped, 
the  gold  may  also  be  stripped  in  this  me¬ 
chanical  way-  The  copper  of  the  scrapings 
may  be  eaten  out  with  nitric  acid,  after  which 
the  gold  can  be  smelted. 


REFINING  GOLD  THAT  WILL  NOT 
WORK. 

T  is  known  to  those  who  work  in  gold 
that  there  are  times  when  a  piece  of 
that  metal  cannot  be  got  to  work ;  so,  after 
having  tried  all  the  usual  methods  of  refin¬ 
ing  and  re-alloying,  etc.,  only  to  find  that  our 
time  has  been  wasted,  and  the  gold  as  obsti¬ 
nate  and  unworkable  as  ever,  that  we  are 
compelled  to  resort  to  a  chemical  process ; 
we  accordingly  refine  it  once  more,  giving  it 
lots  of  saltpeter,  a  good  heat,  plenty  of  time 
— throwing  in  a  pinch  of  table  salt  when  the 
crucible  shows  a  disposition  to  boil  over. 
The  result  is  an  alloy  composed  of  gold  and 


HOW  TO  UTILIZE  GOLD  SCRAPS. 


silver.  Nitro-muriatic  acid  will  not  dissolve 
this,  because,  after  eating  the  gold  off  the 
surface,  further  action  is  prevented  by  a  coat 
of  silver  that  remains.  In  like  manner,  nitric 
acid  will  not  act  upon  it.  Under  such  cir¬ 
cumstances  it  is  customary  to  melt  about 
eight  times  its  weight  of  silver  with  it,  and 
when  really  hot,  to  pour  it  into  a  large  vessel 
of  water  while  an  assistant  agitates  it  briskly 
with  a  stick,  so  as  to  cut  it  up  into  small  shot. 
(Some  roll  it  out.)  It  is  then  dissolved  with 
nitric  acid,  which  leaves  the  gold  in  the  form 
of  a  black  sediment,  which,  on  being  dried, 
turns  to  a  beautiful  brown  powder,  and  on 
being  melted  with  a  little  borax  runs  out  fine 
gold.  So  far  there  is  nothing  new.  We  will 
say  that  we  have  two  ounces  of  this  alloy. 
This  will  require  about  sixteen  ounces  of  sil¬ 
ver.  By  the  way,  I  have  known  people  to 
borrow  old  silver  from  their  neighbors  in  the 
trade,  to  be  returned  after  having  used  it  for 
this  purpose.  This  is  the  predicament  I  was 
in.  I  had  no  old  silver ;  no  neighbors  to 
borrow  from,  and  did  not  care  to  melt  so 
much  coin,  especially  as  I  had  no  use  for  it 
afterward  ;  and  still  I  had  urgent  use  for  this 
troublesome  gold.  I  thought  over  the  diffi¬ 
culty,  and  determined,  although  I  had  never 
known  of  such  a  thing  being  done,  to  use 
pure  copper  in  the  place  of  silver,  with  the 
most  gratifying  result — in  fact,  consider  it 
much  better  than  silver,  for  while  copper  only 
needs  cold  nitric  acid  and  to  be  set  aside 
where  the  fumes  can  escape,  silver  requires 
heat  and  constant  attendance.  The  solution 
must  now  be  decanted  off  the  sediment  into 
another  vessel,  and  table  salt  added  to  it  to 
throw  down  the  silver ;  both  these  precipi¬ 
tates  must  be  well  washed  in  several  changes 
of  water,  allowing  them  plenty  of  time  to  settle 
•each  time,  and  dry  them  well  before  putting 
them  in  the  crucible  to  melt.  The  copper  is 
recovered  by  putting  a  couple  of  iron  bolts 
or  pieces  of  iron  into  the  remaining  solution, 
upon  which  it  will  be  found  to  deposit,  and 
is  pure,  suitable  for  alloying  gold. 


HOW  TO  UTILIZE  GOLD  SCRAPS. 

MONG  the  old  scraps  of  gold  which 
accumulate  in  a  jewelry  store  are  many 
pieces  which  are  more  or  less  contaminated 
with  soft  solder,  and  as  a  very  small  amount 
of  this  material  will  render  gold  unfit  to  work, 
it  stands  one  in  hand  to  look  out  that  none 
gets  in  with  the  scrap  we  melt.  It  is  well  to 
put  all  such  bits  as  show  any  trace  of  this  pre- 


”9 

cious  substance  into  a  box  by  itself  and  treat 
it  in  the  following  manner :  Take  4  ounces  of 
muriatic  acid  and  add  y2  an  ounce  of  crocus  ; 
put  these  two  ingredients  into  a  bottle  and 
shake  them  well  together.  Put  1  ounce  of 
this  mixture  into  4  ounces  of  boiling  water  in 
an  ordinary  teacup ;  put  the  scrap  gold  con¬ 
taminated  with  soft  solder  into  the  teacup 
and  keep  the  mixture  hot  over  a  lamp  or  gas 
jet,  and  in  a  few  minutes  all  the  soft  solder 
will  be  dissolved  off,  leaving  the  scrap  fit  to 
be  melted  with  other  scrap  gold.  In  a  for¬ 
mer  article  the  writer  gave  a  method  of  melt¬ 
ing,  and  promised  some  future  time  to  give 
additional  methods  for  refining  scrap  and 
gold  which  worked  badly.  It  is  a  business 
of  a  lifetime  to  be  a  proficient  in  gold  melting, 
so  many  details  have  to  be  mastered  ;  trifles 
in  themselves,  but  still  going  a  long  way  in 
making  up  the  sum  of  knowledge  necessary 
to  the  gold  worker.  Economy  is  one  essen¬ 
tial  thing  in  all  jewelry  repair  shops.  Save 
your  scraps  and  filings ;  pick  out  all  the 
scraps  large  enough  to  be  picked  up  with 
the  tweezers  and  put  into  your  scrap  to  be 
melted.  In  regard  to  filings  you  should  have 
a  good-sized  steel  magnet  to  pass  through 
your  filings  to  remove  all  iron  and  steel  filings 
and  chips.  The  manner  of  using  the  magnet 
is  to  simply  run  the  two  poles  of  the  magnet 
back  and  forth  through  the  pan  of  the  bench 
at  which  you  work,  brushing  off  the  particles 
of  iron  as  fast  as  they  accumulate,  letting  the 
iron  filing  go  into  the  sweep,  as  they  will 
mechanically  carry  away  some  gold.  The 
sweepings  of  even  a  small  place  is  far  more 
valuable  than  most  persons  would  imagine, 
and  should  be  carefully  saved.  The  floor  of 
a  jewelry  repair  shop  should  be  carefully  laid 
to  avoid  cracks  and  corners.  The  best  way, 
if  a  floor  is  to  be  laid  new,  is  to  have  the 
plank  of  which  the  floor  is  to  be  laid  well 
seasoned  and  quite  narrow.  After  the  floor 
is  laid  it  should  be  well  oiled  with  boiled  lin¬ 
seed  oil  or  painted  with  oil  paint,  and  the 
cracks  puttied  with  hard  putty  composed  of 
white  lead  and  coach  varnish — the  kind  of 
coach  varnish  known  as  rubbing  varnish — 
the  puttying  should  be  done  after  the  oil  is 
applied  or  the  paint  put  on.  The  varnish 
putty  is  difficult  to  use,  as  it  dries  very 
quickly  ;  keep  it  under  water  except  as  fast 
as  you  use  it.  If  you  have  an  old  floor  full 
of  cracks,  put  sheet  zinc  over  the  whole  floor 
where  you  work  ;  let  the  sheets  lap  well*  and 
if  a  hole  wears  through,  put  a  piece  over  it 
as  soon  as  seen.  A  common  soft  wood  floor 


120 


HOW  TO  UTILIZE  GOLD  SCRAPS. 


will  hold  an  unbelievable  amount  of  scrap 
and  filing,  to  say  nothing  about  the  cracks. 
This  is  true  also  of  oilcloth,  and  an  old  oil¬ 
cloth  which  has  been  on  the  floor  for  any 
length  of  time  should  be  burned  and  the 
ashes  put  into  the  sweepings.  Scraps  of  pa¬ 
per  and  old  match  sticks  lying  on  the  floor 
should  all  go  into  the  sweepings.  These 
sweepings  should  be  put  in  a  tight  box  or 
barrel  until  enough  have  accumulated  (say  a 
barrel  or  two)  to  pay  for  burning.  The  way 
to  burn  sweepings  is,  if  you  use  a  stove,  clean 
it  out  when-  you  are  going  to  burn  a  lot  of 
sweepings,  and  put  the  dirt  with  the  scraps 
of  paper  in  a  little  at  a  time  until  all  is  reduced 
to  ashes.  A  barrel  of  sweepings  will  be  re¬ 
duced  in  this  way  to  two  or  three  quarts ; 
this  reduction  is  another  economy  when  you 
come  to  send  it  to  the  sweep  smelters,  which 
it  is  better  to  do  than  to  try  and  recover  the 
precious  metals  it  contains  yourself.  Such  a 
melting  furnace  as  the  writer  described  in  a 
former  article  is  a  good  place  to  burn  sweep¬ 
ings  in.  The  residue  of  three  or  four  barrels 
of  sweepings  can  be  put  in  an  old  paper  flour 
sack,  and  the  flour  sack,  which  will  not  per¬ 
mit  a  particle  of  anything  it  contains  to  es¬ 
cape,  can  be  put  in  a  quite  small  box  and 
shipped  to  your  sweep  smelter,  whom  you 
will  notify  of  the  shipment  and  mention  how 
you  treated  your  sweep.  After  burning  such 
a  lot  of  sweepings  you,  of  course,  will  be 
careful  to  remove  every  particle  from  the 
stove  or  furnace,  as  the  gold  being  heavy 
will  fall  to  the  bottom.  A  person  work¬ 
ing  gold  or  silver  should  brush  his  clothes 
and  apron  with  a  bristle  clothes-brush  kept 
for  this  purpose  before  leaving  his  work. 
Treat  filings  as  follows :  They  should  be 
melted  by  themselves  with  a  flux  composed 
of  2  parts  of  carbonate  of  potash  [sal  tartar ) 
and  one  part  of  nitrate  of  potash  [saltpeter'). 
This  flux  will  remove  the  iron  and  steel  par¬ 
ticles  which  escaped  the  magnet.  The  but¬ 
ton  of  gold  should  be  remelted  with  sal-am¬ 
moniac  and  charcoal  powder  and  cast  in  the 
ingot-mold.  If,  on  attempting  to  roll  it,  it 
cracks,  it  is  a  pretty  sure  indication  that 
some  lead  or  tin  is  present ;  but  if  the  pre¬ 
caution  given  above  is  taken  of  treating  the 
suspected  scrap  with  the  muriatic  acid  and  cro¬ 
cus,  there  is  very  little  danger  but  the  gold  will 
come  out  in  condition  to  roll  and  work  well ; 
but  if  it  does  crack,  remelt  it  with  a  flux  of 
charcoal  and  corrosive  sublimate,  two  parts 
(by  weight)  of  charcoal  to  one  of  corrosive 
sublimate.  This  treatment  wall  destroy  the 


last  trace  of  lead  or  tin.  Sometimes  one 
will  get  hold  of  old  gold  pens  with  iridium 
points  ;  these  points  should  be  carefully  re¬ 
moved,  as  they  are  pernicious  things  to  get 
into  gold  you  have  to  work,  being  so  hard 
that  a  file  will  not  touch  them,  and  they  will 
also  indent  the  hard  steel  rollers.  If  only 
one  or  two  such  points  get  into  an  ingot, 
they  should  be  instantly  cut  out  with  a  small 
cold  chisel.  But  if  quite  a  number  of  such 
points  should  get  into  a  lot  of  gold,  the  way 
to  proceed  is  to  remelt  the  lot  in  a  crucible 
which  has  a  strongly  marked  hollow  conical 
bottom.  The  heat  should  be  raised  (using 
fine  charcoal  as  a  flux)  until  the  gold  is  ren¬ 
dered  very  fluid.  The  crucible  should  now 
be  removed  from  the  fire  and  allowed  to 
cool.  On  removing  the  button  from  the 
crucible,  all  the  pen  points  will  be  found  to 
have  settled  to  the  bottom  of  the  crucible, 
and  now  are  congregated  at  the  very  apex 
of  the  cone  of  the  gold  button.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  iridium  being  heavier  than 
gold  (and  not  melting  as  easy),  when  the 
gold  was  in  a  melted  state  settled  to  the  bot¬ 
tom.  The  part  of  the  button  containing  the 
iridium  points  can  now  be  cut  off  with  a  cold 
chisel  and  treated  as  follows  :  The  gold  can 
be  dissolved  in  aqua  regia — composed  of  two- 
parts  of  muriatic  acid  to  one  of  nitric  acid ; 
after  the  gold  is  dissolved  the  acid  can  be 
poured  from  the  points  (now  visible  and 
separated) ;  to  the  gold  solution  add  oxalie 
acid  crystals  until  the  brown  deposit  ceases ; 
this  brown  deposit  is  pure  gold  and  can  be 
melted  into  a  button  with  a  blow-pipe,  using: 
carbonate  of  potash  as  a  flux. 

TO  WORK  GOLD  SCRAPS. 

The  following  process  is  very  useful  for 
working  up  filings  and  scraps  of  gold,  gold- 
plated  jewelry,  etc.  It  does  not,  of  course, 
refine  the  gold  as  in  the  usual  process  of 
quartation,  but  merely  destroys  the  filings 
of  copper,  silver,  German  silver,  brass,  and 
other  metals  acted  upon  by  the  acid.  It  will 
“  eat  ”  the  solder  or  brass  out  of  hard-sol¬ 
dered  or  plated  goods,  leaving  the  thin  shell 
of  gold.  The  iron  filings  are  thoroughly 
separated  from  the  mass  by  the  repeated  use 
of  the  magnet.  All  pieces  of  soft  solder  and 
lead  should  be  picked  out,  and  if  there  is 
much  soft  solder  in  any  of  the  plated  articles, 
it  should  be  melted  out,  and  the  residue  then 
placed  in  a  shallow  glass  or  china  vessel,  and 
rather  more  than  covered  with  good  nitric 
acid.  When  the  bubbles  cease  to  agitate  it. 


BRITTLE  GOLD. 


I  2  I 


the  acid  should  be  poured  into  another  cup, 
and  if  there  is  any  base  metal  left,  more  acid 
added,  and  the  mass  stirred  occasionally  with 
a  glass  rod.  When  no  bubbles  appear  on 
adding  new  acid,  it  may  be  poured  off,  and 
the  filings,  scrap,  etc.,  washed  two  or  three 
times,  or  until  perfectly  clean,  letting  them 
stand  a  minute  or  two  to  settle  before  pour¬ 
ing  off  the  water.  They  are  then  dried  and 
melted.  The  filings  and  scraps  treated  in 
this  manner  seldom  require  more  than  one 
melting  to  make  them  easily  worked  and  fit 
for  jobbing.  There  is  no  skill  required,  only 
considerable  care  in  the  handling.  The  sil¬ 
ver  remaining  in  the  acid  may  be  precipitated 
in  the  ordinary  manner  with  common  salt. 
The  chloride  obtained  may  be  melted  into  a 
button,  and,  being  pure  silver,  used  as  an  al¬ 
loy  for  other  gold. 


TO  REDUCE  JEWELERS’  SWEEPINGS. 

HE  fire  for  burning  the  sweepingsto  re¬ 
duce  the  bulk  should  be  a  smoldering 
one,  with  as  little  direct  draft  as  possible,  as 
a  strong  flame  has  a  tendency  to  carry  more 
or  less  gold  up  the  chimney.  The  safest  and 
most  economical  method  is  to  put  the  sweep 
into  an  iron  pot,  with  an  iron  cover,  and  put 
the  pot  into  the  furnace  and  burn  the  con¬ 
tents  out  by  a  slow  combustion.  But,  if  the 
process  is  conducted  in  a  workmanlike  man¬ 
ner,  with  the  precaution  of  making  the  com¬ 
bustion  as  slow  as  possible,  very  little  gold 
will  be  lost.  The  acids  used  in  coloring  and 
pickling  should  not  be  thrown  away  until 
treated  to  recover  the  gold.  All  wet  color¬ 
ing  acids  and  muriatic  acid  pickle  after  using 
should  be  thrown  into  a  stoneware  jar,  and 
when  nearly  full  treated  as  follows :  A  sat¬ 
urated  solution  of  green  copperas  ( proto-sul¬ 
phate  of  iron),  in  the  proportion  of  8  oz.  of 
hot  water  to  i  oz.  of  the  sulphate.  In  get¬ 
ting  the  sulphate  it  is  best  to  get  such  as  is 
used  for  medicinal  and  chemical  purposes, 
as  it  is  essential  to  be  pure ;  also  avoid  all 
such  pieces  as  are  air  slacked  or  present  the 
look  of  rusty  iron ;  such  pieces  are  chem¬ 
ically  changed  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be 
deleterious  to  the  process.  The  solution  of 
sulphate  should  be  added  to  the  acids  in  the 
stoneware  vessel  until  it  fails  to  produce  any 
effect.  Allow  the  precipitate  to  settle  (after 
stirring  well),  when  the  acid  can  be  poured 
off.  The  precipitate  is  nearly  pure  gold,  and 
if  of  sufficient  quantity  can  be  directly  re¬ 
covered  by  melting  with  a  strong  flux.  By 


a  strong  flux  I  mean  one  which  will  resist  a 
high  temperature,  as  the  complete  reduction 
of  the  gold  will  require  intense  heat.  After 
the  precipitate  is  thoroughly  dried,  to  every 
4  oz.  of  precipitate  add  2  oz.  of  sal  tartar 
{carbonate  of  potash),  1  oz.  of  common  salt,  1 
oz.  of  green  glass  (any  glass  which  contains- 
no  lead).  All  the  ingredients  should  be  re¬ 
duced  to  a  fine  powder  and  well  mixed,  when 
it  can  be  put  in  a  crucible.  While  the  melt¬ 
ing  is  going  on  a  little  saltpeter  can  be  added 
occasionally  to  aid  the  process.  But  in  small 
quantities  the  precipitate  can  be  thrown  into 
the  burnt  sweep  ;  as  also  the  old  sulphuric 
acid  pickle  used  in  jobbing.  The  true  course 
to  pursue,  as  far  as  scouring  is  concerned,  is 
to  look  sharp  to  all  the  filings  of  gold  on 
plated  jobs.  There  is  more  gold  wasted  here 
than  in  any  part  of  the  job  shop.  And  as  I 
remarked  in  a  former  communication,  the 
gold  derived  from  filings  seldom  or  never 
works  well ;  and  for  this  reason  it  is  best  to 
melt  it  into  a  button,  so  as  to  get  at  the  fine¬ 
ness,  and  sell  it  to  the  refiner.  The  best 
course  to  pursue  with  filings  (“  lemelf  it  is 
termed)  is  to  first  pass  it  through  a  fine  sieve 
to  remove  all  pieces  of  gold  of  any  size ; 
these  should  be  put  in  with  the  scrap.  After 
all  the  coarse  particles  of  gold  and  silver  are 
removed,  the  magnet  should  again  be  em¬ 
ployed  to  remove  any  iron  or  steel  particles 
which  may  remain.  In  refining  and  melting 
filings,  for  every  12  oz.  of  filing  take  2  oz.  of 
sal  tartar  (carbonate  of  potash),  1  oz.  of  com¬ 
mon  salt.  Mix  the  filings  and  flux  together 
well,  and  put  them  into  a*"crucible  and  cover 
the  mixture  with  common  salt.  The  crucible 
should  now  be  put  into  the  furnace  and  a 
continual  high  melting  heat  kept  up  for  30 
or  40  minutes,  adding  a  little  saltpeter  from 
time  to  time.  Care  must  be  taken  to  add 
the  saltpeter  sparingly,  as  it  may  cause  the 
mixture  to  rise  and  flow  over.  A  little  very 
dry  common  salt  if  added,  as  indications  of 
rising  too  high  occur,  will  check  it. 


BRITTLE  GOLD. 

HE  goldsmith  is  often  puzzled  to  soften 
gold  so  that  it  can  be  forged  out  thin 
without  cracking  or  breaking.  Some  gold 
can  be  forged  out  easily,  while  other  varieties 
are  very  hard  and  brittle,  because  the  impuri¬ 
ties  or  alloys,  such  as  a  little  lead  or  zinc, 
tend  to  make  it  so.  Melting  over  a  stone 
coal  fire  would  do  the  same.  Gold  should 
be  melted  over  charcoal  or  coke,  and  if  of 


.12  2 


DISSOLVING  AND  PRECIPITATING  GOLD. 


low  grade,  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  heat 
too  long.  If  it  has  no  “  grain,”  melt  again. 
If  it  does  not  take  grain,  then  melt  again, 
-and  add  a  little  saltpeter,  and,  a  little  later, 
.some  borax.  For  ordinary  melting,  fuse 
with  borax,  stir  well  and  add  a  little  sal-am¬ 
moniac  just  before  pouring.  In  forging  gold, 
it  must  be  annealed  as  often  as  it  begins  to 
get  hard  and  brittle.  Low  grade  gold  needs 
annealing  oftener  than  fine  gold.  Heat  red 
hot  and  cool  without  tempering. 

TO  TOUGHEN  BRITTLE  GOLD. 

If  the  gold  ingot  shows  sufficient  ductility 
to  withstand  the  first  two  or  three  anneal¬ 
ings  without  cracking,  it  may  be  considered 
-as  sufficiently  tough  for  being  worked ;  if, 
however,  it  cracks,  recourse  must  be  had  to 
a  sort  of  mold  casting,  what  the  French  call 
“brassage.”  This  process js  performed  by 
taking  a  soldering  coal  sufficiently  large  to 
receive  the  ingot.  It  is  prepared  for  the 
purpose  by  working  with  a  file,  a  half  round 
hollow  in  it.  The  ingot  is  then  heated  upon 
a  coal  to  nearly  white  heat,  is  laid  in  the  hol¬ 
low  of  the  prepared  coal,  and  covered  with 
borax  everywhere  to  facilitate  the  melting ; 
direct  the  flame  of  the  soldering  lamp  with  a 
heavy  wick  upon  it,  using  a  long  blow-pipe  ; 
maintain  the  flame  until  the  surface  begins 
to  melt,  whereby  all  the  cracks  disappear, 
without  raising  the  temperature  sufficiently, 
however,  to  either  shorten  the  ingot  or  sepa¬ 
rate  it  into  several  pieces.  The  necessary 
degree  of  heat  will  be  recognized  as  soon  as 
the  bar  begins  to^give  way  and  conforms  to 
the  smaller  angles  of  the  coal,  as  well  as  by 
the  rainbow  hues  that  begin  to  appear  upon 
its  surface,  and  finally  by  the  disappearance 
of  the  cracks.  When  the  ingot  has  reached 
this  degree  of  heat  throughout,  the  operator 
may  be  assured  of  its  malleability. 

DISSOLVING  AND  PRECIPITATING 
GOLD. 

TWO  processes  frequently  occur  in  gold- 
smithing  and  electro-plating,  viz.,  the 
■solution  and  precipitation  of  gold,  and  the 
operator  often  meets  with  difficulties  or  is  in 
doubt ;  so  valuable  a  material  as  gold  can¬ 
not  be  treated  with  levity. 

As  regards  the  dissolving,  the  nitro-muri- 
atic  acid  is  generally  used  in  too  concentrated 
a  state.  The  workman  most  generally  goes 
by  guess  work  and  takes  as  much  as  he 
considers  about  right,  now  nitric  acid,  then 


muriatic  acid,  and  finally  he  is  in  difficulties 
to  remove  the  excess  of  acid,  especially  nitric 
acid.  How  easy  it  would  be  for  him  to 
compound  an  aqua  regia  according  to  the 
following  formula : 

4  parts  by  weight  of  crude  muriatic  acid, 
i  part  by  weight  of  crude  nitric  acid, 

5  parts  by  weight  of  pure  water. 

Of  this  mixture  generally  will  suffice  io 
parts  to  i  part  of  gold. 

It  is  enough  if  the  gold  is  in  a  passable 
state  of  division.  With  thick  pieces  a  little 
more  mixture  is  subsequently  to  be  added, 
until  a  perfect  solution  has  ensued.  It  is  well 
to  weigh  also  the  subsequently  added  portion. 

The  writer  performs  his  solutions  in  a 
weighed  porcelain  dish  or  glass  retort  in  a 
water  bath,  and  is  not  in  any  manner  troubled 
by  the  evolving  of  red  vapors.  That  the 
solution  takes  place  can  be  seen  from  the 
outside  by  the  yellow  color  of  the  fluid  and 
the  bubbles  arising  from  the  gold. 

A  water  bath  is  easily  made  ;  take  an  iron 
or  earthen  pot,  upon  the  rim  of  which  the 
dish  or  the  glass  retort  rests,  fill  this  pot  with 
water  and  heat  it.  The  gold  hereby  receives 
simply  the  heat  necessary  for  effecting  of 
the  solution  from  the  arising  steam,  and  no 
fear  need  be  entertained  that  something  may 
go  wrong.  One-half  of  the  solution  having 
evaporated,  which  can  be  ascertained  by 
weighing — for  instance,  you  used  io  grams 
gold  and  ioo  grams  aq:ia  regia ,  there  must 
be  left  50  to  51  grams;  dilute  this  solution 
to  100  or  200  grams,  and  you  will  have  a 
solution,  each  gram  of  which  contains  Tx^  or 
2V  gram  of  gold. 

The  writer  always  found  such  a  solution 
to  be  free  from  nitrate,  and  it  may  safely  be 
used  for  every  recipe. 

THE,  PRECIPITATION  OF  GOLD. 

The  gold  from  galvanic  baths  is  easiest 
precipitated  with  the  galvanic  current  upon 
a  smooth  copper  plate  ;  the  gold  which  does 
not  precipitate  as  a  powder  is  scraped  off 
and  purified,  as  well  as  that  which  precipi¬ 
tated  as  powder.  Impure  gold,  which  chiefly 
consists  of  gold,  however,  is  dissolved  in  the 
indicated  proportions  in  the  aqua  regia  speci¬ 
fied  above ;  it  is  then  evaporated  to  one- 
half,  diluted  with  water,  filtered  and  washed 
out  with  large  quantities  of  water.  This 
washing  is  continued  until  the  escaping  fluid 
is  water,  clear  and  no  longer  colored  by  sul¬ 
phate  of  iron. 

Meanwffiile  a  solution  of  handsome  crystal- 


ACID  COLORING. 


12  J 


lized  sulphate  of  iron  has  been  prepared,  as 
follows:  To  io  grams  (6  dwts.  10.32  grains) 
sulphate  of  iron,  100  grams  water  and  10 
.grams  muriatic  acid. 

For  precipitating  the  gold  suffices  the  4^2 
fold  quantity  of  crystallized  green  copperas 
of  the  impure  gold  used. 

In  order  to  precipitate  the  gold,  pour  its 
solution  into  the  copperas  solution.  The 
gold  will  very  quickly  fall  down  in  this  di¬ 
luted  fluid  ;  decant  the  clear  liquid,  and  first 
wash  with  water  acidulated  with  muriatic 
acid,  afterward'  simply  pure  water.  Collect 
the  gold  in  a  porcelain  dish,  drain  off  the 
wash  water  as  closely  as  possible,  and  let  it 
dry  in  a  moderately  warm  place. 


LAPPING. 

HIS  is  a  distinct  process  of  finishing 
jewelry  work.  It  is  not  much  resorted 
to  in  colored  work,  and  when  it  is  employed, 
it  is  sometimes  performed  before  the  articles 
are  colored,  and  sometimes  after,  according 
to  choice.  It  is  distinguished  from  scratch¬ 
ing,  by  the  evenness  of  surface  and  the  luster 
it  leaves  upon  the  parts  to  which  it  has  been 
applied ;  and  this  can  be  ascertained  by  an 
examination  of  the  work  after  this  operation. 
It  is  principally  confined  to  bright  gold 
chains  and  earrings,  a  class  of  jewelry  to 
which  its  adaptation  is  most  suitable,  as  it 
enhances  the  beauty  of  their  appearance  very 
much.  The  lapper  produces  the  plain  and 
diamond-shaped  surfaces  by  the  rotary  action 
of  the  lapidary’s  wheel,  which  consists  of  a 
specially  prepared  composition  disc,  secured 
in  the  lathe  vertically  upon  .a  horizontal 
spindle.  This  has  a  shoulder  in  the  middle, 
against  which  the  disc  of  metal  is  firmly  held 
by  a  nut  and  screw  from  the  other  side. 
This  lap  or  disc  weighs  about  five  pounds, 
and  is  made  of  a  mixture  of  two  parts  pure 
grain  tin  to  one  part  of  pure  lead  ;  to  which, 
for  edge-laps,  may  be  judiciously  added  one 
pennyweight  of  fine  copper  to  every  pound 
of  mixture.  To  effect  a  complete  amalgama¬ 
tion  of  the  component  parts,  the  lead,  being 
the  least  fusible  metal,  should  be  first  melted 
and  the  tin  afterwards  added,  first  weli  heat¬ 
ing,  to  prevent  too  sudden  a  chill  of  the  lead. 
If  necessary  to  add  the  copper,  it  should  be 
melted  separately,  and  added  to  the  other 
ingredients  when  in  the  liquid  state,  and  be 
well  stirred.  Care  should  be  exercised  in  the 
casting,  in  order  to  pfevent  waste. 

The  lap  having  been  properly  adjusted  by 


skimming,  it  is  then  “  headed  in,”  a  process 
performed  by  the  application  of  flour  emery, 
by  means  of  a  brush,  to  the  right-hand  side 
of  the  lap,  and  pressed  in  with  a  hard  flint 
stone.  In  heading  in  a  lap,  the  emery  is 
used  in  the  wet  state.  This  done,  the  gold- 
cutter,  as  he  is  familiarly  called,  takes  his 
work,  and  submits  it  to  the  revolving  lap  or 
disc  ;  but  before  doing  so,  he  submits  it  to  a 
preparation  he  has  by  the  side  of  him,  which 
is  used  for  protecting  the  gilding  or  surfaces 
not  subjected  to  his  particular  work.  He 
dips  the  articles  into  a  liquid  mixture  of  gum 
arabic,  two  parts,  and  gamboge,  one  part ; 
they  are  then  well  dried,  but  must  not  be 
overheated  ;  this  has  a  tendency  to  protect 
the  gilding  whilst  under  the  manipulative 
skill  of  the  gold-cutter.  This  gum  or  cement 
is  soluble  in  hot  water ;  consequently,  in 
washing  out,  it  parts  from  the  gold,  and 
leaves  a  color  upon  the  work.  The  lapping 
process  is  a  curious  one,  and  it  is  truly  mar¬ 
velous  to  see  the  skillful  and  practiced  work¬ 
man  turning  the  links  of  gold  chains  between 
his  thumb  and  finger  with  great  dexterity  and 
accuracy ;  and  while  to  all  appearance  it 
seems  as  if  they  are  being  presented  in  a 
haphazard  fashion  to  the  lap,  the  most  per¬ 
fect-shaped  diamonds  are  being  produced. 
This  is  called  faceting. 

Square-lapping  is  now  extensively  prac¬ 
ticed  ;  it  adds  a  sharpness  and  luster  to  the 
work  not  equaled  by  any  other  means.  The 
gold  taken  from  articles  during  the  process 
of  lapping  remains — the  greater  portion  of  it 
at  least — upon  the  lap.  The  emery  cuts  and 
retains  the  gold  upon  it ;  this,  however,  is 
prevented  from  interfering  with  the  process 
by  wiping  the  side  of  the  lap  with  a  tow  of 
cotton  waste,  dampened  with  oil.  This  cot¬ 
ton  waste  must  be  strictly  preserved  and  sub¬ 
jected  to  a  special  mode  of  treatment  for  the 
recovery  of  the  metal. 


ACID  COLORING. 

O TORINO  gold  articles  is  a  process 
for  dissolving  out  more  or  less  of  the 
alloy,  to  give  them  a  surface  having  a  dif¬ 
ferent  quality  or  fineness  from  its  previous 
surface.  For  good  gold,  that  is,  18-karat  or 
finer,  melt  in  a  common  pipkin  the  following 
articles:  No.  1. — Alum,  3  ounces;  nitrate 
of  potassa  (saltpeter),  6  ounces ;  sulphate  of 
zinc,  3  ounces ;  common  salt,  3  ounces. 
When  melted,  mix  well  together,  and  immerse 
the  articles  to  be  colored  in  it,  removing  oc- 


ACID  COLORING. 


i  24 

casionally  to  examine  the  color.  When  the 
color  appears  satisfactory  remove  the  articles, 
place  them  on  a  piece  of  sheet  iron  and  allow 
to  cool,  then  immerse  in  dilute  sulphuric  or 
acetic  acid,  which  will  remove  the  flux,  after 
which  they  may  be  rinsed  in  warm  water,  to 
which  a  little  potash  or  soda  has  been  added, 
and  finally  brushed  with  hot  soap  and  water, 
again  rinsed  in  hot  water,  and  dried  in  clean 
warm  boxwood  sawdust. 

For  inferior  qualities  of  gold,  that  is,  from 
18-karat  down  to  12-karat,  use  the  following 
composition  :  No.  2. —  Nitrate  of  potassa 
(saltpeter),  4  ounces  ;  alum,  2  ounces  ;  com¬ 
mon  salt,  2  ounces.  Add  warm  water 
enough  to  make  the  whole  into  a  thin  paste, 
place  it  in  a  small  pipkin  or  crucible,  and 
boil.  Attach  a  thin  wire  to  the  article  to  be 
colored,  and  hang  it  in  the  paste,  allowing  it 
to  remain  from  ten  to  twenty  minutes.  Then 
remove  it,  rinse  in  hot  water,  treat  it  with  the 
scratch-brush,  rinse  again,  and  replace  in  the 
coloring  pot  for  a  few  minutes.  The  length 
of  time  it  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  the 
coloring  bath  depends  of  course  on  the 
amount  of  alloy  to  be  removed.  When  the 
color  suits,  the  article  is  removed,  rinsed  and 
scratch-brushed  as  before,  then  brushed  with 
soap  and  hot  water,  again  rinsed  in  hot  water, 
and  dried  in  the  sawdust. 

When  the  articles  are  of  as  low  quality  as 
1 2 -karat,  if  they  are  slightly  made,  great  care 
must  be  used  or  the  coloring  process  will  eat 
away  so  much  of  their  substance  as  to  de¬ 
stroy  their  strength.  The  coloring  paste 
should  not  be  used  on  articles  lower  than 
1 2-karat. 

Electro-plated  articles  are  often  colored, 
but  they  must  have  a  good  thick  plate  on  in 
order  to  stand  it.  The  following  is  con¬ 
sidered  a  good  composition:  No.  3. — Sul¬ 
phate  of  copper,  2  dvvts. ;  French  verdigris, 
4  y2  dwts.  ;  chloride  of  ammonium  (sal-am¬ 
moniac),  4  dwts.  ;  nitrate  of  potassa,  4  dwts. ; 
acetic  acid,  about  20  dwts. 

Reduce  the  sulphate  of  copper,  sal-am¬ 
moniac  and  saltpeter  to  a  powder  in  a  mor¬ 
tar,  then  add  the  verdigris,  and  finally  pour 
in  the  acetic  acid,  a  little  at  a  time,  stirring 
it  well  all  the  while,  till  the  whole  becomes  a 
bluish-green  mass.  Dip  the  article  to  be 
colored  in  this,  then  place  on  a  piece  of 
sheet  copper,  and  heat  over  a  clear  charcoal 
or  coke  fire  till  it  becomes  black.  Then  let 
it  cool,  after  which  put  it  into  a  tolerably 
strong  pickle  of  sulphuric  acid  and  water  to 
dissolve  off  the  flux,  rinse  well  in  hot  water 


containing  a  little  potash  or  soda,  brush  with 
soap  and  hot  water,  and  dry  in  the  sawdust. 
If  the  article  is  scratch-brushed  being  col¬ 
ored,  it  will  come  out  of  the  pickle  perfectly 
bright. 

Another '  preparation  for  coloring  either 
gold  or  plated  articles  is:  No.  4. — Nitrate 
of  potash,  5  ounces ;  alum,  2  ounces ;  sul¬ 
phate  of  iron,  1  ounce ;  sulphate  of  zinc,  1 
ounce.  Mix  well  together,  then  add  water 
to  form  a  thin  paste.  Dip  the  article  in  this, 
gently  shake  off  any  superfluous  paste,  place 
on  a  piece  of  sheet  copper  and  heat  till  dry. 
Then  increase  the  heat  for  two  or  three  min¬ 
utes,  plunge  into  cold  water,  and  finish  as 
before  described. 

Preparation  No.  1  may  also  be  used  for 
coloring  plated  goods  (heavily  plated),  by 
dipping  the  articles  in  and  heating,  etc.,  as 
described  under  No.  4,  till  nearly  black,  then 
plunge  into  cold  water  and  finish  as  there 
directed. 

Gilt  articles  of  poor  color  (as  well  as  gold 
articles)  may  be  improved  by  the  use  of  gild¬ 
er’s  wax,  No.  1  ;  beeswax,  4  parts ;  verdigris, 
1  part ;  sulphate  of  copper,  1  part.  Melt 
and  mix  well  together.  No.  2. — Beeswax, 
5  parts  ;  alum,  1  part ;  verdigris,  x  y2  parts  ; 
red  ocher,  1  part.  Melt  the  beeswax  and 
mix  well  together. 

This  wax  is  used  by  heating  the  article, 
rubbing  the  compound  over  it,  then  placing 
it  on  red-hot  charcoal  till  the  wax  is  all 
burned  off.  Place  in  very  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  to  clean  it,  scratch-brush  it,  wash,  etc., 
as  before. 

Nearly  every  manufacturer  has  his  own 
secret  process  for  “coloring”  gold,  which 
they  are  not  at  all  likely  to  give  away.  But 
the  foregoing  processes  are  considered  good, 
and  will  doubtless  meet  all  the  cases. 

ACID  COLOR  FOR  I 4-KARAT  GOLD. 

Saltpeter,  4  parts ;  salt,  2  parts ;  mu¬ 
riatic  acid,  3  parts.  Put  the  first  two  in¬ 
gredients  in  the  pot  and  heat  strongly;  add 
a  little  water;  let  boil  up  and  when  it 
becomes  a  thin  paste  add  the  muriatic  acid ; 
stir  and  put  in  the  work,  taking  care  to  com¬ 
pletely  submerge  it  in  the  color ;  let  it  boil 
two  minutes,  then  add  as  much  water  as  you 
did  muriatic  acid,  make  it  boil  quickly  again 
for  two  minutes,  take  out  the  work,  boil  in 
hot  water,  then  in  another  pot  of  hot  water 
to  which  a  few  drops  of  muriatic  acid  have 
been  added,  and  afterward  rinse  in  hot  water 
and  dry  in  sawdust. 


PREPARING  FOR  WET  COLORING. 


1  25 


ACID-COLORING  SOLID  GOLD. 

Saltpeter,  2  parts ;  salt,  1  part ;  muriatic 
acid,  1  part.  Put  saltpeter  and  salt  into 
the  coloring  pot,  and  heat  it  without  water, 
then  add  hot  water  sufficient  to  produce 
a  thick  paste,  let  it  boil,  add  the  muriatic 
acid  and  stir  it  up  well.  As  soon  as  the 
brown  vapor  arises,  plunge  in  the  work 
quickly,  being  careful  to  submerge  it  com¬ 
pletely  (since  the  vapor  will  affect  the  work 
if  exposed  to  it).  Let  the  work  boil  over  a 
quick  and  lively  fire  (and  preserve  it  during 
the  whole  process)  for  about  three  minutes, 
stirring  it  about  constantly,  taking  care  not 
to  let  any  part  of  it  come  to  the  surface  of 
the  liquid.  Then  rinse  the  work  in  a  light 
pickle,  and  thereupon  plunge  it  into  hot 
water.  Quick  and  careful  handling  in  dip¬ 
ping  in  and  taking  out  the  work  is  important. 
This  done,  the  acid  color  should  be  thinned 
by  adding  hot  water,  or  one-half  old  color, 
which  is  preferable.  Submerge  the  work 
again,  let  it  boil  two  minutes,  and  should 
some  pieces  require  it,  such  should  boil  one 
minute  longer.  Now  boil  the  work  in  a 
pickle,  two  thimblefuls  of  muriatic  acid  to 
one  gallon  of  water,  then  again  in  a  pickle 
containing  only  a  few  drops  of  acid,  then  dry 
off  the  work  carefully  in  hot  sawdust.  Re¬ 
member  that  work  not  properly  dried  will 
draw  spots. 

ACID-COLORING  SMALL  ARTICLES. 

For  acid-coloring  on  gold  for  small  ar¬ 
ticles,  a  very  good  plan  is  to  place  them  on 
a  lump  of  charcoal,  and  make  them  red  hot 
under  the  blow-pipe  flame,  and  then  throw 
them  into  a  pickle  composed  of  about  35 
drops  strong  sulphuric  acid  to  one  ounce  of 
water,  allowing  the  article  to  remain  therein 
until  the  color  is  sufficiently  developed ; 
washing  the  article  in  warm  water  in  which 
a  little  potash  has  been  dissolved,  using  a 
brush,  and  finally  rinsing  and  drying  in  box¬ 
wood  sawdust,  completes  the  operation. 


PREPARING  FOR  WET  COLORING. 

HERE  are  several  methods  of  prepar¬ 
ing  work  for  wet  coloring,  each  oper¬ 
ator  adopting  the  one  which  suits  him  best 
and  appears  to  claim  an  advantage  over  the 
others.  We  do  not  intend  to  assert  that 
there  is  any  particular  advantage  in  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  any  particular  process.  The  main 
principles  are  thorough  polishing  (this  need 


not  be  so  much  the  case  as  for  dry  coloring, 
though  it  is  of  great  importance)  and  cleanli¬ 
ness,  the  latter  element  being  very  essential 
in  the  production  of  a  good  color.  The  oper¬ 
ator  cannot  be  too  careful  in  enforcing  these 
two  conditions. 

Some  persons  prefer  to  color  from  the 
black  anneal ;  others  to  boil  for  a  time  in 
nitric  acid  pickle ;  others,  again,  after  the 
work  has  been  w^ell  annealed,  boil  out  in  sul¬ 
phuric  acid  pickle,  and  afterward  in  clean 
water.  In  adopting  any  of  these  plans,  the 
method  is  that  after  the  work  has  been  well 
polished  by  means  of  the  finest  materials  and 
washed  out,  it  must  be  placed  upon  an  iron 
or  copper  pan  and  heated  to  redness  over  a 
clear  fire,  the  latter  proceeding  being  of  im¬ 
portance.  If  it  appears  greasy  in  the  inter¬ 
stices  and  it  is  desired  to  color  it  black,  it 
should  be  boiled  out  again  and  annealed  ;  it 
may  then  be  placed  aside  to  cool,  and  after¬ 
ward  suspended  upon  the  wires  usually  em¬ 
ployed  for  this  purpose.  In  the  work  of  re¬ 
coloring  articles  it  is  by  far  the  best  plan  to 
anneal  them.  Where  this  can  be  done,  boil 
them  out  and  again  anneal  them,  which  is 
easily  performed.  It  is  an  economical  plan 
to  re-color  goods  of  this  sort  in  old  color, 
which  should  always  be  preserved  for  the 
purpose.  If  this  appears  dry,  or  nearly  so, 
when  put  into  the  pot,  add  one  ounce  of  acid 
and  one  ounce  of  water ;  if  tolerably  liquid 
make  no  addition  whatever,  for,  in  some  in¬ 
stances,  and  especially  where  the  alloys  con¬ 
tain  a  great  proportion  of  copper,  the  weaker 
the  preparation  the  better  and  brighter  is  the 
color  produced  upon  the  work. 

FINISHING  THE  WORK. 

After  the  process  of  wet  coloring,  it  is  ab¬ 
solutely  necessary  that  the  work  should  go 
through  another  operation,  that  of  “scratch¬ 
ing,”  which  consists  of  submitting  it  to  the 
revolving  action  of  a  circular  brush  of  fine 
brass  wire,  mounted  upon  a  lathe  after  the 
manner  of  the  round  hair  brushes  used  in 
polishing,  and  upon  which  a  weak  solution 
of  ale  is  allowed  to  run  from  a  small  barrel 
with  a  tap  to  it.  This  removes  any  dull 
color  that  may  be  upon  the  work  and  gives 
it  a  perfectly  bright  and  uniform  surface. 
Frosting  is  effected  by  keeping  the  points  of 
the  wires  of  the  brush  quite  straight  and  run¬ 
ning  the  lathe  very  fast,  just  letting  the  ends 
touch  the  surface  of  the  work  ;  to  do  this 
accurately  requires  great  practice.  After 
this  process  has  been  performed,  the  work 


AN  EXCELLENT  WET  COLORING. 


126 

must  he  well  rinsed  in  either  hot  or  cold 
water,  and  finally  dried  in  warm  boxwood 
sawdust,  which  must  not  be  allowed  to  burn 
or  char  in  any  way ;  if  so,  the  color  of  the 
work  will  be  much  damaged  and  its  beauty 
marred.  A  soft  brush  will  remove  all  traces 
of  sawdust  from  the  interstices  of  the  articles 
which  have  passed  through  this  operation. 


WET  COLORING  BY  THE  GERMAN 
PROCESS. 

IE  up  your  work  in  small  bunches  with 
fine  silver  or  platinum  wire  ;  then,  for 
3  ounces  of  work,  take  a  black  lead  pot  6 
or  7  inches  high,  and  having  previously 
placed  your  work  in  hot  water,  put  into  it  6 
ounces  of  saltpeter  and  3  ounces  of  common 
salt ;  stir  them  well  with  a  wooden  spoon, 
and  when  thoroughly  dried  fine  and  hot  add 
also  5  fluid  ounces  of  hydrochloric  acid. 
When  boiling  up,  put  in  your  bunch  of  work, 
having  previously  shaken  the  water  from  it, 
and  keep  it  moving  for  three  minutes,  taking 
care  to  keep  it  well  covered  all  the  time  of 
the  operation.  At  the  end  of  this  time  take 
it  out,  and  plunge  it  into  a  vessel  of  clean 
hot  water,  and  finally  into  a  second  vessel  of 
the  same.  Then  add  to  your  color  in  the 
pot  6  fluid  ounces  of  hot  water,  and  when  it 
boils  up  again  after  having  been  thus  diluted, 
put  in  your  work  for  one  minute  longer,  and 
again  rinse  it  as  before  directed,  when  it  will 
be  found  to  be  of  a  beautiful  color.  Too 
much  clean  hot  water  cannot  be  used  for 
plunging  the  work  into  each  time. 

If  the  work  is  hollow  and  bulky,  not  as 
much  as  3  ounces  should  be  put  in,  as  it  is 
not  effectually  immersed  in  the  pot. 

In  wet  coloring,  it  sometimes  happens  that 
the  color  is  rather  dead,  or  it  may  happen 
that  the  “  color  ”  burns,  which  causes  the 
work  to  look  brown  ;  this  is  a  precipitation 
which  may  be  removed  by  scratch-brushing 
at  the  lathe  with  stale  beer,  using  a  fine  brass 
wire  brush  similar  to  the  round  hair  brushes 
used  for  polishing. 

In  coloring,  a  large  stone  jar  should  also 
be  provided,  into  which  should  be  emptied 
your  “  color,”  when  done  with,  because  the 
pot  should  be  worked  out  each  time,  so  as  to 
be  ready  when  wanted  again  ;  also  the  wash- 
water  used,  as  it  contains  quite  a  percentage 
of  gold.  All  things  in  connection  with  the 
process  should  be  kept  clean  and  free  from 
grease  of  any  kind.  Do  not  keep  iron  near  this 
wet  color  in  the  pot,  as  it  is  most  injurious. 


AN  EXCELLENT  WET  COLORING. 

MIXTU  RE  for  wet-coloring,  such  as  the 
following,  may  be  applied  with  advan¬ 
tage,  and  if  a  moderate  amount  of  skill  be 
employed  during  the  operation,  certain  suc¬ 
cess  is  sure  to  follow  the  process  when  red 
eighteen-karat  gold  jewelry  is  treated  with 
it.  The  ingredients  employed  are  as  fol¬ 
lows,  when  small  work  is  to  be  heightened 
in  color : 


Saltpeter .  6  ounces 

Common  salt .  3  ounces 

Alum .  3  ounces 


12  ounces 

A  color  pot  or  crucible  is  provided  with: 
straight  sides,  into  which  is  put  the  salts, 
which  should  have  been  previously  well  pul¬ 
verized  and  mixed  together  with  the  hands. 
Now  place  the  color  pot  upon  the  fire  (a  gas 
jet  is  by  far  the  best  substitute,  as  the  power 
of  the  heat  can  be  regulated  at  will,  without 
the  removal  of  the  color  pot  from  the  posi¬ 
tion  in  which  it  was  first  placed),  and  dis¬ 
solve  the  mixture  very  carefully  and  slowly 
so  as  not  to  burn  the  coloring  composition. 
Stir  occasionally  during  the  dissolution  of  the 
salts.  When  the  latter  have  dissolved,  the 
mixture  will  rise  somewhat  in  the  pot,  and 
then  it  is  time  to  place  in  the  work,  which 
must  be  superseded  by  a  wire  of  platinum 
of  suitable  dimensions  to  the  work  in  hand. 
The  work  should  be  gently  moved  about 
while  in  the  pot,  and  occasionally  withdrawn 
to  inspect  its  color.  Dipping  in  acid  water 
removes  any  color  that  adheres  to  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  work,  and  which  occasionally 
prevents  a  proper  and  satisfactory  inspection 
of  it.  The  acids  used  mostly  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  are  nitric,  muriatic,  and  sulphuric  acids  ; 
either  one  may  be  used  in  the  proportion  of 
one  of  acid  to  twenty  of  boiling  water.  Be 
careful  in  adding  the  sulphuric  acid  to  the 
water,  as  it  will  fly  about  and  scald  or  burn, 
if  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  flesh  or  clothes 
of  the  operator.  The  water  hanging  to  the 
work  after  each  rinse  should  be  well  shaken 
from  it  before  re-dipping  in  the  color 
pot.  The  time  occupied  in  the  process,  if 
the  alloy  and  other  particulars  absolutely 
necessary  to  the  true  performance  of  it 
are  in  accord,  will  be  about  four  or  five 
minutes. 

After  the  dissolution  of  the  coloring  salts, 
the  heat  kept  up  should  not  be  too  intense 


ELECTRO  FIRE-GILDING  AND  SILVERING. 


1  2T 


during  the  period  occupied  in  coloring ;  if 
so,  the  paste  or  composition  is  not  at  all 
unlikely  to  become  devoid  of  the  necessary 
moisture  before  the  allotted  time  has  expired, 
which,  practically,  is  required  to  the  ter¬ 
mination  of  the  treatment.  A  very  slow 
fire,  or  still  better,  a  gas  jet  is  best  for  the 
purpose  of  accomplishing  the  common  ob¬ 
ject  in  view,  viz.,  the  highest  and  richest 
color  to  the  work  under  treatment,  and 
that  in  the  simplest  and  easiest  manner  pos-  , 
sible. 

The  coloring  mixture  may  be  employed 
for  1 6-karat,  and  also  for  as  low  as  15-karat 
gold  if  the  alloys  are  red  gold.  But  for  such 
a  purpose  its  preparation  and  application  is 
somewhat  different  to  that  just  described,  as 
well  as  to  the  length  of  time  occupied  in  the 
process. 

For  a  small  batch  of  work  the  quantities 
may  be  the  same  as  those  already  stated, 
although  larger  quantities  can  be  used  with 
the  same  success  that  attends  the  smaller 
ones,  taking  extra  work  in  proportion  to 
increase  the  color.  The  best  relation  be¬ 
tween  the  work  and  the  color  would  be  as 
one  to  three,  four  and  five ;  that  is,  the 
mixture  given  will  be  sufficient  to  color  four 
ounces  of  solid  work,  such  as  chains,  three 
ounces  of  hollow  work,  or  two  ounces  of 
light  work,  with  large  surfaces.  Always  re¬ 
member  that  it  is  in  proportion  to  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  work  that  you  have  to  provide 
a  coloring  mixture,  and  not  to  its  absolute 
weight,  to  be  accurate  and  correct  in  your 
results. 

In  coloring  with  the  too  inferior  qualities 
named  above,  it  is  necessary  to  add  water 
to  the  salts  in  the  pot,  in  order  to  keep  them 
moist  during  their  period  of  action,  which 
takes  a  much  longer  time  than  the  one  we 
have  already  given  the  details  of  to  produce 
a  color  intense  enough  for  the  trades.  Two 
ounces  of  water  will  be  sufficient  to  put  to 
the  mixed  salts,  which  must  be  allowed  to 
boil.  When  this  takes  place,  take  the  batch 
of  work  encircled  with  a  wire  of  platinum  or 
silver,  and  put  it  in  the  mixture,  and  there 
let  it  remain  for  about  fifteen  minutes,  when 
it  should  be  withdrawn  and  instantly  plunged 
into  boiling  water  provided  in  a  pan  for  the 
purpose.  The  work  during  the  above  period 
may  occasionally  be  withdrawn  and  rinsed 
in  order  to  inspect  its  progress,  and  some¬ 
times  this  is  found  to  be  an  advantage,  as 
the  right  color  is  produced  more  quickly  at 
times  than  others. 


ELECTRO  FIRE-GILDING  AND 
SILVERING. 

OM PLAINTS  against  the  durability  of 
the  ordinary  electro  gilding  and  silver¬ 
ing  by  contact  or  limited  battery,  and  of  the 
abrasions,  when  exposed  to  wind  and  weather, 
or  friction,  as  compared  to  the  good  old  fire¬ 
gilding,  are  very  frequent,  although  the  for¬ 
mer  is  generally  acknowledged  to  have  a 
richer  appearance  than  the  latter.  The 
reason  for  these  complaints  are  based  upon 
the  facts  that  the  deposit  of  the  precious 
metals  by  the  galvano-electric  system  are  not 
of  a  solid  and  compact  nature.  Experience 
has  taught  that  electro-gilt  ornaments  at¬ 
tached  to  church-yard  monuments,  lightning 
conductors,  crosses,  balls,  eagles,  and  other 
ornaments  on  church  steeples  and  public 
buildings,  very  soon  tarnish,  which  is  fully 
proved  to  be  the  cause  of  the  unsolid  and 
porous  deposit  of  the  gold  on  the  metal  form¬ 
ing  the  base  of  the  articles. 

To  effect  good  substantial  deposit  of  gold' 
or  silver  by  electricity,  we  are  compelled  tO' 
take  recourse  to  batteries  of  great  capacity, 
dynamo-electric  apparatus  worked  by  steam 
power  arrangements  which  to  purchase  and 
to  maintain  entail  expenses  too  large  to  be 
borne  by  the  jeweler  or  watchmaker  who 
conducts  his  business  on  a  limited  scale,  and 
who,  if  even  in  a  position  to  purchase  and 
maintain  these  extensive  appurtenances,  in 
very  rare  instances  has  sufficient  work  to 
realize  a  profit  to  warrant  and  encourage  the 
outlay. 

In  order  to  overcome  the  instability  of 
the  deposit  by  electro-gilding,  and  to  avoid 
the  heavy  expense  of  costly  apparatus,  while 
securing  at  the  same  time  a  good  deposit  by 
electricity,  the  following  procedure  is  recom¬ 
mended  as  practically  good  and  satisfactorily 
effective. 

To  the  ordinary  gold  solution  for  electro¬ 
gilding  add  some  mercury  previously  dis¬ 
solved  in  nitric  acid ;  this  solution,  diluted 
with  water  and  neutralized  of  the  acid  by 
adding  small  quantities  of  spirits  of  ammonia 
until  immersed  litmus  paper  does  not  change 
its  blue  color  into  red.  Previous  to  dissolv¬ 
ing  the  mercury  in  the  acid,  it  is  necessary 
to  free  it  from  the  lead,  with  which  commer¬ 
cial  mercury  is  generally  contaminated,  and 
this  is  effected  simply  by  passing  the  mercury 
through  a  piece  of  wash-leather,  which  will 
allow  the  mercury  to  pass  through  on  squeez¬ 
ing  it  and  retain  the  lead. 

This  prepared  gold  solution  will  be  a  mer- 


REPAIRING  JEWELRY. 


I  28 

•curial-gold  amalgam  of  a  fluid  or  watery 
nature,  and  should  not  be  mixed  in  larger 
quantities  than  required  for  immediate  use. 
The  articles  to  be  gilt  are  immersed  in  this 
solution  appended  to  the  wire  in  connection 
with  the  cathode  (zinc)  of  any  battery,  and 
will  receive  a  gold  deposit  of  a  quicksilver 
appearance,  after  the  article  has  remained 
sufficient  time  in  the  solution.  It  is  then 
withdrawn,  rinsed  in  water,  and  laid"  on  a 
fresh  fire  made  of  small  pieces  of  charcoal, 
until  the  mercury  has  evaporated,  which 
takes  place  very  soon,  as  the  quantity  of  mer¬ 
cury  is  very  small  in  proportion  to  the  gold 
deposit,  although  the  color  of  the  former 
predominates.  After  the  evaporation  of  the 
mercury,  the  article  has  all  the  characteristics 
in  color  and  toughness  of  fire-gilding — pale 
yellow  and  dead  surface.  The  article  is  then 
scratch-brushed  in  beer  and  will  assume  a 
fine  luster.  If  a  heavy  deposit  of  gold  is  re¬ 
quired,  the  operation  may  be  repeated  after 
each  scratch-brushing.  By  weighing  the  ar¬ 
ticle  before  the  first  immersion  into  the  gold 
solution,  and  again  after  the  last  scratch- 
brushing,  the  weight  of  the  gold  deposited 
can  be  ascertained  very  accurately.  In  the 
last  evaporation,  the  article  is  left  for  about 
half  a  minute  or  so  longer  on  the  fire  than 
necessary  for  driving  off  the  mercury,  which 
will  deepen  the  color  of  the  gilding.  After 
a  final  scratch-brushing,  the  article  may  be 
gilded  in  an  ordinary  gold  solution  without 
the  addition  of  mercury,  by  which  the  rich¬ 
ness  of  color  of  electro-gilding  and  the  dura¬ 
bility  of  fire-gilding  are  combined. 

This  kind  of  gilding  is  accomplished  with 
much  less  trouble,  and  what  is  of  great  im¬ 
portance,  attended  with  less,  or  no  more, 
danger  than  fire-gilding  on  the  old  method, 
which  requires  the  continual  handling  of  a 
large  quantity  of  mercury  so  injurious  to 
health,  as  the  deposit  of  mercury  in  combina¬ 
tion  with  the  gold  deposit  in  electro  fire-gild¬ 
ing  is  so  slight  as  to  evaporate  almost  in¬ 
stantly,  and  affords  the  great  advantage  of  a 
regular  deposit  of  gold,  not  only  on  the  sur¬ 
face,  but  in  the  hollows  and  interstices  of 
the  articles  to  be  gilt.  If  any  places  or  por¬ 
tions  of  the  articles  do  not  require  gilding, 
these  places  can  be  prevented  from  receiving 
the  deposit  by  a  coating  of  copal  varnish 
mixed  with  a  little  rouge  powder,  and  dry¬ 
ing  in  a  warm  place  before  immersion  in  the 
gold  solution. 

The  same  method  may  be  advantageously 
applied  to  electro  fire-silvering,  by  employ¬ 


ing  silver  solutions,  and  the  results  are  ex¬ 
cellent. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  the  mercurial  gold 
or  silver  solutions  are  carefully  kept  apart 
from  the  ordinary  gold  and  silver  solution. 

Silvering  by  fire  has  been  very  much  neg¬ 
lected,  and  preference  given  to  electro-plat¬ 
ing,  but  fire-gilding  is  still  practiced  to  a 
considerable  extent,  and  the  careful  perusal 
of  the  above  cannot  fail  to  convince  the 
practical  man  that  the  combination  of  electro 
fire-gilding  not  only  fully  replaces  the  ordi¬ 
nary  and  antiquated  process  of  fire-gilding, 
but  effects  at  the  same  time  a  great  saving 
of  precious  metal,  which  would  unavoidably 
be  lost  in  fire-gilding,  while  at  the  same  time 
presenting  all  the  advantages  to  be  derived 
from  that  method. 


REPAIRING  JEWELRY. 

ROBABLY  there  is  nothing  which 
builds  up  the  reputation  of  a  jeweler 
more  easily  than  the  neat  and  substantial 
repairing  of  the  jewelry  of  his  patrons.  The 
intrinsic  value  of  a  filled  ring  may  be  almost 
nothing,  but  to  the  owner  it  is  surrounded  by 
a  halo  of  associations  which  give  it  priceless 
worth,  and  if  broken  by  accident,  its  neat 
repairing  is  very  highly  appreciated.  So  also 
the  cleaning  of  jewelry,  which,  through  dis¬ 
coloration,  has  lost  its  beauty,  is  often  looked 
upon  with  delight  as  marvelous ;  therefore, 
a  few  hints  on  this  subject  may  be  of  use  to 
some  who  have  met  with  difficulty  in  making 
to  their  satisfaction  such  repairs  to  articles 
of  jewelry  that  are  almost  of  every-day  oc¬ 
currence. 

It  is  of  first  importance  that  the  use  of  soft 
solder  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible  in  repair¬ 
ing  articles  of  gold  or  silver,  and  even  filled 
and  plated  jewelry  may  be  repaired  with  hard 
solder. 

To  repair  a  ring,  the  shank  of  which  re¬ 
quires  soldering,  bury  the  head  in  a  crucible 
of  wet  sand,  place  a  small  piece  of  charcoal 
against  one  side,  coat  the  break,  previously 
cleaned  by  filing  or  scraping,  with  borax,  and 
charge  with  solder  ;  blow  a  flame  against  the 
ring  and  charcoal  until  the  solder  runs  in. 
For  articles  which  require  to  be  protected 
from  discoloring  in  the  process  of  soldering, 
coat  them  with  a  mixture  of  burnt  yellow 
ocher  and  borax,  adding  a  little  dissolved 
gum  tragacanth  to  make  it  lay  all  over,  allow 
it  to  dry,  then  charge  with  borax  and  solder 
and  heat  sufficiently  ;  boil  out  in  weak  pickle 


THE  ART  OF  ENAMELING. 


made  of  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid.  One  im¬ 
portant  point  is  to  wash  the  piece  well  in  hot 
water  with  a  little  ammonia  in  it  before  at¬ 
tempting  any  repairs ;  this  removes  all  dirt 
and  grease,  which,  if  burned  on,  cannot  be 
removed. 

If  the  article  be  of  colored  gold,  boil  out 
in  pickle  made  of  muriatic  acid,  and  never 
coat  with  any  protecting  mixture.  The  sol¬ 
der  must  vary  in  regard  to  fusibility  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  quality  of  the  article.  For  repair¬ 
ing  most  filled  work,  very  easily  melted  solder 
is  required,  which  may  be  made  of  one  ounce 
fine  silver,  ten  pennyweights  hard  brass  wire, 
adding  two  pennyweights  zinc  just  before 
pouring  ;  or,  to  make  it  more  fusible,  use  bar 
tin  instead  of  zinc ;  or,  for  strong  silver 
solder,  use  only  the  silver  and  brass.  For 
repairing  most  bright  gold  work,  use  gold 
coin,  three  pennyweights ;  fine  silver,  three 
pennyweights ;  fine  copper,  two  penny¬ 
weights.  For  colored  work,  fine  gold,  one 
pennyweight ;  silver,  seventeen  grains  ;  cop¬ 
per,  twelve  grains ;  hard  brass  wire,  two 
grains. 

A  good  solder  for  repairing  spectacles  or 
other  steel  work  is  made  by  melting  together 
equal  parts  of  silver  and  copper.  In  solder¬ 
ing  steel,  plenty  of  borax  should  be  used. 

Very  often  the  want  of  a  rolling  mill  is  a 
great  obstacle  to  the  making  of  solder,  but 
it  may  be  flattened  very  thin,  although  not 
with  great  regularity,  by  pouring  into  a  flat 
piece  of  wood,  and  putting  the  flat  surface 
of  a  piece  of  iron,  while  it  is  still  in  a  melted 
condition ;  a  piece  of  cigar  box  is  good  to 
pour  it  on,  as  the  odor  emitted  is  not  very 
disagreeable,  and  the  solder  may  be  melted 
in  the  hollow  of  a  piece  of  charcoal,  by  using 
gas  and  a  blow-pipe. 

For  cleaning  colored  gold,  a  mixture  of 
one  pound  sal  soda,  one  pound  chloride  of 
lime,  and  one  quart  of  water  will  be  found 
useful ;  it  should  be  placed  outside  the  build¬ 
ing  after  mixing,  and  when  settled,  the  liquor 
poured  off  and  the  sediment  thrown  away ; 
with  great  care  this  may  be  used  for  cleaning 
gilt  bronzes,  and  cheap  gold,  and  plated  jew¬ 
elry,  but  caution  is  necessary,  as  it  will  cor¬ 
rode  brass  very  rapidly. 

To  remove  lead  solder  from  badly  repaired 
jewelry,  place  the  piece  in  muriatic  acid  and 
leave  it  till  the  lead  is  eaten  away.  It  is  al¬ 
ways  best  to  heat  the  piece  gently  and  brush 
off  the  lead,  while  melted,  before  subjecting 
the  piece  to  the  action  of  the  acid,  as  too 
long  a  steeping  is  not  desirable. 


1 29 

Set  pearls,  which  have  become  discolored 
by  wear,  may  often  be  improved  by  placing 
in  a  covered  vessel  with  a  mixture  of  whiting, 
ammonia  and  water,  and  permitting  them  to 
remain  a  few  hours. 

A  good  powder  for  cleaning  jewelry,  silver 
watch  cases,  etc..,  is  made  by  mixing  about 
four  parts  of  whiting  with  alcohol  or  water ; 
this,  it  will  be  found,  is  easily  brushed  out 
of  crevices,  engravings,  etc.  Many  are  not 
aware  of  the  fact  that  the  gold  and  the  jet 
jewelry,  which  has  been  worn  so  much  for 
years,  can  be  hard  soldered  with  easy  run¬ 
ning  solder  without  removing  the  jets,  but  it 
is  easily  accomplished  by  coating  the  gold 
with  ocher,  and  laying  the  piece  with  the  jets 
up  while  soldering,  care  being  taken  not  to 
smoke  the  jets;  an  alcohol  lamp  is  perhaps 
preferable  to  gas  for  this  purpose,  but  in 
most  cases  gas  answers  best  for  soldering. 


THE  ART  OF  ENAMELING. 

HEN  an  enameler  lives  at  a  convenient 
distance,  it  is  better  to  send  your  work 
to  him  ;  this,  however,  is  not  always  possible, 
as  these  artisans  are  generally  to  be  found 
only  in  large  cities,  and  for  obvious  reasons, 
a  certain  piece  of  work  requiring  his  assist¬ 
ance,  cannot  always  be  sent  to  him.  In  such 
cases,  it  is  well  if  the  country  jeweler  knows 
how  to  help  himself,  and  any  intelligent 
workman  will,  by  the  exercise  of  a  little  com¬ 
mon  sense,  soon  attain  the  necessary  skill. 
This  article  is  intended  to  give  him  simple 
and  practical  instruction  in  the  method. 

Enamel  is  a  glass  which  fuses  at  a  lower 
degree  of  heat  than  the  ordinary  kind  ;  it  is 
manufactured  in  so  many  ways  and  of  so 
many  different  compositions  that  to  give  all 
the  formulas  would  lengthen  this  article  inordi¬ 
nately.  The  basis  consists  generally  of  silica 
(quartz  powder  or  white  sand),  carbonate  of 
soda,  and  oxides  of  tin  and  lead,  and  the 
different  colors  are  produced  by  metallic  ox¬ 
ides  ;  consequently  enamels  are  of  a  metallic 
nature. 

The  colors  of  the  enamel  are  liable  to 
change  on  silver,  and  on  copper  they  will 
generally  turn  bluish  and  greenish  around  the 
edge ;  to  prevent  this,  a  ground  of  white- 
enamel  is  fused  on  first.  The  colors  do  not 
change  on  gold,  and  this  metal  is  therefore 
suited  best  for  the  purpose ;  reddish  gold  is 
the  handsomest  of  all  alloys. 

To  prevent  the  chipping  of  the  alloy,  al¬ 
ways  prepare  a  fresh  alloy  of  gold,  to  be  of 


130 


THE  ART  OF  ENAMELING. 


at  least  14  karats.  To  prevent  the  chipping 
of  the  enamel  on  hollow  articles,  strengthen 
them  from  behind  with  so-called  counter¬ 
enamel. 

CLEANING  THE  SILICA. 

The  silica  best  suited  for  the  basis  (the  frit 
or  fritz)  is  colorless  quartz  (rock  crystal), 
which  is  heated  and  thrown  into  water,  to 
make  it  vitreous  ;  it  is  next  pulverized  finely. 
If  the  operator  desires  to  use  white  quartz 
sand,  it  must  be  cleansed  first.  This  is  done 
by  pouring  over  it  equal  parts  of  hydrochloric 
acid  and  water ;  it  is  left  to  stand  for  several 
days  and  then  washed  with  water  ten  to 
twenty  times.  In  a  test  melting  of  a  sample, 
with  the  other  necessary  ingredients,  a  pure 
white  mass  that  shows  no  shade  of  green 
must  result ;  if  such  is  not  the  case,  the  sand 
still  contains  traces  of  iron. 

The  sand  may  also  be  purified  by  mixing 
it  with  one-fourth  of  its  weight  of  table  salt, 
and  glow-heating  it  in  a  plumbago  crucible. 
The  peroxide  of  iron  present  and  the  table 
salt  decompose  each  other  and  form  chloride 
of  iron,  which  evaporates,  while  the  soda  en¬ 
ters  into  combination  with  the  silica. 

MAKING  THE  FRIT. 

'The  glow-heated  mass  may,  by  mixing 
with  red  lead  and  smelting,  be  reduced  at 
once  into  a  frit,  which  represents  a  glass  of 
lead,  soda  and  silica.  Take :  Quartz  sand, 
100  parts;  table  salt,  25  parts;  and  smelt 
with  red  lead,  25  parts.  The  soda  (carbon¬ 
ate  of  soda)  used  in  enameling  must  also  be 
free  from  iron.  The  chalk  used  for  the  same 
purpose  must  be  perfectly  white  ;  yellow  spots 
betray  the  presence  of  peroxide  of  iron,  and 
a  product  made  with  it  would  be  useless. 

I  PREPARING  THE  PEROXIDES  OF  TIN  AND 
LEAD. 

The  white  coloring  substance  in  the  base 
or  frit  is,  as  already  stated,  generally  peroxide 
of  tin,  to  which  peroxide  of  lead  is  also  added 
occasionally.  This  peroxide  of  tin  is  on  a 
large  scale  generally  prepared  by  smelting  2 
parts  tin  and  1  part  lead  in  a  very  flat  por¬ 
celain  dish  over  live  coals,  and  heating  the 
alloy  beyond  the  point  of  fusion.  This  alloy 
will  soon  be  coated  with  a  white  (yellow  in 
heat)  skin  of  peroxide,  which  is  with  a  glass 
rod  pushed  to  one  side,  when  a  new  film  is 
formed,  and  this  is  continued  until  all  the 
metal  has  been  oxidized.  The  oxide  is  then 
separated  by  washing  it  from  the  metallic 


parts.  It  is  more  advantageous,  however, 
to  do  as  follows :  The  tin  and  lead,  reduced 
to  small  pieces,  are  treated  in  a  porcelain 
dish  with  concentrated  nitric  acid ;  the 
metals  are  violently  affected  thereby,  and 
evolve  brown  vapor ;  the  lead  is  dissolved, 
while  the  tin  is  changed  into  a  white  powder 
— the  peroxide  of  tin.  Corrosion  being  fin¬ 
ished  (no  more  brown  vapor  must  evolve,  on 
the  addition  of  nitric  acid),  the  whole  is 
slowly  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  the  white 
pieces  of  the  mass  are  glow-heated  in  a  cru¬ 
cible  ;  the  nitrate  of  lead  dissociates  and 
forms  peroxide  of  lead,  and  in  this  manner  a 
mixture  of  pure  peroxide  of  tin  and  peroxide 
of  lead  is  obtained.  If  the  operator  desires 
to  produce  peroxide  of  tin  alone,  he  can  treat 
the  tin  with  nitric  acid,  and  after  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  brown  vapor  has  ceased,  heat  the 
fluid  to  boiling, — finally  obtaining  the  powder 
of  the  tin  peroxide,  which  he  dries. 

Useful  mixtures  for  the  production  of  frit 
can  be  composed  in  the  following  propor¬ 
tions  : 

I. 

Tin  (oxidized),  2  parts ;  lead  (oxidized),  1 
part.  Of  this  mixture  take  1  part,  melted  with 
crystal  glass  2  parts,  and  saltpeter,  o.i  part. 
The  saltpeter  is  for  the  purpose  of  converting 
any  traces  of  very  strongly  (green)  coloring 
protoxide  of  iron  into  the  much  less  strongly 
(yellow)  coloring  peroxide  of  iron. 

II. 

Crystal  glass,  30  parts;  antimoniate  of 
soda,  10  parts;  saltpeter,  1  part.  This  frit 
contains  no  peroxide  of  tin. 

The  above  specified  substance,  obtained 
by  the  smelting  of  table  salt,  quartz  sand, 
and  minium,  is  a  colorless  glass ;  in  order  to 
change  it  into  white  enameling  mass,  the 
weight  of  the  glass  of  peroxide  of  tin  is 
added.  If  a  frit  of  an  especially  high  color¬ 
ing  capacity  is  desired,  the  quantity  of  the 
tin  is  still  increased  5,  10,  or  20  per  cent. 

SMELTING  THE  FRIT. 

In  the  melting  of  the  frit,  blistery  lumps 
of  an  unequal  color  are  obtained  first ;  some 
places  are  highly  transparent,  while  others  are 
perfectly  white,  being  charged  with  the  per¬ 
oxide.  In  order  to  correct  this  inequality, 
the  substance  is  to  be  powdered  and  smelted ; 
repeating  this  operation  until  the  color  is 
uniform.  The  greatest  cleanliness  is  neces¬ 
sary  in  these  various  remeltings ;  neither 


THE  ART  OF  ENAMELING. 


.ashes  nor  fire  gases  must  in  any  manner  be 
permitted  to  enter  into  the  crucible,  as  the 
result  would  be  a  miscolored  enamel. 

By  pouring  the  fusing  mass  of  enamel  in 
a  thin  stream  into  cold  water,  it  will  by  the 
sudden  cooling  off  become  so  brittle  that  it 
can  be  pulverized  readily.  As  above  stated, 
the  enameling  mass  is  to  be  fused  repeatedly, 
until  the  color  is  perfectly  uniform.  Only 
when  this  is  produced,  it  is  pulverized  as 
finely  as  possible,  and  by  crushing  reduced 
to  an  impalpable  powder. 

The  frit  produced  by  the  above  detailed 
formulae  is  either  used  by  itself  or  else  as  a 
basis  for  certain  other  colors.  In  the  former 
case,  it  is  frequently  used  as  smelt  for  the 
manufacturer  of  watch  dials  or  used  on  arti¬ 
cles  of  copper,  silver,  and  gold,  which  receive 
thereby  the  appearance  of  porcelain.  Beau¬ 
tiful  specimens  of  art  objects  of  this  kind, 
especially  bonbonnieres  and  jewelry  boxes, 
were  in  the  17th  century  manufactured  by 
French  artists  ;  they  are  still  sought  and  pur¬ 
chased  at  high  prices  by  collectors. 

If  the  frit  is  to  be  smelted  upon  sheet  silver 
or  gold,  it  is  necessary  only  to  apply  enough 
to  just  cover  the  metallic  ground.  When 
copper  or  bronze  plates — and  for  larger 
enamel  pictures  copper  is  almost  always  used 
— are  to  be  coated,  a  thicker  coating  of  the 
frit  is  to  be  applied. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  FRIT. 

By  comparing  a  sheet  of  gold  and  one 
•of  copper,  on  both  of  which  the  frit  was 
■applied  equally  thick,  the  latter  metal  will 
appear  only  bluish  or  greenish  white.  By 
chipping  off  a  corner  of  the  coating,  this 
will  be  found  green  on  the  side  to  the  metal, 
because  when  fused  on,  it  dissolved  a  little 
of  the  copper.  This  may  be  prevented  by 
making  the  frit  coating  a  little  heavier.  This 
is  applied  upon  the  well  polished  metal  sur¬ 
face,  moistening  this,  and  dusting  the  frit 
powder,  tied  in  a  linen  rag,  very  uniformly 
upon  it.  .  This  done,  the  spots  which  are  not 
to  be  enameled  are  cleaned  from  the  frit,  and 
this  is  fused.  1 

FUSING. 

It  is  best  to  perform  this  operation  at 
once ;  if  it  cannot  be  done  at  the  time,  the 
article  must  be  very  carefully  protected 
against  dust  or  accidental  rubbing  off  of  the 
loose  powder.  The  fusing  is  always  per¬ 
formed  in  the  muffle  ;  if  the  article  has  curved 
•surfaces,  great  care  is  necessary,  because  the 


*3* 

readily  fusible  mass  will  soon  be  so  fluid  that 
it  leaves  the  higher  places,  and  the  metallic 
face  will  show  at  these  places,  while  at  the 
places  where  the  coating  is  thicker,  it  is  apt 
to  chip  off. 

VARIOUS  FORMULAE  FOR  COMPOUNDING  FRITS. 

Certain  colors  can  at  once  be  applied  upon 
this  basis ;  they  are  those  which  fuse  at  a 
high  temperature,  without  altering  their 
color;  these  are  especially  blue  (protoxide 
of  cobalt),  dark  red  (peroxide  of  iron  and 
alumina),  black  (protoxide  of  iron),  and 
brown  (peroxide  of  iron).  The  other  colors, 
however,  cannot  stand  the  high  temperature 
necessary  for  smelting  the  frit,  and  change 
their  hue.  If,  therefore,  enamel  paintings 
are  to  be  made  upon  the  white  frit,  a  color¬ 
less  covering  frit,  consisting  of  an  easily  fusi¬ 
ble  glass,  has  to  be  applied  first.  Such  a 
covering  frit,  suitable  for  every  color,  is  com¬ 
pounded  according  to  the  following  formula : 

Frit  No.  1. 

Parts  by  weight. 


Quartz  powder . 60 

Alum  (free  from  iron) . 30 

Table  salt . 35 

Minium . 100 

Magnesia . 5 


This  mixture,  which  in  its  composition  is 
equal  to  a  lead  glass,  can  be  made  still  more 
fusible  by  decreasing  the  quantity  of  the 
alum  one-half ;  the  degree  of  fusibility  is  still 
increased  by  leaving  the  alum  out  entirely. 

For  very  sensitive  colors,  especially  those 
produced  with  purple  of  cassius,  from  rose  to 
deep  purple,  it  is  better  to  use  the  following 
covering  frit,  which  smelts  easily,  and  exerts 
no  influence  upon  even  the  most  delicate 
hues. 

Frit  No.  2. 

Parts  by  weight L 


Quartz  powder . 3 

Washed  chalk . 1 

Calcined  borax . 3 


Many  enamel  painters  work  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  fuse  upon  the  basis  the 
covering  frit,  and  execute  the  painting  upon 
this ;  the  work,  however,  may  be  simplified 
by  melting  the  covering  frit  at  once  with  the 
color,  and  painting  with  this  mixture.  The 
frit  then  fuses  together  with  the  color,  and 
adheres  to  the  basis. 

For  producing  these  painting  colors,  the 
pulverized  covering  frit  is,  by  washing, 
changed  into  a  very  fine  powder,  mixed  with. 


i32 


THE  ART  OF  ENAMELING. 


the  corresponding  color  in  very  definite  pro¬ 
portions,  and  the  whole  is  smelted  in  small 
crucibles.  The  fused  mass  is  then  pulverized 
and  washed  again,  and  can  be  used  for  paint¬ 
ing.  It  is  evident  that  in  this  manner  the 
fused  color  is  only  of  one  deep  shade ;  in 
order  to  have  graduation  the  composition  is 
to  be  toned  down  by  an  addition  of  colorless 
covering  frit,  and  it  is  advisable  to  prepare 
an  assortment  of  ten  shades,  calling  the  un¬ 
adulterated  substance  No.  i  ;  a  somewhat 
lighter  shade  is  obtained  by  smelting  90  parts 
of  No.  1  with  10  parts  of  the  colorless  frit; 
No.  3  is  composed  of  80  parts;  Nos.  1  and 
20  of  the  latter,  etc.  In  order  to  be  certain 
of  the  effects  produced  by  each  number,  it 
is  well  to  prepare  a  sample  plate  with  the  ten 
numbers.  The  painter  must  often  have  more 
than  these  ten  grades,  and  he  must  then  rely 
on  his  skill  and  practice  to  prepare  interme¬ 
diate  ones,  to  be  produced  in  the  same  man¬ 
ner  as  the  first. 

The  colors  ground,  with  lavender  oil,  are 
applied  upon  the  covering  frit  with  a  brush. 
The  picture,  when  finished,  is  next  subjected 
to  fusing,  and  the  greatest  amount  of  care 
must  be  exerted  in  this  process,  because  by 
a  slightly  incautious  treatment,  at  the  last 
moment  when  about  finished,  the  -whole  work 
may  be  utterly  ruined.  The  muffle,  in  which 
the  enamel  picture  is  to  be  fused,  must  be 
only  warm  enough  to  smelt  the  covering  frit ; 
the  article  is  first  gradually  warmed,  because 
by  a  precipitate  heating  the  enamel  layer 
might  crack  on  account  of  the  unequal  de¬ 
gree  of  expansion  of  the  latter  and  of  the 
metal.  The  pre-heated  article  is  then  in¬ 
serted  into  the  muffle,  and  left  in  it  until  the 
covering  frit  arrives  at  a  state  of  fusion,  and 
unites  with  the  base  frit.  By  an  unduly 
strong  heating  the  covering  frit  becomes  so 
highly  fluid  that  the  individual  colors  merge 
into  each  other,  and  the  picture  does  not 
have  any  clear  and  plain  contours,  but  looks 
blurred,  which,  of  course,  deteriorates  the 
value  of  the  small  delicate  pictures  which  are 
occasionally  used  as  ornaments  on  jewelry. 

THE  ENAMELING  WITH  ENAMEL  PASTE. 

From  above  details  of  the  work  necessary 
for  enamel  painting,  it  will  be  seen  that  this 
art  is  very  laborious,  and  requires  consider¬ 
able  amount  of  attention ;  it  is,  therefore, 
appropriate  only  on  high-class  jewelry.  It  is 
often  desirable,  however,  to  use  enamel  on 
lower-grade  jewelry,  and  this  may  be  done 
by  using  the  so-called  enamel  paste.  This 


consists  of  a  covering  frit, 

which,  by  a  suit- 

able  variation  of  mixture  proportions,  has  had 
imparted  to  it  a  lower  degree  of  fusion  ;  for 

instance,  according  to  the 

following  propor- 

tions : 

Parts  by  weight ~ 

Silicious  (quartz)  sud. 

Chalk . 

. 3° 

Calcined  borax . 

Minium . 

. 10-30 

Tin  oxide . 

. 5-9° 

This  charge,  after  having  been  smelted,  is 
powdered  coarsely  and  again  smelted  with 
the  addition  of  such  pigments  as  stand  a  high 
degree  of  heat.  Colored  masses,  which,  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  pigment  used,  show  a  superior 
or  inferior  degree  of  intensity,  for  instance, 
protoxide  of  cobalt  produces  shades  from 
light  forget-me-not  blue  to  the  darkest  pansy- 
blue  ;  sesquioxide  of  iron  and  alumina  dark 
red ;  a  large  quantity  of  protoxide  of  iron 
makes  a  black,  etc.  These  color  pastes  are 
in  a  smelted  condition  poured  into  water, 
powdered,  and  for  large  surfaces  they  are 
fused  in  the  muffle,  while  for  smaller  ones, 
they  are  simply  fused  with  the  blow-pipe. 
Before  applying  the  enamel  paste,  the  pre¬ 
viously  brightened  surface  is  moistened  with 
borax  solution  ;  the  mass  is  then  applied,  first 
heated  over  live  coals,  in  order  to  evaporate 
the  water,  and  then  fused.  The  entire  work 
of  enameling  is  performed  at  one  operation. 

THE  ENAMEL  COLORS. 

The  enamel  painter  has  at  his  disposal 
quite  a  large  list  of  colors,  and  by  suitable 
mixtures  he  is  able  to  compose  any  shade 
desired.  His  paints  are : 

For  white  :  Oxide  of  tin. 

For  yellow:  Oxide  of  antimony,  antimo- 
nious  potash,  antimoniate  of  potash,  antimo- 
niate  of  lead,  oxide  of  silver,  oxide  of  iron, 
oxide  of  uranium. 

For  red:  Oxide  of  iron  and  alumina,  so¬ 
dium  and  chloride  of  gold,  chloride  of  tin 
and  chloride  of  gold,  purple  of  Cassius. 

For  orange  :  A  mixture  of  yellow  and  red ; 
brown  pigments. 

For  green:  Oxide  of  copper,  oxide  of 
chrome  or  protoxide  of  iron. 

For  blue :  Protoxide  of  cobalt,  silicate  of 
cobalt  (so-called  smalt),  zoffre. 

For  violet:  Oxide  of  manganese. 

For  brown:  Oxide  of  iron. 

For  black:  Protoxide  of  iron  in  larger 
quantities. 

We  omit  describing  the  processes  used  for 


THE  ART  OF  ENAMELING. 


*3.5 


compounding  colors  with  these  oxides  and 
other  chemical  combination,  their  manufact¬ 
ure  not  being  the  work  of  the  enamel  painter 
or  goldsmith,  but  of  the  chemist.  If,  how¬ 
ever,  there  are  those  who  desire  further  in¬ 
formation,  The  Jewelers’  Circular  will 
most  cheerfully  furnish  it  on  application. 

The  writer  closes  with  a  few  remarks  con¬ 
cerning  the  proportions  to  be  observed  be¬ 
tween  the  covering  frit  and  the  different 
colors,  and  these  apply  specially  to  these 
colors  prepared  from  gold  preparations. 

The  gold  preparations  are  distinguished  by 
their  great  affinity  for  being  reduced  into 
metallic  gold.  If  in  consequence  of  an  in¬ 
correct  treatment  a  gold-containing  enamel 
color  should  be  reduced  into  the  metal,  the 
enameler  will  have,  in  place  of  the  light  red 
or  dark  purple,  according  to  the  color,  a 
more  or  less  dark  brown  spot  with  metallic 
luster,  consisting  of  finely  divided  gold.  It 
is  necessary,  therefore,  to  fuse  gold  prepara¬ 
tions  at  as  low  a  degree  of  heat  as  possible, 
and  they  must  never  be  applied  immediately 
upon  a  base  containing  lead  or  tin,  nor  must 
they  be  brought  into  contact  with  a  covering 
mass  containing  lead.  If,  consequently,  the 
enameler  desires  to  make  the  most  of  his 
gold  color,  he  must  coat  the  white  covering 
mass  with  a  covering  free  from  lead,  and 
execute  the  painting  with  gold  color  only 
upon  this ;  the  latter,  as  above  said,  is  to  be 
fused  on  only  at  a  very  low  heat. 

Pigments,  such  as  oxide  of  cobalt,  oxide 
of  chromium,  and  all  iron  colors,  which 
withstand  any  degree  of  heat  with  impunity, 
are  very  easily  treated ;  the  composition  of 
both  base  and  covering  frit,  as  well  as  the 
temperature  used  for  fusing  them,  has  no  in¬ 
fluence  on  them.  Copper  pigments  are  more 
sensitive,  and  antimony  and  silver  are  more 
so,  being  altered  by  an  unduly  strong  heat. 
Silver  colors  also  are  easily  reduced  into  the 
metal,  and  in  this  condition  form  a  gray  spot 
with  a  metallic  luster. 

If,  therefore,  easily  reducible  preparations 
are  to  be  fused  together  with  the  glass 
charges  which  are  to  be  colored  with  them, 
it  is  evident  that  great  care  is  necessary. 
Gold  purple  is  in  small  quantities  mixed  most 
intimately  with  highly  fine  pulverized  borax 
3  parts,  chalk  i  part,  and  pulverized  quartz 
3  parts ;  the  mass  is  filled  into  a  glazed  and 
covered  porcelain  crucible,  which  is  placed 
into  a  larger  one,  equally  covered  ;  these  two 
crucibles  are  used  for  the  sake  of  keeping  out 
.the  fire  gases,  and  fused  at  as  low  a  tempera¬ 


ture  as  possible.  The  dark  red  mass  is  pul¬ 
verized,  washed  and  made  of  a  corresponding 
lighter  color  by  a  suitable  addition  of  frit 
of  the  last  mentioned  composition  (3  quartz 
flour,  3  borax,  and  1  chalk). 

For  the  antimony  and  silver  preparations, 
mixtures  are  composed  of  easily  fusible  lead 
glasses,  and  the  preparations,  together  with 
one-half  their  weight  of  the  whole  mass  of  sal- 
ammoniac,  and  very  gradually  heated  to  the 
fusing  point.  The  addition  of  the  sal-am¬ 
moniac  is  only  for  the  purpose  of  not  rais¬ 
ing  the  degree  of  heat  too  high ;  when  the 
temperature  has  risen  to  the  point  at  which 
the  sal-ammoniac  volatilizes,  it  remains  at  the 
point  at  which  the  latter  evaporates,  this  salt 
making  use  of  all  the  heat  for  volatilizing  it. 

The  preceding  is  about  the  description  of 
the  process,  together  with  the  formula  as  em¬ 
ployed  on  the  continent,  France  and  Italy. 
We  next  append  that  employed  in  England. 

ENGLISH  ENAMELING. 

Enamels  are  vitreous  or  glassy  substances, 
used  by  metal  workers  for  producing  various 
designs  for  useful  or  ornamental  purposes. 
Enamels  as  applied  to  metals  have  a  trans¬ 
parent  colorless  base,  and  when  required  for 
use,  a  color  is  readily  given  to  it  by  the  ad¬ 
dition  of  metallic  oxides,  of  which  the  follow¬ 
ing  formulae  have  been  selected  as  the  most 
useful : 

Frit  No.  1. 

Red  lead . 10  parts. 

Flint  glass . 6  parts. 

Saltpeter . 2  parts. 

Borax . .' . 2  parts. 

CONCLUSION. 

Frit  No.  1,  in  English  enameling,  is  com¬ 
posed  of  red  lead  10  parts,  flint  glass  6  parts, 
saltpeter  2  parts,  and  borax  2  parts.  Fuse 
this  mixture  well  in  a  crucible  for  some  time, 
then  pour  it  out  into  a  jar  of  water,  collect 
the  residue,  and  afterward  reduce  it  to  a 
powder  in  an  agate-ware  mortar  and  preserve 
for  future  use. 

Frit  No.  2. 


Metallic  tin . 8  parts. 

Metallic  lead . 2  parts. 


Fuse  this  composition  in  an  iron  ladle  at  a 
dull  red  heat ;  carefully  remove  the  oxide 
which  will  form  upon  the  surface,  taking  care 
also  to  obtain  it  quite  free  from  the  pieces  of 
metal  which  have  escaped  oxidation,  and  re- 


THE  ART  OF  ENAMELING. 


3  34 

duce  as  before  to  a  fine  powder.  Then  take 
of  this,  calcine  4  parts,  silica  8  parts,  salt¬ 
peter  2  parts,  common  salt  2  parts.  Well 
mix  and  partly  fuse  in  a  clay  crucible ;  the 
fewer  number  of  times  this  is  fired  the  firmer 
it  will  be. 

Frit  No.  3. 

Broken  crystal  goblets  ...12  parts. 


Calcined  borax . 4  parts. 

Glass  of  antimony . 2  parts. 

Saltpeter . 1  part. 


Melt  this  mixture  after  the  manner  recom¬ 
mended  for  No.  1.  Break  up  and  again 
melt,  as  the  flux  improves  by  repeated  melt¬ 
ing.  The  above  enamel  fluxes  are  admirably 
adapted  to  form  the  basis  of  enamels  for  gold 
work.  They  may  be  made  more  fusible  by 
increasing  the  proportion  of  borax ;  and  by 
the  latter  substance  the  fusibility  of  all 
enamels  may  be  increased  at  pleasure ;  but 
too  free  a  use  of  it  is  an  obstacle  to  the  work 
of  the  artist. 

Frit  No.  4. 


Flint  glass,  powdered. ...  16  parts. 

Pearl  ash . 6  parts. 

Common  salt . 2  parts. 

Calcined  borax . 1  part. 


Let  the  ingredients  be  well  melted  together, 
and  afterward  finely  broken  into  powder; 
and  pre  ‘erved  ready  for  the  additional  color¬ 
ing  mixture  of  enamel. 

Frit  No.  5. 


Silicious  sand . 12  parts. 

Calcined  borax . 12  parts. 

Glass  of  antimony . 4  parts. 

Saltpeter . 1  part. 

Chalk . 2  parts. 


Mix  and  fuse  as  before  explained ;  grind 
into  very  fine  powder  and  re-melt ;  this  op¬ 
eration  may  be  judiciously  repeated  several 
times. 

We  have  only  so  far  described  enamels, 
and  given  directions  for  the  bases  of  them ; 
variety  of  design  in  color  is  produced  by  the 
addition  of  some  metallic  oxide,  which  ef¬ 
fects  the  change  according  to  the  kind  em¬ 
ployed.  These  oxides  should  be  used  as 
sparingly  as  possible,  because  some  of  them 
will  not  stand  the  chemical  process  of  color¬ 
ing  or  even  boiling  without  a  bloom  coming 
over  them.  A  good  black  enamel  may  be 
made  by  taking  the  following  ingredients : 


BLACK  ENAMEL. 

Frit  No.  5 . 14  parts. 

Peroxide  of  manganese ...  2  parts- 
Fine  Saxony  cobalt . 1  part. 

BLUE  ENAMEL. 

Frit  No.  4 . 24  parts. 

Fine  Saxony  cobalt . 5  parts. 

Saltpeter . 1  part. 

RED  OR  CRIMSON  ENAMEL. 

Frit  No.  3 . 8  parts. 

Purple  of  Cassius,  or . r  part. 

Red  oxide  of  copper . 1  part. 

WHITE  ENAMEL. 

Oxide  No.  2 . 1  part. 

Fine  crystal,  j . 2  parts. 

Peroxide  of  manganese . . .  part. 

GREEN  ENAMEL. 

Frit  or  flux  No.  1 . 36  parts. 

Oxide  of  copper . 2  parts. 

Red  oxide  of  iron . Tx7  part. 

YELLOW  ENAMEL. 

White  lead . 2  parts. 

White  oxide  of  antimony.  .  x  part. 

Sal-ammoniac . . 1  part. 

Alum . 1  part. 


For  the  last  mentioned,  pound  each  of  the- 
ingredients  separately  in  a  mortar  and  mix 
well  together ;  then  carefully  submit  them  to 
a  heat  sufficient  to  decompose  the  sal-am-. 
moniac  (chloride  of  ammonia) ;  this  color  can 
be  tested  in  the  melting,  and  will  do  when 
the  yellow  is  properly  brought  out. 

Enamel  may  be  made  deeper  in  color  by 
a  further  addition  of  oxide  than  that  given 
for  producing  the  respective  tints.  For  in¬ 
stance,  if  a  very  intense  blue  is  required  add 
half  a  part  of  zaffre  to  the  other  ingredients. 
For  black,  the  same  protoxide  of  iron,  zaffre 
or  black  oxide  of  copper ;  but  the  latter  is- 
not  so  good  as  the  others.  For  red,  the  red 
oxide  of  copper  may  be  employed ;  and  in 
yellow,  the  oxide  of  lead  must  be  used.  For 
green,  the  protoxide  of  iron  and  oxide  of 
chromium  may  be  sparingly  added  to  the 
transparent  flux. 

GENERAL  REMARKS. 

Enamels  may  be  prepared  and  kept  ready 
for  use  by  grinding  them  in  an  agate  mortar, 
and  then  placing  them  under  water  in  a 
covered  vessel.  Or  if  preferred,  they  may  be 
preserved  until  required,  in  the  lump,  as  they 


THE  ART  OF  ENAMELING. 


1 35 


are  formed  after  the  crucible  operation ;  if 
the  last-mentioned  plan  is  adopted,  then  they 
must  be  broken  with  a  rather  sharp-faced 
hammer,  and  pulverized  by  means  of  the 
previously  mentioned  pestle  and  mortar. 
When  this  has  been  done,  they  are  washed  in 
clean  water  until  all  extraneous  matter  has 
entirely  disappeared. 

The  work  which  has  to  receive  enamel 
must  be  specially  prepared.  This  is  done  in 
the  following  manner :  The  pattern  desired 
is  first  drawn  on  the  work  by  the  graver,  the 
ground  work  or  part  to  receive  the  enamel  is 
cut  down  very  evenly,  and  this  helps  to 
heighten  the  effect ;  in  the  case  of  transpar¬ 
ent  enamels,  the  ground  work  should  be  ex¬ 
tremely  smooth  and  bright.  After  the  work 
has  been  well  cleaned  by  washing  in  a  hot 
solution  of  soda,  soap  and  water,  and  dried, 
the  enamel  is  applied.  In  very  delicate 
cases  the  point  of  a  pen  is  used  for  this  pur¬ 
pose  ;  in  others,  a  knife  or  spatula  may  be 
substituted  with  advantage  ;  the  work  is  then 
fired  and  the  enamel  is  laid  on  as  many  times 
as  is  required. 

When  the  enamel  is  sufficiently  fused  the 
surplus  part  is  rubbed  off,  the  article  is  rinsed 
and  again  fired  in  order  to  close  the  pores. 
Great  judgment  is  required  with  regard  to 
this  operation,  as  too  long  an  exposure  to 
the  heat  of  the  furnaces  would  completely 
ruin  the  entire  work.  Different  shades  of 
color  require  different  degrees  of  heat,  and  a 
knowledge  of  this  can  be  acquired  only  by 
continual  practice ;  such  knowledge,  how¬ 
ever,  is  of  the  highest  importance,  because  in 
some  of  the  lower  qualities  of  gold,  the  fus¬ 
ing  point  of  the  enamel  is  so  near  that  of  the 
gold  that  there  is  great  danger  of  fusing  the 
one  along  with  the  other.  As  we  have  said 
before,  when  the  workman  finds  himself  beset 
with  these  difficulties,  a  small  addition  of 
borax  to  the  enamel  will  remove  these  de¬ 
fects  in  the  operation. 

Opaque  colors  require  a  slower  and  longer 
continued  heat  than  transparent  ones,  be¬ 
cause  the  base  generally  contains  lead,  tin,  or 
antimony.  In  transparent  colors  a  sharp, 
quick  heat  is  most  suitable,  which  must  be 
proportioned  to  the  extent  of  brilliancy  re¬ 
quired.  Opaqueness  may  be  given  to  black 
enamel  by  heating  the  work  to  a  dull  red 
after  it  has  passed  through  the  usual  process 
of  cleaning  ;  the  oxide  which  forms  upon  the 
surface  being  black  imparts  a  kind  of  dark¬ 
ness  to  the  color. 

In  the  case  of  transparent  enamels,  the 


ground  work  must  be  clean,  smooth,  and 
quite  bright ;  the  grooved  surface  being  com- 
.monly  run  over  with  a  polished,  half-round 
scorper,  to  make  the  effect  more  intense  and 
beautiful,  the  latter  quality  depending  to  a 
considerable  extent  upon  this  being  properly 
performed. 

By  varying  the  alloys  of  gold,  a  great  alter¬ 
ation  may  be  made  in  the  brilliancy  of 
enamel ;  for  example,  in  transparent  yellow 
and  green,  the  alloy  of  gold  should  be  rather 
pale ;  in  the  case  of  red,  the  reverse  should 
be  the  case. 

The  vertical  lapidary’s  wheel  is  now  much 
used  by  the  artificer  for  the  purpose  of  re¬ 
moving  the  surplus  enamel ;  and  by  the  ap¬ 
plication  of  wet  emery  it  is  rendered  clear 
and  smooth  ;  this  is  much  quicker  and  better 
than  the  old  method.  It  is  finished  upon  the 
buff  by  an  application  of  putty-powder  (oxide 
of  tin),  as  it  is  both  smoother  and  cuts  faster 
than  most  other  polishing  mixtures.  In 
England  enameling  is  a  separate  and  distinct 
craft,  and  is  altogether  an  art  in  itself ;  it  has. 
never  been  found  to  answer  well  where  tried 
by  ordinary  manufacturing  goldsmiths,-  the 
designs  and  colors  having  in  their  hands  too 
much  of  sameness  when  compared  with  those 
produced  by  the  professional  enameler.  The 
enameler,  to  take  high  rank  in  the  order,  must 
have  some  knowledge  of  designing,  engrav¬ 
ing,  and  chemistry ;  he  must  likewise  under¬ 
stand  the  alloys  of  gold  and  their  points  of 
fusion,  and  the  effects  of  coloring  the  work ; 
he  must  also  be  tolerably  conversant  with  the 
nature  of  the  workmanship  that  is  continually 
coming  under  his  charge  ;  and  all  this  knowl¬ 
edge  may  be  considered  quite  sufficient  to 
raise  the  art  to  a  distinct  branch  of  study 
and  practice. 

In  closing  our  remarks  on  the  preparation 
of  enamels,  colors,  and  fluxes,  and  their 
mode  of  application  to  gold  alloys,  we  de¬ 
sire  to  say  that  the  rules  or  directions  here 
given  have  been  selected  from  very  high 
authorities  in  the  trade,  and  we  trust  they 
will  be  found  equally  serviceable  to  those 
desirous  of  gaining  information  concerning 
enamels  and  the  art  of  enameling.  The  ex¬ 
act  work  cannot  well  be  described,  and  thor¬ 
ough  success  is  to  be  achieved  only  by  the 
exercise  of  good  taste,  and  by  long-continued 
practice  and  attention  to  the  craft. 

Where  diamonds  and  other  precious  stones 
are  employed  as  well  as  enamels,  work 
pertaining  to  the  latter  is  performed  first. 
Engraving,  chasing,  coloring,  and  lapping 


136 


FUSING  GOLD  DUST. 


are  subsequent  processes  of  the  goldsmiths’ 
art. 


TO  RESTORE  LUSTER  OF  GOLD 
ARTICLES. 

IGH  quality  gold  articles,  when-  their 
color  has  deteriorated,  can  be  restored 
to  their  primitive  beauty  by  the  application 
of  the  following  mixture.  It  is  thus  com¬ 
posed  : 

Sesquioxide  of  iron .  3  oz. 

Calcined  borax .  2  “ 

Chloride  of  ammonia .  1  “ 

Water  to  form  paste .  2  “ 

Well  mix  the  powdered  ingredients  to¬ 
gether  until  a  thick  and  even  paste  has  been 
formed,  then  take  the  work  and  either  dip  it 
into  the  mixture  or  otherwise  brush  it  over 
with  it,  care  being  taken  to  see  that  it  is  well 
covered  with  the  color.  The  articles  to  be 
brightened  are  then  taken  and  placed  upon  a 
copper  pan,  and  heated  over  a  clear  fire,  un¬ 
til  all  hissing  sound  has  ceased  and  the  ar¬ 
ticles  have  received  a  moderate  amount  of 
heat,  when  they  are  withdrawn,  placed  aside 
to  cool,  and  afterward  boiled  out  in  weak 
muriatic  acid  to  dissolve  the  coloring  salts 
adhering  to  the  surface.  Well  rinsing, 
scratching,  and  drying  completes  the  pro¬ 
cess.  This  produces  a  fine  and  high  color 
to  rich  gold,  if  the  alloy  is  of  a  deep  hue. 
It  may  also  be  used  for  restoring  the  color 
to  repaired  places  of  gold  chains,  which  have 
had  to  be  mended  after  the  color  has  been 
given  to  them,  and  when  it  is  not  safe  or 
economical  to  put  them  through  the  acid 
process  again.  After  the  soldering  has  been 
completed  take  a  little  of  the  above  compo¬ 
sition,  prepared  as  stated,  and  apply  it  to  the 
soldered  parts,  then  heat  the  parts  only  very 
gently  with  the  gas  jet  by  means  of  the 
mouth  blow-pipe,  allow  to  cool ;  next  dis¬ 
solve  the  adhering  flux  by  the  means  before 
stated,  slightly  scratch-brush  the  places  re¬ 
colored,  rinse,  and  dry,  after  which  the  even¬ 
ness  of  surface  will  be  completely  restored. 

Another  mixture  that  may  be  used  in  the 
same  manner,  consists  of  the  following  in¬ 
gredients  : 

ANOTHER  RECIPE. 


Sesquioxide  of  iron .  3  oz. 

Acetate  of  copper .  3  “ 

Calcined  borax .  1  “ 

Water  to  form  paste .  2  “ 


The  acetate  of  copper  should  be  well  dried 


before  using  it,  to  free  it  from  the  vinegar* 
or  it  will  probably  corrode  the  work.  In 
this  recipe  the  sesquioxide  of  iron  should  be 
the  red,  whereas  in  the  other  it  may  be  the 
yellow.  The  treatment  is  exactly  the  same 
as  that  in  the  one  above  described. 


CASTING. 

HE  goldsmith  or  watchmaker  often  has 
the  occasion  to  make  a  casting,  which 
is  easily  effected  in  the  following  manner : 
Make  a  model  of  the  article  desired  out  of 
lead  or  wood,  but  a  trifle  larger  than  neces¬ 
sary,  as  the  casting  will  lose  somewhat  in 
shrinking  and  hammering  ;  take  two  pieces  of 
cuttlefish,  and  fit  them  smoothly  together ; 
then  place  the  model  between  them,  gently 
press  equally  on  both,  whereby  you  will  re¬ 
ceive  a  good  imprint  of  the  model,  and  to 
prevent  a  possible  displacement,  fasten  them 
with  three  or  four  pins.  Take  them  apart, 
carefully  remove  the  model,  make  a  funnel- 
shaped  cut-in  for  casting,  and  bind  them 
together  with  wire.  Put  the  brass  into  a  cru¬ 
cible,  strew  borax  over  it,  and  if  you  are 
skillful,  you  will  obtain  a  nice  casting. 


GILDING  WITHOUT  A  BATTERY. 

BJECTS  which  are  not  exposed  to 
much  handling  may  in  a  short  time  be 
gilt  in  the  following  manner  without  employ¬ 
ing  the  electrical  pile.  In  boiling  distilled 
water,  dissolve  one  part  of  chloride  of  gold 
and  four  parts  of  cyanide  of  potassium.  The 
objects  will  in  a  short  time  be  covered  by  a 
handsome  gold  film,  by  leaving  them  in  the 
still  hot  bath  for  a  few  minutes,  and  by  hav¬ 
ing  them  attached  by  a  fine  copper  wire  se¬ 
cured  to  a  strip  of  clean  zinc. 


FUSING  GOLD  DUST. 

SE  such  a  crucible  as  is  generally  used 
for  melting  brass ;  heat  very  hot,  then 
add  your  gold  dust  mixed  with  powdered 
borax.  After  a  while  a  scum  or  slag  will  rise 
to  the  surface,  which  may  be  thickened  by 
the  addition  of  a  little  lime  or  bone  ash.  If 
the  dust  contains  any  of  the  more  oxidizable 
metals,  add  a  little  saltpeter,  skim  off  the  slag 
or  scum  very  carefully  ;  when  melted,  grasp 
the  crucible  with  strong  iron  tongs,  and  pour 
immediately  into  cast-iron  molds  slightly 
greased.  The  slag  and  crucible  may  be  after¬ 
ward  pulverized,  and  the  auriferous  matter 


TO  MAKE  GOLD  AMALGAM. 


l37 


recovered  from  the  mass  by  cupellating  by 
means  of  lead. 


TO  KNOW  PURE  GILDING. 

SOLUTION  of  chloride  of  copper  will 
show  the  difference  between  gilding 
for  which  gold  has  been  used  and  gilding 
with  alloys  of  inferior  metals.  If  the  gilding 
is  imitation  gold,  a  touch  of  the  solution  gives 
a  black  mark,  copper  separating  out  through 
the  zinc  in  the  yellow  metal ;  with  pure  metal 
no  discoloration  occurs.  The  test  can  also 
be  effected  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  gold 
or  nitrate  of  silver,  the  first  of  which  gives  a 
brown  spot,  the  second  a  gray  or  black  spot, 
neither,  of  course,  having  any  effect  on  gold. 
Common  gold  goods  of  14-karat  gold  do  not 
change  their  color  with  nitrate  of  silver. 
Leaf  gold  is  tested  by  being  shaken  up  in 
a  stoppered  bottle  with  sulphur  chloride. 
Beaten  gold  shows  no  alteration,  while 
“  metal  ”  leaves  grow  gradually  black. 

/  - 

TO  MAKE  CHLORIDE  OF  GOLD. 

AKE  five  pennyweights  of  fine  gold,  and 
after  rolling  out  to  a  thin  plate,  cut  it 
into  small  strips  or  pellets.  Get  an  olive 
flask  and  clean  it  well  with  a  warm  and  satu¬ 
rated  solution  of  soda  and  water.  Half  fill 
the  flask  with  water,  and  set  on  a  sand  bath 
over  a  heat  that  will  slowly  bring  the  w'ater 
to  boiling,  which  will  both  temper  and  test 
the  flask ;  if  it  stands  this  test,  it  is  fit  to  be 
used.  Put  the  gold  pellets  into  the  flask, 
then  mix  in  a  small  bottle  half  an  ounce  of 
pure  nitric  acid  and  two  ounces  of  muriatic 
acid,  and  pour  some  of  this  into  the  flask  to 
cover  the  pieces  of  gold ;  place  it  on  a  sand 
bath  over  a  gentle  heat,  and  put  over  the 
mouth  of  the  flask  a  small  piece  of  glass  to 
prevent  the  solution  from  spurting  out,  while 
in  action.  As  soon  as  the  acid  ceases  to  act 
on  the  gold,  and  if  any  remains  undissolved, 
add  a  little  of  the  mixed  acid,  and  continue 
to  add  little  at  a  time  as  often  as  it  stops  act¬ 
ing  on  the  gold  until  all  is  dissolved  ;  remove 
then  the  flask  from  the  sand  bath  and  let  it 
cool,  after  which  pour  in  it  about  the  like 
quantity  of  water,  and  boil  over  a  heated 
sand  bath  until  about  half  of  it  is  evaporated  ; 
remove  and  pour  the  solution  into  a  glass  or 
porcelain  dish,  and  rinse  the  flask  several 
times  with  small  quantities  of  warm  water, 
which  add  to  the  solution. 


NEW  INGOT  MOLDS. 

EW  ingot  molds  to  prevent  the  gold 
adhering  to  them,  should  be  well 
greased  before  using.  It  is  much  better  to 
close  them  and  pour  in  a  solution  of  salt  and 
water,  letting  them  remain  so  for  a  day  or 
two  before  using  them ;  this  causes  oxida¬ 
tion,  or  rust,  of  the  surfaces,  and  is  an  excel¬ 
lent  preventive  to  the  gold  sticking,  which 
is  sometimes  found  .to  be  so  obstinate  as  to 
cause  chipping  of  the  mold,  thus  rendering 
it  thereafter  useless. 


HOW  TO  DISTINGUISH  REAL  GOLD. 

TINY  drop  of  mercury  rubbed  on  some 
corner  of  the  surface  to  be  examined 
will  produce  a  white,  silvery  spot  if  the  gold 
is  pure  or  if  there  is  gold  in  the  alloy.  If  this 
silvery  spot  does  not  appear,  there  is  no  gold 
in  the  surface  exposed.  To  prove  the  cor¬ 
rectness  of  this  result,  a  drop  of  the  solution 
of  nitrate  of  mercury  can  be  dropped  on  the 
surface,  when  a  white  spot  will  appear  if  the 
gold  is  counterfeit,  w'hile  the  surface  will  re¬ 
main  unaltered  if  the  gold  is  genuine.  After 
the  operation,  heating  the  article  slightly  will 
volatilize  the  mercury  and  the  spots  will  dis¬ 
appear. 


WHITE  COLOR  AFTER  PICKLING. 

HE  white  color  after  pickling  may  be 
due  either  to  heating  the  article  too 
much  or  too  long,  or  to  keeping  it  too  long 
in  the  pickle.  In  the  former  case,  the  alloy 
or  copper  is  oxidized  deeply  into  the  article, 
and  when  removed  by  the  pickle  it  leaves 
only  the  silver  on  the  surface.  In  the  latter 
case,  keeping  the  article  too  long  in  the 
pickle  has  the  same  effect,  by  eating  away 
the  copper  too  deeply.  The  color  may  be 
restored  by  scouring  and  polishing  till  the  sil¬ 
ver  coating  is  removed  and  the  solid  metal 
is  brought  to  the  surface.  Then,  if  the  nat¬ 
ural  color  of  the  gold  is  too  light,  it  must  be 
colored  either  by  plating  with  gold,  or  by  the 
coloring  process. 


TO  MAKE  GOLD  AMALGAM. 

IGHT  parts  of  gold  and  one  of  mercury 
are  formed  into  an  amalgam  for  plating, 
by  rolling  the  gold  into  thin  plates,  heating  it 
red  hot  and  then  putting  it  into  the  mercury, 
while  this  is  also  heated  to  ebullition.  The 
gold  immediately  disappears  in  combination 


FROSTING  AND  COLORING  GOLD. 


138 


•with  the  mercury,  after  which  the  mixture 
may  be  turned  into  water  to  cool.  It  is  then 
ready  for  use.  _ 

GOLD  FRICTION  POWDER. 

THE  following  is  an  advice  given  by  an 
expert :  I  use  a  gold  friction  powder, 
which  I  find  very  handy  in  removing  or 
covering  over  spots  on  gold  or  plated  articles 
where  the  plate  is  worn  off,  and  where  I  do 
not  care  to  dip  the  articles  in  a  solution.  I 
dissolve  twenty-four  grains  of  fine  gold  (coin) 
in  one-half  ounce  of  nitro-muriatic  acid,  and 
then  absorb  the  acid  with  a  clean  blotting 
paper.  When  the  paper  is  thoroughly  dry  I 
burn  it  and  pulverize  the  ashes,  which  I  rub 
on  the  bare  spots  with  chamois  skin  moistened 
with  water.  The  spots  should  first  be  well 
cleaned,  the  same  as  for  plating  with  a  bat¬ 
tery,  to  resist  the  deposition  of  gold  upon 
them. 


TO  REMOVE  TIN  FROM  THE  STOCK. 

JUST  previous  to  pouring  the  gold, 
throw  a  small  piece  of  corrosive  sub¬ 
limate  into  the  pot,  stir  well  with  a  long 
piece  of  pointed  charcoal,  and  allow  the  pot 
to  remain  on  the  fire  for  about  half  a  minute 
afterward.  This  will  take  tin  from  the  alloy ; 
gold  containing  tin  will  not  roll  without 
cracking.  To  remove  emery  or  steel  filings 
from  gold,  add  a  small  piece  of  glass-gall 
while  melting ;  it  will  collect  them  in  the 
flux. 


TO  SEPARATE  GOLD  FROM  SILVER. 

THE  alloy  is  to  be  melted  and  poured 
from  a  height  into  a  vessel  of  cold 
water,  to  which  a  rotary  motion  is  imparted. 
By  this  means  the  alloy  is  reduced  to  a  finely 
granulated  condition.  The  metallic  substance 
is  then  treated  with  nitric  acid,  and  gently 
heated.  Nitrate  of  silver  is  produced,  which 
can  be  reduced  by  any  of  the  known  meth¬ 
ods,  while  metallic  gold  remains  as  a  black 
mud,  which  must  be  washed  and  smelted. 


TO  POLISH  GOLD  ARTICLES. 

EIGHTEEN  karat  articles  and  upwards 
from  bright  alloys ,  will  present  a  bright, 
mirror-like  appearance  by  well  polishing  all 
over,  inside  and  out,  with  pumice  and  emery, 
then  with  oil  and  rotten-stone,  and  finally 
finishing  upon  the  buff  with  a  little  rouge  of 
the  best  quality,  and  a  touch  or  two  of 
grease.  Work  high  in  quality  finished  in 


this  manner,  requires  no  gilding  or  coloring 
to  put  a  superior  surface  to  it ;  and  when  it 
is  well  washed  out  with  soap  in  a  hot  solution 
of  potash  or  soda  it  looks  very  beautiful  and 
rich.  The  bright  alloy  for  18  karats  is  com¬ 
posed  as  follows:  Gold,  fine,  15  dwts.  3 
grains ;  silver,  2  dwts.  2  x  grains ;  copper 
wire,  3  dwts.  Add  2  grains  of  copper  per 
ounce  for  loss  in  melting.  The  two  grains 
of  copper  added  for  melting  loss  will  be 
found  to  be  an  advantage,  since  it  keeps  the 
alloy  more  uniform  as  to  its  original  weight, 
and  the  cost  per  ounce  is  more  certain  and 
regular.  _ 


FROSTING  AND  COLORING  GOLD. 


FOR  i 5- to  18-karat  gold  the  work  should 
be  well  polished,  first  with  glass  paper, 
then  with  crocus  and  oil  used  on  a  circular 
brush  revolving  on  a  lathe  spindle.  Wash 
out  clean  with  soap  and  hot  water  with  soda,, 
and  dry  in  hot  boxwood  sawdust.  Take  2 
parts  saltpeter,  1  part  alum,  1  part  common 
salt ;  reduce  them  all  to  powder,  place  them 
in  a  rather  large  crucible  or  a  proper  color- 
pot  of  plumbago  and  set  over  a  gas  jet ;  add 
a  very  little  water  to  moisten  and  allow  the 
whole  to  dissolve,  stirring  occasionally  to  pre¬ 
vent  burning.  While  this  is  dissolving,  set  a 
kettleful  of  water  on  the  fire  to  boil.  Take 
the  gold  articles  out  of  the  sawdust ;  dust 
away  any  particle  of  the  latter  and  anneal 
the  articles,  attaching  each  one  separately  to 
a  silver  wire  (which  may  be  thin),  and  twist 
all  the  articles  up  into  a  bundle  and  tie  the 
ends  of  wires  on  to  a  stick  of  cane  or  fire¬ 
wood,  allowing  the  goods  to  be  colored  to 
be  spread  out  slightly.  By  this  time  the  in¬ 
gredients  will  have  boiled  up  into  a  froth. 
You  must  so  arrange  that  this  effect  is  pro¬ 
duced,  regulating  the  heat  to  produce  that 
effect  by  the  time  you  are  ready. 

Now,  dip  the  bunch  of  goods  into  the 
color-pot,  thoroughly  immersing  them,  and 
keep  them  moving  gently  for  five  minutes ; 
then  withdraw  and  pour  boiling  water  from 
the  kettle  over  them  to  rinse,  holding  them 
at  the  same  time  over  a  pipkin  to  catch  the 
rinsing. 

Now,  pour  about  1  ounce  of  boiling  water 
in  the  color-pot,  allow  that  to  froth  up,  dip 
the  bunch  again,  move  about  for  four  min¬ 
utes  and  rinse  as  before ;  add  2  ounces  of 
water,  dip  again  for  three  minutes  and  rinse  ; 
add  now  3  ounces  of  water,  let  it  froth  up, 
dip  for  two  minutes  and  rinse  ;  add  4  ounces 
of  water  and  rinse  as  before  ;  then  5  ounces  of 


TO  RECOVER  THE  GOLD  LOST  IN  COLORING. 


water,  re-dip  for  one  minute  and  rinse  for  the 
last  time. 

The  operation  of  coloring  is  now  complete. 
Remove  the  goods  from  the  wires,  and  boil 
them  in  a  pickle  of  nitric  acid  and  water  for 
a  few  minutes  and  afterwards  in  plain  water, 
throwing  away  the  water  when  it  boils  and 
replacing  it  with  cold.  The  goods  are  now 
ready  for  frosting. 

Have  a  very  fine  scratch-brush  mounted 
on  the  lathe,  with  an  arrangement  for  drop¬ 
ping  size  water  on  the  front  or  top  of  the 
brush ;  set  the  lathe  going  and  hold  the  ar¬ 
ticle  so  that  the  ends  of  the  wires  of  the 
brush  just  touch  it ;  drive  it  fast  and  turn  all 
parts  of  the  work  to  the  action  of  the  revolv¬ 
ing  brush.  _ 

TO  CAST  IN  FISH-BONE. 

EINRICH  SCHULTZE  says  in  Die 
Goldschmiedekunst  that  the  manner  of 
casting  in  fish-bone  has  been  explained  re¬ 
peatedly  in  that  and  other  technical  journals. 
It  will,  however,  have  happened  occasionally 
that  the  cast  has  not  turned  out  well,  a  cir¬ 
cumstance  readily  induced  partly  by  the  way 
of  pouring  and  again  by  the  condition  of  the 
mold.  Brass  foil  is  sometimes  recommended 
for  producing  a  compact  cast ;  indeed,  it  is 
very  good,  but  the  copper  percentage  of  the 
alloy  is  increased  unnecessarily,  since  the  zinc 
only  influences  the  compactness  of  the  ingot. 
For  about  80  parts  14-karat  gold,  or  50  to 
60  parts  18-karat  gold — the  same  proportions 
hold  good  for  silver — 1  part  good  pure  zinc 
sheet  rolled  together,  dipped  in  sal-ammoniac 
water  or  soldering  fluid,  heated  and  immersed 
into  the  clear  molten  metal,  does  the  same 
services,  and  does  not  alter  the  nature  of  the 
alloy  as  it  evaporates  again. 

A  bad  cast  is  caused  both  by  pouring  when 
too  cold  or  too  hot,  as  well  as  by  a  bad  mold. 
After  the  mold  has  been  made  ready  and 
provided  with  air  ducts  and  hole  for  casting, 
and  when  ready  to  be  laid  together,  take  a 
camel’s-hair  brush  and  coat  everything  with 
a  concentrated  solution  of  borax  or  boracic 
acid ;  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  minutes,  when 
the  surface  has  become  fairly  dry,  repeat  the 
coating,  this  time,  however,  taking  a  concen¬ 
trated  solution  of  water  gloss,  either  diluted 
one-half  with  water  or  borax  solution  ;  do  it 
as  carefully  as  possible,  so  that  no  small  lump 
remains  adhering  anywhere,  or  in  order  not 
to  injure  the  sharp  corners ;  then  dry  over  a 
small  lamp,  place  together  and  lay  the  mold 
where  it  is  warm.  If  wood  cores  are  to  be 


139 

laid  in,  they  are  each  separately  laid  into  the 
water-gloss  solution,  and  after  drying,  are 
placed  into  the  mold. 

It  may  perhaps  not  be  known  to  every¬ 
body  how  it  is  possible  to  cast  holes  in  a  cer¬ 
tain  object ;  for  instance,  the  bezel  hole  of  a 
ring.  The  pattern  for  it  is  fully  finished,  and 
the  more  perfectly  it  is  smoothed  and  bur¬ 
nished  the  nicer  will  be  the  cast.  When  the 
corresponding  holes  have  been  cut  in,  fit  into 
it  a  wooden  mold  of  the  requisite  shape — 
round,  square,  oval — but  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  projects  a  few  millimeters  so  that  the 
plug,  after  the  ring  or  model  has  been  re¬ 
moved,  may  again  be  laid  exactly  into  the 
imprinted  place ;  these  projecting  parts  are 
then  slightly  rounded  off  in  order  to  be  in¬ 
serted  and  withdrawn  readily.  Now  bind 
the  mold  together  and  carefully  close  the 
casting  hole  with  silk  paper ;  drive  also  some 
of  it  between  the  sides  in  case  they  should 
stand  together  with  only  little  hold ;  then 
place  the  model  obliquely  into  a  small  vessel 
filled  with  fine  sand,  so  that  the  former  is 
filled  nearly  as  far  as  the  opening.  The  sand 
may  also  be  heated  previously,  or  else  the 
vessel  may  be  heated  afterward  to  a  degree 
borne  by  the  fish-bone,  both  for  the  purpose 
of  drying  them  and  expelling  the  air  as  much 
as  possible.  When  the  metal  is  clear  and 
ready  for  coating  and  the  operator  is  certain 
that  the  mold  is  thoroughly  dry,  pour.  Ex¬ 
perience  makes  the  expert,  and  experience  is 
necessary  to  know  the  right  time  when  to 
pour.  If  the  metal  is  too  cold  the  cast  is 
faulty ;  if  too  hot,  it  becomes  blistery ;  it 
may  also  occur  that  the  cast  looks  to  be 
nice  and  smooth,  but  when  worked  places 
cave  in  caused  by  holes  and  blisters  within. 
Therefore,  remember :  first,  a  good  heat, 
next,  have  the  crucible  closely  before  the 
mold,  and  as  soon  as  the  brightness  of  the 
molten  metal  disappears  and  a  film  is  about 
to  form  on  it,  cast  quickly,  and  my  word  for 
it  vou  will  cast  with  as  much  success  in  fish¬ 
bone  as  you  will  in  sand.  The  placing  of 
the  mold  in  sand  is  for  the  purpose  of  pre¬ 
venting  the  running  through  of  the  metal. 


TO  RECOVER  THE  GOLD  LOST  IN 
COLORING. 

ISSOLVE  a  handful  of  sulphate  of  iron 
in  boiling  water,  then  add  this  to  your 
“  color  ”  fluid,  and  it  will  precipitate  the 
small  particles  of  gold.  Now  draw  off  the 
fluid,  being  very  careful  not  to  disturb  the 


140 


CYANIDE  OF  GOLD. 


auriferous  sediment  at  the  bottom.  Then 
proceed  to  wash  the  sediment  from  all  trace 
of  acid  with  plenty  of  boiling  water ;  it  will 
require  three  or  four  separate  washings,  with 
sufficient  time  between  each  to  allow  the 
water  to  cool  and  the  sediment  to  settle,  be¬ 
fore  pouring  off  the  water.  Then  dry  in  an 
iron  vessel  by  the  fire,  and  finally  fuse. 


RECOVERY  OF  GOLD  FROM  SOLU¬ 
TION. 

AN  easy  method  to  recover  gold  from 
solutions,  particularly  from  old  toning- 
baths  of  photographers,  has  been  made 
known  by  Fr.  Haugk.  It  consists  in  filtering 
the  solution  into  a  white  glass  flask,  or  bottle, 
making  it  alkaline  with  sodium  carbonate, 
and  then  adding,  drop  by  drop,  a  concen¬ 
trated  alcoholic  solution  of  aniline  red  (fuch- 
sine),  until  the  liquor  is  of  a  deep  strawberry 
color.  The  flask  is  then  exposed  to  the  sun¬ 
light  for  six  or  eight  hours,  at  the  end  of 
which  all  the  gold  still  present  will  have  been 
precipitated  as  a  dark  violet  color,  and  the 
liquor  will  have  become  colorless.  After 
pouring  off  the  liquor  the  flask  with  the  pre¬ 
cipitate  is  kept  until  a  fresh  quantity  of  solu¬ 
tion  has  to  be  precipitated,  and  this  is  con¬ 
tinued  until  the  deposit  in  the  flask  is  suffi¬ 
ciently  large  to  make  it  worth  while'  to  re¬ 
move  it.  It  is  then  transferred  to  a  filter, 
washed,  dried,  and  burned  with  the  filter. 
The  residue,  containing  the  filter-ash,  is  dis¬ 
solved  at  a  gentle  heat  in  aqua  regia,  filtered, 
and  the  solution  evaporated  to  dryness.  The 
quantity  of  impurity  caused  by  the  simul¬ 
taneous  solution  of  the  filter-ash  is  too  insig¬ 
nificant  to  be  objected  to. 


TO  CLEANSE  GOLD  TARNISHED  IN 
SOLDERING. 

HE  old  English  mode  was  to  expose 
all  parts  of  the  article  to  a  uniform 
heat,  allow  it  to  cool,  and  boil  until  bright  in 
urine  and  sal-ammoniac.  It  is  now  usually 
cleaned  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  The  pickle 
is  made  in  about  the  proportion  of  one-eighth 
of  an  ounce  of  acid  to  one  ounce  of  rain 
water.  _ 

FACETIOUS  GOLD. 

T  is  averred  that  the  following  recipes 
will  produce  alloys  of  metals  so  nearly 
resembling  genuine  gold  as  to  almost  baffle 
goldsmiths  without  a  resort  to  thorough  tests. 


Fuse  together  with  saltpeter,  sal-ammoniac, 
and  powdered  charcoal,  4  parts  platinum, 
2  y2  parts  pure  copper,  1  part  pure  zinc,  2 
parts  block  tin,  and  1  y2  parts  pure  lead. 
Another  good  recipe  calls  for  2  parts  plati¬ 
num,  1  part  silver,  and  3  parts  copper. 


TO  COLOR  SOFT  SOLDER. 

HE  following  is  a  method  for  coloring 
soft  solder  so  that  when  it  is  used  for 
uniting  brass  the  colors  may  be  about  the 
same :  First  prepare  a  saturated  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper — blue  stone — in  water, 
and  apply  some  of  this  on  the  end  of  a  stick 
to  the  solder.  On  touching  it  then  with  an 
iron  or  steel  wire  it  becomes  coppered,  and 
by  repeating  the  experiment  the  deposit  of 
copper  may  be  made  thicker  and  darker. 
To  give  the  solder  a  yellow  color,  mix  one 
part  of  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of 
zinc  with  twTo  of  sulphate  of  copper ;  apply 
this  to  the  coppered  spot  and  rub  it  with  a 
zinc  rod.  The  color  can  be  still  further  im¬ 
proved  by  applying  gilt  powder  and  polish¬ 
ing.  On  gold  jewelry  or  colored  gold  the 
solder  is  first  coppered  as  above,  then  a  thin 
coat  of  gum  or  isinglass  solution  is  laid  on 
and  bronze  powder  dusted  over  it,  making  a 
surface  which  can  be  polished  smooth  and 
brilliant  after  the  gum  is  dry. 


CYANIDE  OF  GOLD. 

YANIDE  of  gold  is  formed  by  cau¬ 
tiously  adding  a  solution  of  cyanide  of 
potassium  in  six  parts  of  water,  to  a  neutral 
solution  (that  is  to  say,  not  containing  any 
free  acid)  of  terchloride  of  gold,  as  long  as 
a  yellow  precipitate  settles  down  ;  if  more 
cyanide  of  potassium  is  added,  the  precipi¬ 
tate  becomes  dirty  yellow,  and  is  more 
quickly  deposited ;  a  still  larger  quantity 
renders  it  orange-yellow,  and  re-dissolves  it. 
It  is  a  crystalline  powder,  permanent  in  the 
air ;  by  ignition,  it  is  resolved  into  gold  and 
cyanogen  gas  ;  it  is  not  decomposed  by  sul¬ 
phuric,  hydrochloric,  or  nitric  acid,  or  by 
aqua  regia,  unless  freshly  precipitated,  and 
then  only  slowly.  It  is  not  decomposed  by 
sulphuretted  hydrogen ;  hydrosulphate  of 
ammonia  dissolves  it  slowly  but  completely, 
forming  a  colorless  solution,  from  which,  by 
the  addition  of  acid,  sulphide  of  gold  is  pre¬ 
cipitated.  It  dissolves  in  aqueous  solution 
of  ammonia,  hydrosulphite  of  soda  or  alkaline 
of  cyanides,  but  not  in  water,  alcohol,  or  ether. 


ACCIDENTS  IN  POURING. 


RECOVERING  GOLD  FROM  COLORING 
BATH. 

ISSOLVE  a  handful  of  sulphate  of  iron 
in  boiling  water,  and  add  it  to  .your 
“  color  ”  water ;  it  precipitates  the  small 
particles  of  gold.  Now  draw  off  the  water, 
being  very  careful  not  to  disturb  the  aurifer¬ 
ous  sediment  at  the  bottom.  You  will  now 
proceed  to  wash  the  sediment  from  all  trace 
of  acid  with  plenty  of  boiling  water ;  it  will 
require  three  or  four  separate  washings,  with 
sufficient  time  between  each  to  allow  the 
water  to  cool  and  the  sediment  to  settle,  be¬ 
fore  passing  off  the  water.  Then  dry  in  an 
iron  vessel  by  the  fire  and  finally  fuse  in  a 
covered  skittle  pot  with  a  flux. 


TO  MAKE  GOLD  TO  ROLL  WELL. 

O  cause  gold  to  roll  well,  melt  with  a 
good  heat,  add  a  tablespoonful  of  sal- 
ammoniac  and  charcoal,  equal  quantities, 
both  pulverized,  stir  up  well,  put  on  the 
cover  for  two  minutes,  and  pour. 


MELTING  AND  REFINING. 

N  melting  brass  gold  urge  the  fire  to  a 
great  heat  and  stir  the  metal  with  the 
long  stem  of  a  tobacco  pipe,  to  prevent 
honey-combing.  If  steel  or  iron  filings  get 
into  gold  while  melting,  throw  in  a  piece  of 
sandiver  the  size  of  a  common  nut ;  it  will 
attract  the  iron  or  steel  from  the  gold  into 
the  flux,  or,  subrimatq  of  mercury  will  destroy 
the  iron  or  steel.  _____ 

TO  RECOVER  GOLD  FROM  GILT 
METAL. 

AKE  a  solution  of  borax  water,  apply  to 
the  gilt  surface,  and  sprinkle  over  it  some 
finely  powdered  sulphur ;  make  the  article 
red  hot  and  quench  it  in  water ;  then  scrape 
off  the  gold  and  recover  it  by  means  of  lead. 


TO  REMOVE  GOLD. 

OLD  is  taken  from  silver  by  spreading 
over  it  a  paste  composed  of  pulverized 
sal-ammoniac  with  aqua  fortis,  and  heating  it 
till  the  matter  smokes  and  is  nearly  dry, 
when  the  gold  may  be  separated  by  rubbing 
with  a  scratch-brush. 


CLEANSING  MAT  GOLD. 

AKE  80  grams  chloride  of  lime,  80  gr.  of 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  20  gr.  table 
salt ;  pour  over  this  about  3  liters  distil’ed 


*4  r 


water,  and  fill  in  bottles,  to  be  kept  well 
corked.  For  use,  lay  the  dirty  articles  into 
a  dish,  pour  over  the  well  shaken  fluid,  let 
it  submerge  them,  leave  them  in  it  for  a  short 
time,  and  in  extra  cases  when  very  dirty  warm 
them  a  little.  Next  wash  the  articles,  rinse 
them  in  alcohol,  dry  them  in  sawdust,  and 
they  will  appear  like  new.  The  fluid  is  of 
no  further  use. 


PURE  GOLD. 

HE  Journal  de  Pharmacie  specifies  the 
following  method  for  preparing  pure 
gold :  Commercial  gold  is  dissolved  in  a 
mixture  of  4  parts  hydrochloric  and  1  part 
nitric  acid,  of  200  B. ;  the  obtained  white- 
colored  pasty  chloride  of  silver  is  filtered  off, 
and  the  filtrate  is  mixed  with  an  aqueous  solu¬ 
tion  of  antimony  chloruret,  to  which  so  much 
hydrochloric  acid  has  been  added,  that  no 
turbidity  is  produced  at  the  mixing  of  the 
solution.  The  reduction  is  effected  in  a  few 
hours,  especially  if  a  little  heat  is  used. 
The  gold  is  filtered  off,  washed  with  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid,  next  with  water,  and  fused 
with  a  little  saltpeter  and  borax.  The  mother 
liquors,  which  contain  antimony  chloride,  can, 
boiling  with  metallic  antimony,  be  again  re¬ 
duced  to  antimony  chloruret  and  again  used. 


ACCIDENTS  IN  POURING. 

OST  jewelers,  at  some  time  or  other  of 
their  experience,  may  have  met  with 
accidents  in  the  melting  and  pouring  of  their 
alloys,  such,  for  instance,  a  pot  cracking,  the 
spilling  or  the  upsetting  of  a  portion  of  the 
metal  from  the  crucible  into  the  fire.  The 
following  mode  of  recovery  of  lost  metal  we 
have  found  the  best  and  most  practical  in 
the  workshop,  with  the  ordinary  appliances 
usually  at  the  command  of  jewelers  and  gold 
workers.  Collect  the  whole  of  the  burnt 
coke,  ashes,  and  other  refuse  used  in  the 
smelting  operation  and,  first  of  all,  well  wash 
it  several  times  with  water,  to  remove  the 
dust  and  other  extraneous  matter ;  the  sedi¬ 
ment  left  behind  is  then  well  dried  and 
pounded  as  fine  as  possible  in  a  cast-iron 
mortar ;  it  is  afterwards  put  through  a  sieve 
as  fine  as  is  convenient  to  prevent  the  small 
particles  of  gold  from  going  through  the 
meshes  with  the  powdered  dust.  The  gold 
is  now  picked  at  this  stage  from  the  refuse 
in  a  sieve  ;  and  if  there  be  any  solid  particles 
of  refuse  still  unpounded,  it  is  put  through 
the  process  again.  It  is  very  seldom  4 hat 


142 


PREPARATION  OF  GOLD  SALTS. 


the  whole  of  the  gold  can  be  collected  when 
•once  split  into  the  fire,  but  the  larger  portion 
of  it  can  be  recovered  by  these  means.  The 
remainder  goes  into  the  scraps  to  be  treated 
by  the  refiner.  _ 

JEWELERS’  PICKLE. 

HE  usual  jewelers’  pickle  is  made  of  5 
parts  of  water  to  1  of  sulphuric  acid. 
When  something  is  wanted  that  will  “  take 
hold  ”  more  than  this,  a  little  muriatic  or 
nitric  acid  is  added  to  it.  For  Roman  col¬ 
ored  goods,  especially,  muriatic  acid  is  added. 
If  the  jeweler  has  trouble  with  a  gold  article, 
and  it  looks  green  or  white  after  being  in  the 
above  sulphuric  acid  pickle,  make  a  pickle  of 
strong  sulphuric  acid  and  saltpeter,  equal 
parts,  heat  it  boiling  hot,  hang  the  article  on 
a  hook  made  of  copper  wire  and  dip  in  the 
boiling  liquid,  then  wash.  If  the  color  is  not 
good,  repeat.  _ 

COLORING  TIN  SOLDER  YELLOW. 

CCORDING  to  the  Metal  Arbeiter ,  pre¬ 
pare  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper  in  water ;  into  it  dip  a  pegwood 
and  with  this  touch  the  soldered  place. 
Then  take  an  iron  or  steel  wire,  and  with  it 
touch  the  same  place,  whereby  it  will  be¬ 
come  coppered  at  once.  The  precipitate 
will  be  increased  by  repeating  the  operation. 
For  coloring  the  place  of  soldering  yellow, 
prepare  a  saturated  mixed  solution  of  one 
part  of  sulphate  of  zinc  and  two  parts  sul¬ 
phate  of  copper ;  with  this  touch  the  cop¬ 
pered  place,  and  then  touch  with  a  zinc  rod, 
whereby  a  precipitate  of  brass  is  produced ; 
in  order  to  improve  the  color,  the  place  may 
be  rubbed  with  gilding  powder  and  burnished 
with  a  steel.  On  gilt  or  colored  gold  articles, 
the  coppered  soldering  place  is  furnished 
with  a  thin  coating  of  mucilage  or  isinglass 
solution,  over  which  bronze  powder  is  strewn 
which  can  be  brushed  nice  and  smooth  after 
the  mucilage  solution  is  dry ;  or  else  the 
article  may  be  galvanically  gilt  again,  whereby 
a  uniform  color  is  produced.  The  coppered 
place  is,  on  silverware,  rubbed  or  brushed 
with  silvering  powder  ;  it  may  then  be  care¬ 
fully  scratched  and  polished. 


PREPARATION  OF  GOLD  SALTS. 

ERCHLORIDE  of  gold  is  formed  by 
dissolving  metallic  gold  in  a  warm 
mixture  of  one  measure  of  nitric  acid,  and 
from  two  to  three  measures  of  hydrochloric 


acid ;  the  mixture  is  called  aqua  regia.  The 
gold  dissolves  slowly  with  evolution  of  gas. 
When  it  is  all  dissolved,  evaporate  the  solu¬ 
tion  by  gentle  heat,  with  stirring,  until  it  is 
reduced  to  a  small  bulk  and  solidifies  on 
cooling.  The  residue  should  be  entirely 
soluble  in  water.  If  it  contains  a  white  sub¬ 
stance  which  will  not  dissolve,  it  is  chloride 
of  silver,  derived  from  traces  of  silver  in  the 
metal.  If  there  is  a  small  amount  of  yellow 
or  brown  residue,  one  of  the  salts  has  been 
overheated.  Such  residue  should  be  redis¬ 
solved  in  a  little  aqua  regia  and  evaporated 
to  dryness  again.  One  ounce  of  gold,  if  it 
is  in  small  fragments  or  thin  sheets,  will  re¬ 
quire  about  four  ounces  of  aqua  regia  to  dis¬ 
solve  it.  Chloride  of  gold  is  a  yellow  salt, 
and  dissolves  in  one  and  a  half  its  weight  of 
wrater.  If  it  is  properly  made,  it  contains 
one  atomic  weight  (196.6  parts)  of  gold  and 
three  atomic  weights  (106.5  parts)  of  chlo¬ 
ride,  and  its  composition  is  represented  by 
the  formula  AuC13.  One  troy  ounce  of 
gold  will  make  one  ounce  164^  grains  of 
the  chloride. 

Oxide  of  gold  is  obtained  by  digesting  a 
solution  of  the  chloride  with  an  excess  of 
calcined  magnesia,  washing  the  precipitate 
first  with  dilute  nitric  acid,  and  then  with 
water  only.  If  caustic  potash  or  soda  be 
used  instead  of  magnesia,  the  oxide  is  liable 
to  contain  some  of  the  alkali. 

The  terbromide  of  gold  may  be  formed  by 
digesting  oxide  of  gold  in  hydrobromic  acid, 
and  evaporating  the  solution  by  gentle  heat, 
stirring  until  it  solidifies  on  cooling. 

The  oxide  of  gold  forms,  on  addition  of 
aqueous  ammonia  or  of  solutions  of  carbon¬ 
ate  sulphate,  or  chloride  of  ammonia,  a  dark 
olive-brown  substance,  called  fulminate  of 
gold,  aurate  of  ammonia,  or  ammoniuret  of 
gold.  The  same  substance  is  also  formed 
on  adding  ammonia  or  a  solution  of  a  salt  of 
ammonia  to  a  solution  of  terchloride  of  gold. 
It  is  an  extremely  dangerous  substance  when 
dry,  and  detonates  with  the  least  friction  or 
percussion.  To  form  ammoniuret  of  gold, 
which  is  sometimes  used  in  electro-gilding 
baths,  convert  ten  parts  by  weight  of  gold 
into  the  solid  chloride.  Dissolve  that  salt  in 
water  and  add  to  the  solution  fifty  parts,  by 
weight,  of  the  strongest  aqueous  ammonia 
and  stir  the  mixture  ;  an  abundant  precipitate 
of  the  ammoniuret,  otherwise  called  fulminate 
of  gold,  is  produced  in  the  form  of  a  yellow¬ 
ish-brown  powder.  When  it  has  subsided, 
pour  .off  the  supernatant  liquid  and  fill  up 


WHITE  METAL  ALLOYS. 


143 


again  with  water,  and  repeat  this  several 
times,  until  the  precipitate  no  longer  smells 
of  ammonia.  The  water  contains  a  little 
gold,  and  is  reserved  for  recovery  of  that 
metal.  As  the  yellow-brown  precipitate, 
when  in  a  dry  state,  is  highly  explosive,  it 
should  never  be  allowed  to  get  dry,  and 
ought  not  to  be  prepared  until  the  time  of 
forming  a  gilding  solution  with  it.  Particles 
of  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  upon  the 
edges  of  the  vessels  nor  upon  filters  through 
which  the  wash-liquids  have  been  passed. 
To  remove  the  solid  salt  from  articles  we 
may  dissolve  it  in  a  solution  of  cyanide  of 
potassium.  Freshly  precipitated  wet  oxide 
of  gold  dissolves  in  a  solution  of  caustic  pot¬ 
ash,  to  form  aurate  of  potassium ;  the  solu¬ 
tion  is  yellow,  and  may  be  used  for  electro¬ 
gilding. 

Sulphide  of  gold  is  obtained  by  passing  a 
current  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  through 
a  solution  of  chloride  of  gold,  as  long  as  a 
precipitate  occurs ;  it  is  a  blackish,  brown 
powder.  _ 

WHY  GOLD  IN  JEWELRY  CHANGES 
COLOR. 

IT  is  well  known  that  the  human  body 
contains  humors  and  acids,  similar  in 
action  to  and  having  a  like  tendency  toward 
baser  metals,  as  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids 
have,  namely,  to  tarnish  or  dissolve  them, 
varying  in  quality  in  different  persons. 
Thousands  wear  continually,  without  any  ill 
effects,  the  cheaper  class  of  jewelry,  with 
brass  ear-wires,  while  if  others  wore  the  same 
article  for  a  few  days  they  would  be  troubled 
with  sore  ears,  or,  in  other  words,  the  acids 
contained  in  the  system  would  so  act  on  the 
brass  as  to  produce  ill  results.  Instances 
have  occurred  in  which  articles  of  jewelry  of 
any  grade  below  18  karats  have  been  tar¬ 
nished  in  a  few  days,  merely  from  the  above- 
named  cause.  True,  these  instances  are  not 
very  frequent ;  nevertheless,  it  is  as  well  to 
know  them.  Every  case  is  not  the  fault  of 
the  goods  not  wearing  well,  as  it  is  generally 
called,  but  the  result  of  the  particular  consti¬ 
tution  of  the  wearer. 


WHITE  METAL  ALLOYS. 

AS  so  much  depends  in  plating  on  the 
.  quality  of  the  metal  on  which  the  outer 
stratum  is  deposited,  both  with  respect  to  the 
appearance  of  the  goods  when  new  and  their 
durability  in  use,  the  importance  of  its  homo¬ 
geneity  can  hardly  be  over-estimated. 


_ At  good  deal  of  misapprehension  seems  to 

exist  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  term  “  nickel,” 
which  is  commonly  applied  (even  by  those 
who  are  well  aware  of  the  misnomer)  indis¬ 
criminately  to  all  kinds  of  white  metal  alloys. 
The  principal  alloy  of  nickel  is  German  silver, 
a  triple  compound  or  admixture  of  nickel,  cop¬ 
per,  and  zinc ;  although  another  alloy,  com¬ 
posed  of  nickel  and  copper  only,  is  also  in 
use,  chiefly  for  purposes  of  foreign  coinage, 
which,  however,  does  not  call  for  special  at¬ 
tention  here.  An  instructive  article  dealing 
with  the  above  subject  appears  in  a  recent 
issue  of  a  contemporary,  an  abstract  of  the 
principal  part  of  which  will  be  of  interest  to 
our  readers : 

The  casting  of  German  silver  is,  in  many 
respects,  similar  to  the  same  operation  with 
brass  ;  but  there  are  certain  important  differ¬ 
ences.  It  is  found  impossible  in  practice  to 
make  German  silver  by  one  melting  in  the 
pot,  the  high  and  sustained  temperature  nec¬ 
essary  to  bring  about  liquefaction  of  nickel 
causing  excessive  loss  of  the  low  melting  and 
volatile  zinc  (spelter).  For  this  reason  the 
nickel  is  always  alloyed  in  one  operation 
with  a  portion  of  the  copper,  and  the  zinc 
and  the  remainder  of  the  copper,  in  the 
form  of  brass,  are  added  in  a  separate  melting. 
It  is  the  invariable  rule  of  English  casting 
shops  to  make  one-and-one  “  mixing  ”  and 
one-and-one  brass  ;  “  mixing,”  it  may  be  ex¬ 
plained,  is  the  name  given  to  the  alloy  of 
copper  and  nickel.  This  alloy  is  made  in 
80-lb.  plumbago  crucibles  heated  in  a  wind 
furnace,  similar  to  the  square  section  furnaces 
employed  by  brass  casters,  and  fed  by  the 
best  hard  coke.  It  is  necessary  to  use  a 
good  coke,  since  nickel  alloys  are  much  de¬ 
teriorated  by  contamination  with  sulphur. 
About  an  hour  is  required  from  putting  in 
the  pot  to  pouring  the  metal,  and  the  tem¬ 
perature  must  be  very  high.  To  diminish 
oxidation,  and  also  to  refine  the  ingredients, 
more  particularly  the  nickel,  borax  is  always 
added  as  a  flux.  This  substance,  though  pos¬ 
sessing  many  of  the  properties  of  an  alkali 
when  in  aqueous  solutions,  has  powerful  acid 
properties  at  temperatures  beyond  redness. 
The  boracic  acid  it  contains  is,  like  silicic, 
a  feeble  acid ;  but  being,  like  the  latter  acid, 
fixed  in  the  fire,  it  manifests  important  prop¬ 
erties  at  these  higher  ranges  of  temperature, 
and  borax,  chemically  speaking,  contains  a 
more  than  normal  quantity  of  this  acid.  It 
will,  therefore,  be  understood  how  the  flux,  by 
inducing  a  kind  of  scorifying  action,  brings 


144 


WHITE  METAL  ALLOYS. 


about  a  partial  refining  of  the  contents  of  the 
pot.  Mixing  is  run  into  pigs  of  a  few  pounds 
weight,  and  each  of  these  should,  when  cold, 
present  an  upper  surface  somewhat  concave 
and  covered  with  transverse  wrinkles.  If 
the  metal  shows  a  smooth  and  bloated  con¬ 
vex  surface,  the  presence  of  impurities,  and 
more  particularly  of  sulphur,  may  be  inferred. 
The  casting  of  the  brass  for  German  silver 
making  differs  in  no  important  respect  from 
the  ordinary  manufacture  of  the  same  alloy 
for  sand  caster’s  use.  The  actual  making  of 
German  silver  begins  when  the  mixing  and 
the  brass  have  been  obtained.  For  pig 
metal,  that  is,  German  silver  intended  for  re¬ 
melting  and  casting  in  sand  molds,  it  is 
sufficient  to  mix  together  the  ingredients, 
fuse  under  a  layer  of  charcoal,  and  pour  into 
pig  molds ;  sometimes  a  little  tin  is  added, 
to  give  increased  whiteness  and  hardness. 
It  is  in  the  casting  of  strips  for  the  rolling- 
mill  that  the  special  skill  of  the  German  sil¬ 
ver  maker  comes  in.  Many  a  good  brass 
caster  has  tried  his  hand  at  German  silver 
strip  casting  and  failed,  although,  to  a  super¬ 
ficial  observer,  the  two  operations  are  identi¬ 
cal.  Both  alloys,  when  required  in  the  form 
of  sheets  or  wire,  are  cast  into  strips,  or,  in 
the  case  of  wire,  into  rods,  and  these  are  then 
reduced  to  the  finished  form  by  mere  me¬ 
chanical  manipulations.  But  a  German  sil¬ 
ver  strip,  or  wire  rod,  treated  exactly  as  a 
brass  one,  would,  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of 
a  hundred,  result  in  a  sheet  or  wire,  good, 
perhaps,  at  one  end,  but  unsound  through 
half  of  its  dimensions.  The  reason  is  to  be 
found  in  the  greater  shrinkage  of  the  nickel 
alloy  during  solidification,  and  the  remedy 
for  this  is  in  the  careful  “  feeding  ”  of  the 
ingot  during  cooling.  To  compound  Ger¬ 
man  silver,  of  whatever  quality,  certain 
weights  of  mixing  and  of  brass,  together  with 
a  smaller  quantity  of  copper,  are  necessary ; 
and  to  allow  for  loss  of  zinc  by  volatilization 
during  the  melting,  about  2  lbs.  of  spelter 
per  heat  for  low  qualities,  and  1  y2  lbs.  for 
the  better  qualities,  are  allowed,  the  heat 
being  about  80  lbs.  The  ingredients  are 
weighed  out  mixed  with  a  certain  quantity 
of  scrap,  and  placed  in  the  pot,  which  has 
been  already  heated  to  redness.  The  lumps 
of  new  metal  are  introduced  with  a  pair  of 
tongs,  and  the  scrap  by  means  of  a  long 
sheet-iron  funnel  reaching  into  the  furnace. 
A  few  pieces  of  charcoal  are  now  introduced, 
and  the  pot  covered  with  a  lid.  When  the 
charge  has  melted,  the  crucible  is  stirred  with 


an  iron  rod,  and  the  zinc  allowed  for  waste 
is  added,  the  pot  being  again  stirred.  Mean¬ 
while  the  ingot-molds  have  been  prepared 
and  placed  in  position.  The  molds  are  simi¬ 
lar  to  those  used  for  brass  and  are  of  two 
halves,  clamped  together  by  rings  and 
wedges.  The  molds  are  cleaned,  rubbed 
inside  with  oil,  and  dusted  with  powdered 
charcoal  (blacking).  T'he  caster  raises  the 
crucible  from  the  furnace,  and,  holding  it  in 
position,  pours  the  metal  into  the  receptacle, 
while  an  assistant  keeps  back  the  floating 
pieces  of  charcoal  with  an  iron  rod.  The 
mold  is  now  full  of  German  silver,  and  as 
the  portion  in  contact  with  the  cool  surface 
solidifies,  considerable  shrinking  takes  place, 
and  a  hollow  core  begins  to  appear  at  the 
upper  central  part  of  the  ingot.  The  skill  of 
the  workman  is  now  brought  to  bear  in  sup¬ 
plying  a  fine  stream  of  metal  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  such  a  core.  This  stream  is 
continued  for  some  time,  and  the  ingot  is 
thus  fed  until  the  last  portions  form  a  pro¬ 
jecting  button  at  the  center  of  the  upper  ex¬ 
tremity.  Mixing,  it  may  be  mentioned,  is 
always  made  in  plumbago  crucibles,  the 
charge  being  diminished  in  each  successive 
heat,  to  prevent  the  corrosive  flux  acting 
successively  upon  the  same  zone  of  the  pot. 
German  silver  is  melted  in  plumbago  pots,  or 
in  the  best  fire-clay  crucibles ;  the  latter  are, 
perhaps,  better  for  the  purpose,  since  they 
radiate  heat  with  less  rapidity,  and  remain 
hot  for  a  longer  time,  a  point  of  some  im¬ 
portance  when  the  pouring  takes  a  consider¬ 
able  time,  as  in  filling  ingots  for  wire  rods. 
If  the  ingots  are  intended  for  rolling  into 
spoon  strips,  the  nickel  need  not  be  of  the 
very  finest  quality,  because  such  strips  are 
thick,  and  destined  to  undergo  only  a  moder¬ 
ate  amount  of  mechanical  strain.  Into  metal 
of  this  kind  a  little  inferior  scrap,  filings,  etc., 
may  be  introduced  ;  but,  of  course,  it  must 
not  be  supposed  that  any  rubbish  will  answer 
the  purposes  of  the  spoon  and  fork  manu¬ 
facturer.  German  silver  that  is  destined  to 
undergo  the  trying  operations  of  raising, 
deep  stamping,  or  drafting,  must  be  com¬ 
pounded  of  the  best  brands  of  spelter,  such 
as  “  Upperbank,”  “  D.  &  Co.,”  and  of  best 
selected  copper ;  the  nickel  should  be  either 
grain  nickel  or  the  cake  nickel  made  by  the 
Nickel  Company.  A  brand  of  nickel  con¬ 
taining  varying  quantities  of  copper,  imported 
from  Sweden  in  the  form  of  powder,  also 
gives  very  good  results.  Only  a  limited 
quantity  of  the  best  “raising  metal”  scrap 


ALLOYS  OF  COMMON  SILVER  AND  IMITATION  ALLOYS. 


*45 


should  be  introduced ;  but  this  little,  if  good, 
has  a  tendency  to  improve  the  working  prop¬ 
erties,  although  the  reason  is  not  very  evi¬ 
dent.  The  ingots  of  raising  metal  are  now 
planed  on  the  flat  faces,  in  order  to  remove 
the  hard  skin  and  the  inequalities  which 
would  impair  the  surface  of  the  finished 
sheets ;  spoon  metal  is  usually  not  planed. 
When  the  metal  reaches  the  rolling-mill  it  is 
treated  cold,  in  a  similar  manner  to  brass, 
the  first  operation  being  known  as  “  breaking 
down.”  The  ingots  are  passed  diagonally 
between  very- powerful  rolls,  until  they  have 
attained  to  rather  more  than  the  breadth  of 
the  required  sheet  (to  allow  for  trimming), 
and  have,  at  the  same  time,  of  course,  in¬ 
creased  in  length.  This  treatment  is  fol¬ 
lowed  by  passages  longitudinally  through 


smaller  rolls.  From  time  to  time,  and  from 
the  outset,  the  metal  is  annealed  by  heating 
it  in  a  furnace  and  cooling  with  water ;  after 
each  annealing  the  scale  must  be  removed  by 
pickling  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  assisted  by 
scouring  with  fine  sand.  Sometimes  bright 
sheets  are  ordered,  and  when  this  is  the  case, 
the  final  pickling  is  done  with  aqua  fortis 
(nitric  acid).  The.  following  table  gives  the 
composition  of  the  various  qualities  of  Ger¬ 
man  silver ;  “  hollow-ware  ”  or  “  raising  met¬ 
al,”  it  will  be  noticed,  contains  proportionally 
less  zinc  and  more  copper  than  spoon  metal 
or  sand  caster’s  pig.  The  mixtures  of  the 
various  makers  vary  a  little,  some  using  more 
copper  than  others  per  unit  of  nickel ;  the 
former  qualities  are  somewhat  reddish,  while 
the  latter  have  a  yellowish  tinge. 


TABLE  I. — G.  S.  as  weighed  oat. 


Quality. 

Lbs.  per  heat. 

Percentages. 

Copper. 

Mixing. 

(1  &  1.) 

Brass. 

(1  &  1.) 

Copper. 

Zinc. 

Nickel. 

Best  best  ” . 

8 

34 

27 

5579 

19-56 

24-64 

A,”  “  hollow-ware  ” . 

6^4 

33A 

26^ 

54‘97 

20-07 

24-95 

■“  A  ” . 

9  A 

27/4 

33'A 

56-87 

23-73 

I9"38 

Special  ist  (spoon) . 

10 

29 

3° 

57-23 

21-73 

2I‘OI 

ist  spoon . 

1 1 

24 

3° 

58-46 

23-08 

18-46 

i  st  hollow- ware . 

18 

24 

2 1 

64.28 

i6-66 

19.05 

2d  spoon . 

8 

18 

40 

56-06 

3°'3° 

13-63 

2d  hollow-ware . 

1 5 

18 

29 

62-10 

23-38 

I4-5  1 

3d  spoon  and  3d  hollow-ware.  .  .  . 

8 

14 

42 

56‘25 

32-81 

10-93 

4th  spoon  and  4th  hollow-ware .  .  . 

8 

1 2 

48 

55-88 

35'3° 

8.82 

5th  spoon  and  hollow-ware  .' . 

io3A 

8*4 

5° 

57-76 

36-10 

6-13 

•“  Portland  ” . 

t'A 

6 

54 

55-58 

39-98 

4A4 

TABLE  II. — As  analyzed.  Results  iti  per  cent. 


Quality. 

Copper. 

Zinc. 

Nickel. 

Iron. 

Lead. 

Qual.  spec.  4th . 

—  5648  — 

33'1 1  - 

9-57  — 

"39 

-  '49 

u  ((  u 

—  56-08  — 

33-55  - 

9-56  — 

•39 

-  -36 

Sp.  ist  spoon . 

...  48-17  — 

29-28  .... 

2 1  -66  .... 

— 

....  — 

“  B.B.” . 

...  51-44  — 

24-47  - 

23-51  - 

— 

_  — 

“  B.B.” . 

...  52-90  — 

20-38  .... 

26-06  .... 

— 

_  — 

1 . 

—  64-32  .... 

23-98  - 

I  I  "2  I  .... 

— 

_  — 

2d  “  H.” . 

—  63-34  — 

22-64  ■  •  •  • 

13-58  - 

— 

_  — 

“  A  1  ” . 

....  54-70  — 

20-25  - 

23-67  - 

•75 

....  ‘26 

ALLOYS  OF  COMMON  SILVER  AND 
IMITATION  ALLOYS. 

HE  undermentioned  white  alloys  have 
their  various  uses  in  the  industrial  and 
mechanical  arts,  some  being  employed  as 
common  silver,  whilst  others  are  manufact¬ 


ured  as  near  as  possible  in  imitation  of  it, 
and  used  as  a  substitute,  for  many  purposes. 
In  melting  the  alloys  in  which  nickel  and 
several  other  compounds  enter  into  combina¬ 
tion,  unless  very  great  care  be  exercised,  it 
is  a  difficult  matter  to  maintain  the  true  and! 


146 


ALLOYS  OF  COMMON  SILVER  AND  IMITATION  ALLOYS.' 


definite  proportion  of  each  metal  of  which 
the  alloy  proper  is  composed,  owing  to  the 
loss  of  the  more  fusible  metal  by  volatiliza¬ 
tion,  if  allowed  to  remain  too  long  in  the 
furnace.  The  best  method  of  preparing  the 
compound  for  the  crucible  is  to  mix  the 
copper  and  nickel  together.  The  latter  is 
produced  from  the  pure  oxide  of  nickel ; 
therefore  it  is  taken  in  this  form  and  placed 
in  the  crucible  with  the  copper  at  the  com¬ 
mencement  of  the  operation.  When  these 
ingredients  are  well  melted,  and  incorpo¬ 
rated  by  stirring,  add  the  zinc  or  other  fusible 
metal  required  to  make  up  the  compound, 
previously  heating  it  thoroughly  over  the 
mouth  of  the  crucible,  to  prevent  the  chilling 
of  the  already  molten  metal  which  it  contains. 
When  silver  forms  a  component  part  in  any 
of  these  alloys  it  should  be  added  at  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  process  along  with  those  of 
high  degree  of  fusibility,  and  reduced  under 
the  protection  of  a  suitable  flux ;  charcoal 
being  the  best  for  the  purpose.  This  also 
tends  to  preserve  the  fusible  metals,  upon 
their  addition  to  the  melted  compound  in  the 
pot,  from  too  suddenly  flying  away  in  the 
shape  of  fumes.  The  best  zinc  of  commerce 
should  be  employed  in  these  alloys,  which  is 
sold  under  the  name  of  spelter. 

Common  silver  alloy: — 

Fine  silver,  1  oz. ;  shot  copper,  17  dwts. ; 
nickel,  13  dwts. 

Another :  fine  silver,  1  oz. ;  shot  copper, 
1  oz. ;  nickel,  1 5  dwts. 

Another :  fine  silver,  1  oz. ;  shot  copper, 
1  oz.  3  dwts. ;  nickel,  17  dwts. 

Another :  fine  silver,  1  oz. ;  shot  copper,  1 
oz.  6  dwts. ;  nickel,  19  dwts. 

Another :  fine  silver,  1  oz. ;  shot  copper, 
1  oz.  9  dwts. ;  nickel,  1  oz.  1  dwt. 

Another :  fine  silver,  1  oz. ;  shot  copper, 
1  oz.  12  dwts.;  nickel,  1  oz.  3  dwts. 

Another :  fine  silver,  1  oz. ;  shot  copper, 

1  oz.  1 5  dwts.  ;  nickel,  1  oz.  5  dwts. 

Another :  fine  silver,  1  oz.  ;  shot  copper, 

2  oz.  2  dwts.  12  grs. ;  nickel,  1  oz.  7  dwts. 
12  grs. 

Another :  fine  silver,  1  oz. ;  shot  copper, 

2  oz.  10  dwts.;  nickel,  1  oz.  10  dwts. 

Another:  fine  silver,  1  oz. ;  shot  copper, 

16  dwts.;  nickel,  10  dwts.  12  grs.;  spelter, 

3  dwts.  1 2  gr. 

Another:  fine  silver,  1  oz. ;  shot  copper, 
19  dwts;  nickel,  12  dwts.;  spelter,  4  dwts. 

Another :  fine  silver,  1  oz. ;  shot  copper, 
x  oz.  2  dwts. ;  nickel,  1 5  dwts. ;  spelter,  3 
dwts. 


Chinese  silver. — Shot  copper,  1  oz. ;  spel  - 
ter,  6  dwts. ;  nickel,  4  dwts. ;  cobalt,  3  dwts. 
18  grs. ;  silver,  18  grs. 

Imitation  silver. — Shot  copper,  1  oz.  , 
nickel,  6  dwts.  1 2  grs. ;  spelter,  4  dwts.  1 8 
grs. 

Another :  shot  copper,  1  oz. ;  spelter,  1 2 
dwts. ;  nickel,  8  dwts. 

Another :  shot  copper,  1  oz. ;  spelter,  8 
dwts. ;  nickel,  4  dwts. 

Another:  shot  copper,  1  oz. ;  spelter,  10 
dwts.;  nickel,  10  dwts. 

Another :  shot  copper,  1  oz. ;  nickel,  8 
dwts.  8  grs. ;  spelter,  6  dwts.  16  grs. 

White  alloy. — Shot  copper,  1  oz. ;  tin,  10 
dwts.  6  grs. ;  brass,  2  dwts.  1 2  grs. ;  arsenic, 
18  grs. 

Clark’s  patent  alloy. — Shot  copper,  1  oz.  , 
nickel,  3  dwts.  18  grs.;  spelter,  1  dwt.  22 
grs.;  tin,  12  grs.;  cobalt,  12  grs. 

White  alloy. — Shot  copper,  1  oz. ;  tin,  10 
dwts. ;  arsenic,  1  dwt. 

Alloy  with  platinum ;  fine  silver,  1  oz. ; 
platinum,  5  dwts. 

Alloy  with  palladium ;  fine  silver,  1  oz. ; 
palladium,  5  dwts. 

The  platinum  and  palladium  of  which  the 
last  two  alloys  are  composed,  although  very 
difficult  to  use  in  combination  with  any  other 
metal,  readily  unite  in  any  proportions  with 
silver ;  and  it  has  been  found  that  such  al¬ 
loys  are  not  so  easily  tarnished  as  the  ordinary 
ones,  or  even  as  fine  silver  itself.  These 
various  alloys  serve  to  effect  the  several  pur¬ 
poses  for  which  they  are  employed  in  manu¬ 
factures  ;  wires  prepared  from  any  of  them 
will  supply  the  place  of  silver,  as  brooch 
tongs,  stems  for  pins,  catches  and  joints,  etc., 
for  articles  of  common  quality  and  cheap 
workmanship.  They  are  also  employed  for 
preparing  the  ground  for  “  electro-plate  ”  for 
.which  they  are  very  serviceable.  When, 
however,  these  alloys  are  employed  by  the 
regular  silversmith,  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  get  the  scraps  of  metal  in  any  way  mixed 
with  those  of  the  better  material,  otherwise 
difficulties  will  soon  begin  to  present  them¬ 
selves,  which  will  materially  interfere  with 
the  regular  and  proper  working  of  the  best 
silver  alloys ;  and  in  fact,  with  all  qualities 
that  have  originally  been  prepared  free  from 
nickel.  Those  prepared  from  nickle  are 
much  more  infusible  than  those  made  without 
it ;  consequently,  if  a  piece  of  the  nickel  alloy, 
either  by  accident  or  design,  gets  intermixed 
with  the  other  quality,  in  a  subsequent  melt¬ 
ing,  it  will  be  found  to  float  on  the  surface  of 


SILVER  SOLDERS:  THEIR  USES  AND  APPLICATIONS. 


the  molten  metal  for  some  considerable  time 
and  thus  retard  the  process.  Alloys  prepttred' 
in  imitation  of  silver  are  harder  and  much 
more  difficult  to  work  than  those  of  the  true 
metal;  therefore  it  can  easily  be  imagined 
what  alteration  the  latter  undergo  upon  the 
addition  of  some  of  the  former  compounds. 
The  hardness  and  toughness  which  these 
alloys  possess  admirably  adapt  them  for  such 
purposes  as  we  have  described. 


SILVER  SOLDERS:  THEIR  USES 
AND  APPLICATIONS. 

OLDERING  as  applied  to  silversmith’s 
work  is  an  art  which  requires  great  care 
and  practice  to  perform  it  neatly  and  properly. 
It  consists  in  uniting  the  various  pieces  of  an 
article  together  at  their  junctions,  edges,  or 
surfaces,  by  fusing  an  alloy  specially  prepared 
for  the  purpose,  and  which  is  more  fusible 
than  the  metal  to  be  soldered.  The  solder 
should  in  every  way  be  well  suited  to  the 
particular  metal  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied, 
and  should  possess  a  powerful  chemical  affin¬ 
ity  to  it ;  if  this  be  not  the  case,  strong,  clean, 
and  invisible  connections  cannot  be  effected, 
whilst  the  progress  of  the  work  would  be 
considerably  retarded.  This  is  partly  the 
cause  of  inferior  manufactures,  and  not,  as 
might  be  frequently  supposed,  from  the  want 
of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workman  who 
makes  them. 

The  best  connections  are  made  when  the 
metal  and  solder  agree  as  nearly  as  possible 
in  uniformity,  that  is,  as  regards  fusibility, 
hardness,  and  malleability.  Experience  has 
proved,  more  especially  in  the  case  of  plain 
and  strong  work  (or  work  that  has  to  bear 
a  strain  in  the  course  of  manufacture),  that 
the  soldering  is  more  perfect  and  more  tena¬ 
cious  as  the  point  of  fusion  of  the  two  metals 
approaches  each  other  ;  the  solder  having  a 
greater  tendency  to  form  a  more  perfect  alloy 
with  the  metal  to  which  it  is  applied  than 
under  any  other  conditions.  The  silver  or 
other  metal  to  be  operated  upon  by  soldering 
being  partly  of  a  porous  nature,  the  greater 
the  heat  required  in  the  fusion  of  the  solder 
the  more  closely  are  the  atoms  of  the  two 
metals  brought  into  direct  relationship  ;  thus 
greater  solidity  is  given  to  the  parts  united, 
and  which  are  then  capable  of  forming  the 
maximum  of  resistance.  It  is  thus  obvious 
that  tin  should  not  be  employed  in  forming 
solders  possessing  the  characteristics  we  have 


T47 

just  described,  for  being  a  very  fusible  metal 
it  greatly  increases  the  fusibility  of  its  alloys  ; 
but  when  very  easy  solder  is  required,  and 
this  is  sometimes  the  case,  especially  when 
zinc  has  been  employed  in  the  preparation 
of  the  silver  alloy,  its  addition  is  a  great  ad¬ 
vantage  when  it  comes  to  be  applied  to  the 
work  in  hand.  Solders  made  with  tin  are  not 
so  malleable  and  tenacious  as  those  prepared 
without  it,  as  it  imparts  a  brittleness  not  usu¬ 
ally  to  be  found  in  those  regularly  employed 
by  silversmiths  ;  for  this  reason  it  is  advisable 
to  file  it  into  dust,  and  apply  it  in  that  state 
to  the  articles  in  course  of  manufacture. 

The  best  solders  we  have  found  to  be  those 
mixed  with  a  little  zinc.  These  may  be 
laminated,  rolled  or  filed  into  dust ;  if  the 
latter,  it  should  be  finely  done,  and  this  is 
better  for  every  purpose.  Too  much  zinc, 
however,  should  not  be  added  under  any 
conditions,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  eat  itself 
away  during  wear,  thus  rendering  the  articles 
partly  useless  either  for  ornamental  or  domes¬ 
tic  purposes  earlier  than  might  be  anticipated. 
Solders  thus  prepared  also  act  with  some  dis¬ 
advantage  to  the  workman  using  them,  for 
they  possess  the  property  of  evaporating  or 
eating  away  during  the  process  of  soldering, 
leaving  behind  scarcely  anything  to  indicate 
their  presence ;  consequently  the  workman 
has  to  keep  on  repeating  the  process  until  the 
connection  is  made  perfect,  which  is  always 
done  at  the  expense  of  a  quantity  of  solder 
as  well  as  loss  to  the  workman  as  regards 
time. 

Solders  made  from  copper  and  silver  only 
are,  generally  speaking,  too  infusible  to  be 
applied  to  all  classes  of  silversmith’s  work. 

Solders  are  manufactured  of  all  degrees  of 
hardness  ;  the  hardest  of  all  being  a  prepara¬ 
tion  of  silver  and  copper  in  various  propor¬ 
tions  ;  the  next  being  a  composition  of  sil¬ 
ver,  copper,  and  zinc ;  and  the  easiest  or 
most  fusible  being  prepared  from  silver,  cop¬ 
per,  and  tin,  or  silver,  brass,  and  tin.  Ar¬ 
senic  sometimes  enters  into  the  composition  of 
silver  solders,  for  promoting  a  greater  degree 
of  fusion ;  and  we  have  heard  of  workmen 
actually  refusing  to  work  with  any  other 
solder.  The  employment  of  arsenic  has,, 
however,  a  tendency  to  slightly  endanger  the 
health  of  those  persons  using  it  in  large 
quantities ;  and  of  late  its  employment  has 
not  been  persevered  in. 

In  applying  solder  of  whatever  composi¬ 
tion,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the 
edges  or  parts  to  be  united  should  be  chem- 


148 


SILVER  SOLDERS:  THEIR  USES  AND  APPLICATIONS. 


ically  clean  ;  and  for  the  purpose  of  protect¬ 
ing  these  parts  from  the  action  of  the  air, 
and  oxidation  during  the  soldering  process, 
they  are  covered  by  a  suitable  flux,  which 
not  only  prevents  oxidation,  but  has  also  a 
tendency  to  remove  any  portion  of  it  left  on 
the  parts  of  the  metal  to  be  united.  The 
flux  employed  is  always  borax,  and  it  not 
only  effects  the  objects  just  pointed  out,  but 
greatly  facilitates  the  flow  of  the  solder  into 
the  required  places.  Silver  solder  should  be 
silver  of  a  little  inferior  quality  to  that  about 
to  be  worked  up.  The  various  degrees  of 
fusibility  of  the  several  solders  are  occasioned 
by  the  different  proportions  of  the  component 
parts  of  the  elements  which  enter  into  their 
existence.  For  instance,  a  solder  in  which 
tin  forms  a  component  part  will  flow  or  fuse 
much  sooner  than  one  in  which  copper  and 
silver  alone  enter  into  composition,  or  of  one 
wholly  composed  of  copper,  silver,  and  zinc, 
or  of  silver  and  brass ;  therefore  it  must  be 
understood  that  tin  is  the  best  metal  for  in¬ 
creasing  the  fusibility  of  silver  solders,  and 
for  keeping  up  their  whiteness.  Neverthe¬ 
less  it  should  always  be  used  sparingly,  and 
even  then  drawbacks  will  present  themselves 
such  as  we  have  already  alluded  to. 

It  is  our  intention  to  give  a  list  of  the  vari¬ 
ous  solders  which  have  been  usually  em¬ 
ployed  with  more  or  less  success,  so  that  the 
silversmith  and  the  art  workman  will  be  en¬ 
abled  to  select  the  one  most  suitable  to  the 
particular  branch  of  his  trade ;  and  we  con¬ 
tend,  from  experience  in  the  craft,  that  suc¬ 
cess  of  workmanship  mainly  depends  upon 
this  point. 


HARDEST  SILVER  SOLDER. 


OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine  Silver . 

.  .  O 

16 

O 

Shot  Copper . 

.  .  O 

4 

O 

I 

O 

O 

HARD  SILVER 

SOLDER. 

OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine  Silver . 

.  .  0 

O 

Brass . 

.  .  0 

5 

O 

I 

O 

O 

EASY  SILVER 

SOLDER. 

OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine  Silver . 

.  .  0 

l3 

8 

Brass . 

.  .  0 

6 

l6 

I 

O 

O 

HARDEST  SILVER  SOLDER. 


Fine  Silver . 

oz.  dwts. 

grs. 

O 

Shot  Copper . 

. .  0  5 

0 

1  5 

0 

HARD  SILVER 

SOLDER. 

Fine  Silver . 

oz.  dwts. 

grs. 

O 

Brass . 

16 

r  6 

16 

EASY  SILVER 

SOLDER. 

Fine  Silver . 

oz.  dwts. 

grs. 

O 

Brass . 

0 

I  IO 

O 

The  silver  solders  here  given  are  not  such 
as  we  can  confidently  recommend  to  the 
general  silversmith,  having  proved  them  to 
be  very  unsatisfactory  in  certain  classes  of 
work.  For  example,  the  first  solder,  except 
in  the  case  of  plain,  strong  work,  would  be 
far  too  infusible  to  be  generally  used  by  the 
silversmith  ;  the  second,  although  much  more 
fusible,  cannot  safely  be  applied  to  very  fine 
and  delicate  wire-work,  because  the  brass  in 
its  composition  is  so  uncertain  ;  unless  spe¬ 
cially  prepared  by  the  silversmith,  it  probably, 
if  purchased  from  the  metal  warehouse,  con¬ 
tains  lead  ;  the  latter  is  injurious,  and  in  pro¬ 
cess  of  soldering  it  burns  and  eats  away, 
much  resembling  the  application  of  burnt 
sawdust  to  the  work.  No  really  effective 
work  can  be  produced  when  the  above 
symptoms  present  themselves.  The  same 
remarks  apply  to  No.  3,  which  is  the  most 
fusible,  and  when  free  from  lead  or  other 
base  metal  it  may  be  classed  as  a  tolerably 
fair  common  solder.  In  the  preparation  of 
the  solders  to  which  we  are  alluding,  it  is 
preferable  to  employ,  instead  of  the  brass,  a 
composition  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  cop¬ 
per  and  zinc,  in  the  proportion  of  two  parts 
of  copper  to  one  part  of  zinc ;  the  operator 
then  knows  of  what  the  solder  is  composed, 
and  if  it  should  turn  out  bad  he  will  partly 
know  the  cause,  and  be  able  to  supply  a 
remedy. 

The  solders  that  we  have  found  to  answer 
our  purpose  best  are  composed  of  the  follow¬ 
ing  elements.  The  first  is  described  again 
as  hard  solder,  but  it  is  not  nearly  so  hard 
as  the  one  previously  described. 


SILVER  SOLDERS:  THEIR  USES  AND  APPLICATIONS. 


149 


BEST  HARD  SILVER  SOLDER. 


OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine  Silver  .  .  . 

.  0 

16 

O 

Shot  Copper.  . 

.  0 

3 

iT 

Spelter  ...... 

.  0 

0 

1 2 

1 

O 

0 

BEST  HARD 

SILVER  SOLDER. 

OZ 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine  Silver  .  .  . 

.  I 

0 

O 

Shot  Copper .  . 

.  0 

4 

9 

Spelter . 

.  0 

0 

i5 

1  5 

0 

MEDIUM  SILVER 

SOLDER. 

oz.  dwts. 

grs. 

Fine  Silver . 

•  0  15 

O 

Shot  Copper . 

.  0 

4 

O 

Spelter  . 

.  0 

I 

O 

The  whole  of  the  above-named  solders 
will  bleach  or  whiten  properly  if  applied  to 
silver  of  the  suitable  quality  for  such  pur¬ 
poses.  We  have  used  copper  and  spelter  in 
our  silver  solders  because  we  have  found 
from  experience  that  the  fewer  number  of 
times  a  solder  is  melted  the  better  it  is  for  all 
purposes.  This  result  of  our  experience  is 
in  direct  opposition  to  those  authors  who 
have  professed  to  treat  upon  this  subject,  and 
who  can  have  had  but  a  small  amount  of  real 
practical  knowledge  ;  for  it  is  argued  by  them 
that  the  oftener  a  solder  is  melted  the  more 
properly  does  it  become  mixed,  and  conse¬ 
quently  the  more  fit  it  is  for  the  workman’s 
use.  To  such  arguments  we  are  prepared  to 
give  a  blank  denial,  and  our  reasons  for  so 
doing  we  will  state  further  on  in  this  treatise. 

There  are  various  other  silver  solders  used 
by  silversmiths,  some  few  of  which  it  will 


I 

0 

0 

be  as  well,  perhaps,  while  we  are  on  the  point. 

to  enumerate : 

EASY  SILVER  SOLDER. 

OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

SILVER  SOLDER  FOR 

ENAMELING. 

Fine  Silver. .  . 

.  0 

14 

0 

oz.  dwts. 

grs-  ' 

Shot  Copper. 

.  0 

4 

1 2 

Fine  Silver . 

1  0 

0 

Spelter . 

.  0 

I 

1 2 

Shot  Copper . 

0  5 

0 

I 

0 

O 

1  5 

0 

COMMON 

SILVER  SOLDER. 

EASY  SILVER  SOLDER  FOR 

FILIGREE 

WORK., 

OZ 

dwts. 

grs. 

oz.  dwts. 

grs. 

Fine  Silver  .  . 

.  0 

1 2 

I  2 

Fine  Silver . 

0  16 

0 

Shot  Copper. 

6 

O 

Shot  Copper . 

0  0 

1 2 

Spelter . 

.  0 

I 

I  2 

Composition . 

0  3 

1 2 

I 

0 

0 

I 

0 

0 

MEDIUM 

SILVER  SOLDER. 

SILVER  SOLDER 

FOR  CHAINS. 

OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine  Silver  .  . 

0 

O 

Fine  Silver . 

0 

0 

Shot  Copper. 

.  0 

5 

8 

Shot  Copper . 

.  .  .  0 

IO 

0 

Spelter . 

1 

8 

Pure  Spelter . 

...  0 

2 

0 

I 

6 

l6 

I 

I  2 

0 

EASY  SILVER  SOLDER. 

COMMON  SILVER  SOLDER. 

oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine  Silver  .  . 

0 

0 

Fine  Silver . 

,  .  .  .  I 

0 

0 

Shot  Copper. 

.  0 

6 

1 2 

Shot  Copper . 

1 2 

0 

Spelter . 

2 

4 

Pure  Spelter . 

3 

0 

I 

8 

1 6 

I 

!5 

0 

COMMON 

SILVER  SOLDER. 

SILVER  SOLDER 

WITH  ARSENIC. 

oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine  Silver  .  . 

0 

0 

Fine  Silver  ...... 

0 

O 

Shot  Copper. 

.  0 

9 

15 

Shot  Copper. . . .  , 

3 

O 

Spelter . 

2 

9 

Yellow  Arsenic . . . 

2 

O 

I 

1 2 

0 

I 

5 

O 

SILVER  SOLDERS:  THEIR  USES  AND  APPLICATIONS. 


*5° 


EASY  SILVER  SOLDER. 


oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Line  Silver . 

o 

0 

Composition .  .  .  . 

....  0 

5 

0 

Tinsel . 

5 

O 

I 

I  0 

O 

SILVER  SOLDER 

FOR  ENAMELING. 

OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

L'ine  Silver . 

O 

0 

Shot  Copper .  . .  . 

I  O 

0 

I 

I  0 

0 

QUICK  RUNNING 

SILVER 

SOLDER. 

OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Line  Silver . 

o 

0 

Composition .... 

IO 

O 

Pure  Tin . 

2 

0 

I 

I  2 

0 

EASY  SOLDER 

FOR  CHAINS. 

OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine  Silver . 

O 

0 

Composition .... 

IO 

0 

Pure  Spelter .  . .  . 

2 

0 

I 

I  2 

0 

COMMON  EASY  SOLDER. 

oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine  Silver . 

o 

0 

Composition .... 

.  .  .  .  o 

I  2 

O 

Pure  Spelter .  .  .  . 

3 

0 

I 

15 

0 

SILVER  SOLDER 

WITH  ARSENIC. 

OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine  Silver . 

O 

0 

Composition .... 

.  .  .  .  0 

6 

0 

Yellow  Arsenic.  . 

I 

0 

I 

7 

0 

COMMON  EASY  SOLDER. 

OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine  Silver . 

O 

O 

Tinsel . 

I  O 

O 

Arsenic . 

5 

0 

I 

15 

0 

ANOTHER  COMMON  SOLDER. 

oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine  Silver . 

0 

O 

Composition .... 

cs 

O 

Arsenic . 

I 

6 

• 

I 

1 6 

6 

A  VERY  COMMON  SOLDER. 


Fine  Silver . 

oz.  dwts. 

grs. 

0 

Composition.  .  . 

0 

White  Arsenic. . 

0 

The  solders  here 

given  will  be 

found 

amply  sufficient  to  select  from  for  every 
operation  of  the  silversmith,  and  will  answer 
the  several  purposes  for  which  they  have 
been  described.  When  tin  and  arsenic  are 
employed  in  the  composition  of  solder,  either 
together  or  separately,  they  should  be  with¬ 
held  until  the  more  infusible  metals  with 
which  they  are  to  be  united  have  become 
melted ;  the  tin  or  tinsel  should  then  be 
added,  and  when  this  is  well  melted  with  the 
mass,  fling  on  the  top  the  arsenic,  let  it  melt, 
stir  it  well  together,  and  pour  it  out  quickly 
into  an  ingot-mold  already  prepared  for  its 
reception. 

When  silver  and  brass,  or  silver  and  com¬ 
position.  alone  form  the  component  parts  of 
the  solder,  these  metals  may  be  put  into  the 
melting-pot  together,  well  fused,  stirred,  and 
poured  out  as  before. 

Solders  into  which  volatile  metals  enter, 
upon  repeated  meltings,  become  hard,  brittle, 
and  drossy,  and  are  therefore  not  so  good  as 
when  the  metal  has  received  only  one  melt¬ 
ing  ;  it  is  for  this  reason  that  we  have  al¬ 
ways  preferred  to  manufacture  our  solders 
from  metals  which  have  not  been  melted  be¬ 
fore,  or  from  those  which  have  gone  through 
the  process  as  few  a  number  of  times  as  pos¬ 
sible. 

The  mode  of  soldering  gold  and  silver  is 
as  follows :  Take  the  solder  and  roll  it  out 
thin  between  the  flattening-  rollers,  or  file  it 
into  dust,  according  to  the  kind  of  work  in 
hand.  If  filed  into  dust,  it  is  all  the  better 
if  done  very  fine ;  and  if  reduced  to  a  flat 
state,  which  should  be  tolerably  thin,  cut  it 
into  little  bits,  or  pallions,  which  may  easily  be 
performed  with  a  pair  of  hand-shears,  length¬ 
ways,  and  afterwards  crossways.  When  this 
is  done,  take  the  work  which  is  to  be  soldered, 
join  it  together  by  means  of  fine  binding-wire 
(very  thin  iron  wire),  or  lay  it  upon  the  pumice 
so  that  the  joinings  can  come  close  together 
and  will  not  be  liable  to  move  during  the 
process ;  wet  the  joinings  with  a  solution  of 
borax  and  water  mixed  into  a  thick  paste  or 
McLane’s  Anti-Oxetyn,  applying  it  with  a 
small  camel’s-hair  pencil ;  then  lay  the  bits  or 
pallions  of  solder  upon  the  parts  to  be  united, 
and  having  placed  the  article  upon  some  suit- 


SILVER  SOLDERS:  THEIR  USES  AND  APPLICATIONS. 


able  object,  take  your  blow-pipe  and  blow 
with  it,  through  a  gas-jet,  a  keen  flame  upon 
the  solder  in  order  to  melt  it ;  this  will  render 
the  unification  of  the  parts  complete  and 
compact. 

When  filed  solder  is  used,  the  process  of 
charging  the  article  is  rather  different  from 
the  above.  In  *he  latter  case  the  filings  are 
commonly  put  into  a  small  cup-shaped  vessel, 
in  most  cases  the  bottom  of  a  teacup,  or 
some  other  similar  vessel  being  used  for  the 
purpose ;  a  lump  of  borax  is  then  taken  and 
rubbed  upon  a  piece  of  slate,  to  which  a  lit¬ 
tle  water  is  occasionally  added  durin/g  the 
rubbing ;  when  this  solution  attains  the  con¬ 
sistency  of  cream  it  is  put  into  the  solder- 
dish  and  well  mixed  with  the  solder.  This 
is  then  applied  to  the  article  to  be  soldered 
by  means  of  a  charger,  consisting  of  a  piece 
of  round  metal  wire,  flattened  at  one  end, 
and  shaped  for  the  purpose  it  has  to  serve. 
The  joinings,  when  this  kind  is  employed, 
require  no  boraxing  with  the  pencil,  as  de¬ 
scribed  under  pallion  solder  ;  the  borax  being 
intermixed  with  the  solder  flushes  with  it 
through  the  joinings  to  be  united,  thus  ren¬ 
dering  any  further  application  unnecessary. 
The  process  to  which  we  are  alluding  is 
called  “hard  soldering,”  and  cannot  be  ap¬ 
plied  to  metals  of  a  fusible  nature ;  neither 
must  it  be  attempted  in  the  case  of  goods 
bearing  the  name  of  plated,  which  are  put 
together  with  soft  or  pewter  solder,  similar  to 
that  used  by  tinsmiths  and  gasfitters.  If 
there  should  be  any  soft  solder  about  the  ar¬ 
ticle  to  be  soldered  by  the  means  we  are  de¬ 
scribing,  it  would  be  almost  certain  to  destroy 
it,  the  soft  solder  having  such  an  affinity  for 
entering  into  combination  with  metals  more 
infusible  than  itself  when  overheated. 

There  is  an  art  in  soldering  greater  than 
some  people  would  believe.  The  heat  re¬ 
quired  is  of  various  degrees,  some  articles  re¬ 
quiring  a  broad  rough  flame,  others  a  smooth 
one,  and  others  again  a  fine  pointed  one.  All 
these  circumstances  connected  with  the  pro¬ 
cess,  together  with  others  which  we  could  de¬ 
tail, proving  that  it  is  an  art  only  to  be  acquired 
by  practice,  must  be  considered  enough  ;  and 
we  proceed  to  observe  that  the  skillful  jeweler 
in  soldering  a  large  piece  of  work  will  direct 
the  flame  of  the  gas-jet  to  all  parts  of  it,  un¬ 
til  it  is  tolerably  hot,  and  then  return  to  the 
spot  to  be  soldered,  and  by  a  very  dexterous 
movement  of  the  flame,  produced  by  the 
blow-pipe,  increase  the  heat  at  the  spot  until 
the  solder  has  flushed  and  the  parts  are  ren- 


I5I 

dered  thoroughly  secure.  So  far  as  some  of 
the  work  of  the  silversmith  is  concerned,  the 
process  of  soldering  is  a  very  delicate  opera¬ 
tion,  and  ought  not  to  be  undertaken  by  an 
unpracticed  hand. 

The  method  of  preparing  solder  for  filigree 
work  is  worthy  of  a  passing  notice.  It  is 
called  by  the  Germans  Lemaille  solder.  In 
the  first  place  it  is  reduced  to  very  fine  filings, 
mixed  with  burnt  borax  powdered  fine,  and 
in  this  state  it  is  sprinkled  from  a  spouted 
grater  over  the  work  to  be  soldered.  The 
English  filigree  workers  commonly  use  clean 
filed  solder,  and  by  means  of  the  camel’s-hair 
pencil  apply  a  solution  of  borax  to  the  work, 
and  then  sprinkle  the  dry  solder  upon  it  from 
the  grater. 

In  Vienna  a  kind  of  powdered  borax  is 
employed,  called  Stren  borax ,  or  sprinkle 
borax.  It  is  composed  of  the  following  in¬ 
gredients,  which  should  be  gently  annealed 
to  expel  their  water  of  crystallization,  the 
whole  well  pounded  and  mixed  together,  and 
sprinkled  over  the  parts  to  be  joined  from 
the  spouted  grater  as  before  : 

oz.  chvts.  grs. 

Calcined  borax .  o  17  12 

Carbonate  of  soda...  o  1  12 

Common  salt .  c  1  o 


100 

The  object  of  this  mixture  is  to  prevent 
the  rising  of  the  solder,  and  to  facilitate  its 
flushing.  Too  much  of  it  should  not,  how¬ 
ever,  be  put  with  solder  in  the  grater  at  one 
time,  as  it  is  as  objectionable  as  too  much 
borax  applied  in  the  ordinary  way  ;  but  every 
workman  will  learn  from  experience  concern¬ 
ing  these  matters.  We  have  tried  this  mix¬ 
ture,  prepared  with  filed  solder  in  the  ordi¬ 
nary  way,  and  found  it  advantageous  at  first ; 
but  its  greatest  drawback  is  the  turning  of 
the  solder  yellow  if  not  quickly  used  upon 
the  work  after  mixing,  thus  rendering  the 
solder  permanently  injured.  For  this  reason 
we  have  had  to  abandon  its  employment  in 
the  wet  state.  But,  in  its  dry  state,  to  the 
silversmith  for  filigree  purposes  it  is  likely  to 
be  of  advantage.  It  may  be  remarked  that 
this  preparation  encumbers  the  work  with  a 
great  deal  more  flux  than  borax  does,  and 
consequently  it  requires  to  be  more  often 
boiled  out  during  the  period  of  soldering  to¬ 
gether  the  component  parts.  This  is  effected 
by  boiling  in  a  weak  pickle  of  sulphuric  acid, 
and  water,  composed  of  the  following  propor¬ 
tions  :  one  part  of  acid  to  thirty  parts  of  water. 


*52 


COLD  SILVERING. 


TO  SOLDER  SILVER. 

HE  best  solder  for  general  purposes  to 
be  employed  in  soldering  silver  consists 
of  19  parts  (by  weight)  of  silver,  10  parts  of 
brass,  and  one  part  of  copper,  carefully 
smelted  together  and  well  incorporated.  To 
use  this  for  fine  work,  it  should  be  reduced 
to  powder  by  filing ;  the  borax  should  be 
rubbed  upon  a  slate  with  water  to  the  con¬ 
sistency  of  cream.  This  cream  should  then 
with  a  fine  brush  be  applied  to  the  surfaces 
intended  to  be  joined,  between  which  the 
powdered  solder  (or  pellet)  is  placed,  and 
the  whole  supported  on  a  block  of  charcoal 
to  concentrate  the  heat.  In  the  hands  of  a 
skillful  workman  the  work  can  be  done  with 
such  accuracy  as  to  require  no  scraping  or 
filing,  it  being  necessary  only  to  remove  the 
borax  when  the  soldering  is  complete,  by 
immersing  in  a  jeweler’s  pickle. 


SILVER  SOLDER. 

TEN  pennyweights  of  brass  and  one  ounce 
of  pure  silver  melted  together  makes  a 
good  silver  solder  for  plating. 


SILVER  SOLDER. 

HREE  dwts.  coin  weight,  one  dwt. 
English  brass  pins.  Melt  the  silver 
alone  with  borax,  bend  the  pins  up  double, 
and  wrap  them  up  into  a  compact  little  par¬ 
cel  in  thin  paper,  so  as  to  be  readily  dropped 
into  the  molten  silver,  and  not  bristle  up  and 
stick  to  the  sides  of  the  crucible ;  as  soon 
as  they  melt,  give  your  crucible  a  shake  or 
two  and  run  into  the  ingot ;  if  you  leave  it 
long  in  a  molten  state  after  the  pins  melt, 
the  zinc  burns  out  and  impairs  the  quality  of 
the  solder.  Have  a  good  heat  on  before 
you  drop  the  pins  in,  especially  the  lip  from 
which  you  intend  to  pour  off.  It  is  not 
owing  so  much  to  any  peculiarity  in  the 
brass  of  which  these  pins  are  made,  although 
its  excellence  and  their  convenient  size  rec¬ 
ommend  them,  as  witnessed  by  their  gen¬ 
eral  use  by  the  trade  for  many  purposes,  but 
it  is  the  antimony  with  which  they  are  coated 
that  gives  the  solder  its  good  quality.  It 
flows  easy,  will  stand  chilling  in  the  pickle, 
and  retain  its  toughness ;  is  white  enough 
to  use  on  silver,  and  is  suitable  for  all  kinds 
of  repairing. 


COLD  SILVERING. 

T  sometimes  happens  that  the  country 
goldsmith  or  watchmaker  has  a  silver- 
plated  article  in  repair,  and  not  having  a 
battery  either  in  his  possession  or  in  working 
order,  he  is  nonplused  how  to  restore  the 
silver-plating.  For  doing  this,  there  is  noth 
ing  so  good  as  the  methods  described  by  A 
Roseleur,  and  which  are  as  follows : 

COLD  SILVERING  BY  RUBBING  WITH  THE 
THUMB,  A  CORK,  OR  A  BRUSH. 

The  results  are  better  than  those  by  the 
whitening  process,  but  not  very  durable ;  the 
method  is  useful  to  repair  slight  defects  upon 
more  durable  silverings,  and  to  produce  mixt¬ 
ures  of  gold  and  silver,  or  gold  upon  slightly 
gilt  objects,  thus  avoiding  the  use  of  resist 
varnishes.  Make  a  paste  by  thoroughly  grind¬ 
ing  in  a  porcelain  mortar,  or  with  a  muller, 
and,  as  far  as  practicable,  not  in  the  light : 

Water . ounces,  3^  to  5 

White  fused  nitrate  of 
silver,  or  preferably 

the  chloride .  “  7 

Binoxalate  of  potash..  “  10 

Bitartrate  of  potash. ..  .  “  »  ioj^ 

Common  salt .  “  15 

or, 

Chlorate  of  silver . ounces,  3^ 

Bitartrate  of  potash .  “  7 

Common  salt .  “  10  y2 

Pulverize  finely  in  a  porcelain  mortar,  and 

triturate  it  under  a  muller  upon  a  plate  of 
ground  glass  until  there  is  no  granular  feel¬ 
ing.  Keep  the  paste  in  a  porcelain  pot  or 
in  a  black  glass  vessel,  to  preserve  it  from 
the  light,  which  decomposes  it  rapidly. 
When  about  to  use  it,  add  a  little  water  so 
as  to  form  a  thin  paste,  which  is  applied  with 
a  brush  or  pencil  upon  the  cleansed  articles 
of  copper,  or  upon  those  gilt  by  dipping,  or 
even  upon  those  gilt  by  the  battery,  provided 
that  the  coating  is  thin  enough  to  allow  the 
copper  to  decompose  the  silver  paste  through 
the  coat  of  gold  ;  allow  the  paste  to  dry  nat¬ 
urally  or  with  the  aid  of  a  gentle  heat.  The 
chemical  reaction  is  more  or  less  complete 
according  to  the  thickness  of  the  gold  de¬ 
posit,  and  the  dry  paste  is  of  a  pink  shade, 
or  entirely  green.  The  salts  are  removed  by 
a  thorough  rinsing  in  cold  water  and  the  sil¬ 
ver  appears  with  a  fine  frosted  appearance, 
the  brightness  of  which  may  be  increased  by 
a  few  seconds’  immersion  in  a  very  dilute 


COLD  SILVERING. 


1  53 


solution  of  sulphuric  acid  or  of  cyanide  of 
potassium.  This  silvering  bears  the  action 
of  the  wire  brush  and  of  the  burnishing  tool 
very  well ;  and  it  may  also  be  oxidized. 
Should  a  first  silvering  not  be  found  suffi¬ 
ciently  durable  after  scratch-brushing,  apply 
a  second  or  third  coat.  This  Adyering  is  not 
so  adhering  or  so  white  on  pure  copper  as 
upon  a  gilt  surface.  For  the  reflectors  of 
lanterns,  the  paste  is  rubbed  upon  the  re¬ 
flector  with  a  fine  linen  pad  ;  then,  with  an¬ 
other  pad,  a  thin  paste  of  Spanish  white,  or 
similar  substance,  is  spread  over  the  reflector 
and  allowed  to  dry.  Rubbing  with  a  fine 
and  clean  linen  rag  will  restore  the  luster  and 
whiteness  of  the  plated  silver. 

FOR  PLATED  SILVER  REFLECTORS. 

A  bath  made  of  water,  i  Y\  pints  ;  nitrate 
of  chloride  of  silver,  2  ounces ;  cyanide  of 
potassium,  10 14  ounces;  add  sufficient  Span¬ 
ish  white,  or  levizated  chalk,  in  fine  powder, 
to  produce  a  thin  paste,  which  is  kept  in  a 
well-closed  pot.  This  paste  is  spread  with 
a  brush,  or  a  pad  of  old  linen,  all  over  the 
surface  of  the  reflector,  and  allowed  almost 
to  dry,  when  it  is  briskly  rubbed  over  with 
another  clean  dry  rag  of  old  linen. 

SILVERING  BY  DIPPING  IN  A  WARM  BATH. 

For  small  articles,  a  bath  is  made  by  dis¬ 
solving  in  an  enameled  cast-iron  kettle,  in 
two  gallons  of  water,  17  y2  ounces  of  ordinary 
cyanide  of  potassium.  Also  dissolve  5^ 
ounces  of  fused  nitrate  of  silver  in  1^  pints 
of  water,  contained  in  a  glass  or  porcelain 
vessel.  The  second  solution  is  gradually 
poured  into  the  first.  Stir  with  a  glass  rod. 
The  white  or  grayish-white  precipitate  pro¬ 
duced  soon  dissolves,  and  the  remaining 
liquor  is  filtered,  if  a  perfectly  clear  bath  is 
desired.  When  brought  to  the  boiling  point 
it  will  immediately  silver  the  cleansed  copper 
articles  plunged  into  it.  The  objects  must  be 
quickly  withdrawn.  The  silvering  should  im¬ 
mediately  follow  the  cleansing,  although  the 
rinsings  after  each  operation  should  be  thor¬ 
ough  and  complete.  This  bright  and  light 
silvering  is  adapted  for  set  jewelry,  which  can¬ 
not  be  scratch-brushed  without  flattening  the 
clasps,  and  to  which  a  bright  luster  is  abso¬ 
lutely  necessary  as  a  substitute  for  the  foil  of 
burnished  silver  placed  under  the  precious 
stones  of  real  jewelry.  The  employment  of 
the  solution  of  nitrate  of  binoxide  of  mercury 
is  useless,  and  even  injurious  for  this  bath. 
It  is  useless  to  keep  up  the  strength  of  the  solu¬ 


tion  by  new  additions  of  cyanide  and  silver 
salt,  as  it  will  invariably  give  results  far  in¬ 
ferior  to  those  of  the  former  solution.  The 
baths  should  therefore  be  washed  out,  as  long 
as  the  silvering  is  satisfactory,  and  when  ex¬ 
hausted,  put  away  with  the  waste.  With  this 
process  a  battery  and  a  soluble  anode  may 
be  used  to  obtain  a  more  durable  deposit ; 
but  the  operation  is  no  longer  a  simple  dip¬ 
ping,  and  properly  belongs  to  electro-silvering 
by  heat. 

A  solution  which,  when  boiling,  produces 
a  very  fine  silver  coat  with  a  mat,  or  partly 
mat,  luster  upon  cleansed  copper,  is  made 
by  dissolving,  with  the  aid  of  heat,  in  a  well- 
scoured  copper  kettle :  Distilled  water,  9 
pints  ;  ferro-cyanide  of  potassium,  2 1  ounces  ; 
carbonate  of  potash,  14  ounces.  When  the 
liquid  boils,  add  the  well-washed  chloride  ob¬ 
tained  from  1  ounce  of  pure  silver.  This 
should  boil  for  about  half  an  hour,  and  be 
filtered  before  using ;  part  of  the  silver  de¬ 
posits  upon  the  copper  kettle,  and  should  be 
removed  when  a  new  bath  is  prepared.  On 
account  of  this  inconvenience,  the  process 
has  been  nearly  abandoned,  although  the 
products  are  remarkably  fine.  All  the  dip¬ 
ping  silver  baths,  which  contain  a  compara- 
■  tively  great  excess  of  cyanide  of  potassium 
to  proportion  of  the  silver  salt,  will  silver  well 
copper  articles  perfectly  cleansed,  even  in 
the  cold ;  whereas  this  characteristic  dimin¬ 
ishes  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  the 
amount  of  silver  in  the  bath,  or  with  the  de¬ 
crease  of  the  amount  of  cyanide.  For  small 
articles,  partly  copper  and  partly  iron,  such 
as  those  used  for  saddlery  and  carriage  wares, 
a  particular  process  of  silver  is  used.  The 
bath  is  composed  of  . 

Water .  pints,  9 

Caustic  potash .  ounces,  6 

Bicarbonate  of  potash..  “  3*4 

Cyanide  of  potassium  .  .  “  2 

Fused  nitrate  of  silver.  .  “  ^3 

The  cyanide,  caustic  potash,  and  bicarbo¬ 
nate  are  dissolved  in  seven  pints  of  water  in 
an  enameled  cast-iron  kettle  ;  then  the  remain¬ 
ing  quart  of  water,  in  which  the  nitrate  of 
silver  has  been  separately  dissolved,  is  added 
to  the  former  solution.  For  the  silvering 
operation,  a  certain  quantity  of  articles  are 
cleansed,  thoroughly  rinsed,  and  put  in  a 
small  enameled  kettle.  Enough  of  the  silver 
bath  is  poured  in  to  cover  the  articles  en¬ 
tirely,  and  the  whole  is  brought  to  a  boil  for 
a  few  seconds,  and  stirred  with  a  wooden 


*54 


OXIDIZING  SILVER. 


spatula.  When  the  silvering  appears  satis¬ 
factory,  the  liquor  employed  is  put  with  the 
saved  waste ;  the  same  liquid  is  never  used 
for  two  batches  of  articles.  This  process 
gives  a  somewhat  durable  silvering  with  a 
dead  luster  of  a  grayish-white,  which  is  in¬ 
creased  in  whiteness  and  brightness  by  soap 
and  burnishing.-  _ 

TO  DISSOLVE  SILVER  FROM  SIL¬ 
VERED  ARTICLES. 

Cold  Bath. — For  dissolving  silver  in  the 
cold,  the  objects  are  hung  in  a  large  vessel 
filled  with  the  following  mixture :  Sulphuric 
acid  66°  B.,  io  parts ;  nitric  acid  at  400  B., 
10  parts.  The  articles  remain  in  this  for  a 
greater  or  less  length  of  time,  according  to 
the  thickness  of  the  coat  of  silver  to  be  de- 
solved.  The  liquid,  when  it  does  not  contain 
water,  dissolves  the  silver  without  sensibly 
corroding  copper  and  its  alloys;  therefore 
avoid  introducing  wet  articles  into  it,  and 
keep  the  liquid  perfectly  covered  when  not  in 
use.  As  far  as  praticable,  place  the  articles 
in  the  liquid  so  as  not  to  touch  each  other, 
and  in  a  vertical  position,  so  that  the  silver 
salt  will  fall  to  the  bottom.  In  proportion 
-as  the  action  of  the  liquid  diminishes  pour 
in  small  and  gradual  additions  of  nitric  acid. 
Dissolving  silver  in  .the  cold  is  regular  and 
certain,  but  slow,  especially  when  the  pro¬ 
portion  of  silver  is  great. 

Hot  Bath. — Nearly  fill  an  enameled  cast- 
iron  pan  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid, 
and  heat  to  a  temperature  of  from  300°  to 
4000  Fahr. ;  at  the  moment  of  using  it, 
pinches  of  dry,  powdered  saltpeter  are  thrown 
into  it ;  then  hold  the  article  with  copper 
tongs  in  the  liquid.  The  silver  rapidly  dis¬ 
solves  and  the  copper  or  its  alloy  are  not 
sensibly  corroded.  According  to  the  rapid¬ 
ity  of  the  solution  more  or  fewer  pinches  of 
saltpeter  are  added.  All  the  silver  has  been 
dissolved  when,  after  rinsing  in  water  and 
dipping  the  articles  into  the  cleaning  acid, 
they  present  no  black  br  brown  spots — that 
is,  when  they  appear  like  new  metals. 

These  two  methods  are  not  suitable  for 
removing  the  silver  from  wrought-  and  cast- 
iron,  zinc  or  lead  ;  in  these  cases  it  is  pref¬ 
erable  to  invert  the  electric  current  in  a 
cyanide  bath,  or  to  use  mechanical  processes. 
Old  dissolving  liquids  become  green  after 
use ;  to  recover  the  silver  they  are  diluted 
with  four  or  five  times  their  volume  of  water  ; 
then  add  hydrochloric  acid  or  common  salt. 

I  lie  precipitation  is  complete  when  the  set¬ 


tled  liquor  does  not  become  turbid  by  a  new 
addition  of  common  salt  or  by  hydrochloric 
acid.  The  resulting  chloride  of  silver  is 
separated  from  the  liquid  either  by  decanting 
or  filtering,  and  is  afterwards  reduced  to  the 
metallic  state  by  one  of  the  usual  methods. 


TO  IMITATE  INLAYING  OF  SILVER. 

VERY  neat  imitation  of  silver  inlaying 
for  small  boxes,  handles,  and  articles 
de  luxe ,  may  be  made  in  the  following  man¬ 
ner  f  Carefully  draw  your  pattern  upon  the 
work,  and  then  engrave  or  cut  away  your 
lines  with  sharp  gouges,  chisels,  etc.,  so  as  to 
appear  clean  and  even,  taking  care  to  cut 
them  deep  enough,  and  rather  into  it,  like  a 
dovetail,  so  as  to  secure  the  composition 
afterward  to  be  put  into  the  grooves.  The 
silver  composition  may  be  made  as  follows : 
Take  a  small  quantity  of  the  purest  and  best 
grain  tin  and  melt  it  in  a  ladle ;  add  to  it, 
while  in  fusion,  the  purest  quicksilver,  stirring 
it  to  make  it  incorporate ;  when  you  have 
added  enough,  it  will  remain  as  a  stiff  paste  ; 
if  too  soft,  add  more  tin,  or  if  too  stiff,  add 
more  quicksilver.  •  Grind  this  composition  in 
a  mortar  or  upon  a  marble  slab,  with  a  little 
size,  and  fill  up  the  cuttings  or  grooves  in 
your  work,  as  you  would  with  putty.  Allow 
it  to  remain  some  hours  to  dry,  after  which 
you  may  polish  it  with  your  hand,  and  it  will 
appear  like  work  inlaid  with  silver. 


OXIDIZING  SILVER. 

VERY  worker  in  the  precious  metal 
knows  the  liability  of  silver  to  become 
tarnished  in  an  atmosphere  containing  sul¬ 
phurous  emanations,  sewer  gas,  or  sulphu- 
reted  hydrogen  ;  in  the  language  of  the  day 
this  tarnishing  is  called  “  oxidizing,”  although 
erroneously  so,  because  the  silver  enters  into 
a  chemical  combination  with  the  sulphurous 
gas  and  forms  a  sulphide  of  silver.  The  ob¬ 
ject  assumes  a  dark  lead-color,  and  in  order 
to  restore  the  brightness  of  the  silver,  pickling 
must  be  resorted  to.  This  proclivity  is  taken 
advantage  of  for  causing  an  artificial  oxida¬ 
tion  upon  the  silver  surface  by  covering  this 
latter  with  certain  re-agents  that  will  produce 
such  an  effect.  Such  a  re-agent  must  natu¬ 
rally  contain  an  easily  decomposing  sulphur 
combination,  which  the  silversmith  has  in  the 
so-called  liver  of  sulphur  (German  Schwefel- 
leber ,  sulphide  of  potassium),  which  is  so 
easily  decomposed  that  it  parts  with  hydro- 


OXIDIZING  SILVER. 


1  55 


sulphide  even  at  a  simp.e  exposure  to  air. 
The  workman  can  readily  prepare  it  himself 
by  mixing  two  parts  of  sharply  dried  potash 
with  one  part  of  pulverized  sulphur,  and  then 
fusing  the  mass  in  an  iron  vessel.  This  po- 
tassic  sulphide  can  also  be  purchased  in  any 
drug-store ;  it  is  a  crumbling, ,  liver-brown 
mass,  and  has  to  be  kept  in  firmly  closed  re¬ 
ceptacles  on  account  of  its  liability  to  decom¬ 
pose.  When  a  silver  article  is  to  be  coated 
entirely  with  sulphide  of  silver,  the  former 
must  first  be  thoroughly  cleaned  from  all  filth 
and  grease  with  soda  lye ;  it  is  then  rinsed 
in  water  and-at  once  immersed  in  a  bath  of 
the  sulphide  of  potassium  solution.  Action 
begins  at  once,  and  the  coating  adheres  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  state  of  dilution  of  the  bath. 
The  coursp  of  the  process  must  not  be 
hastened  too  precipitately,  however,  as  under 
such  circumstances  the  coating  of  the  sul¬ 
phide  will  adhere  loosely  and  drop  off  when 
slightly  touched.  (The  writer  ascertained  by 
experiments  that  a  much  more  firmly  adher¬ 
ing  coating  may  be  obtained  by  exposing  the 
article  for  some  time  to  an  atmosphere  of 
humid  sulphureted  hydrogen  gas.)  It  may 
be  well  to  remember  that  the  more  dilute 
the  bath  is  the  more  tenaciously  adheres  the 
“  oxidation  ’’ ;  the  formation  of  this  is  has¬ 
tened  by  warming  the  fluid. 

When  coated  sufficiently  with  sulphide  of 
silver,  the  article  is  taken  out  of  the  bath, 
quickly  rinsed  in  water,  and  then  dried ;  if 
the  work  has  been  conducted  correctly  the 
piece  must  be  of  a  uniform  gray  color.  Or¬ 
namentations  may  then  be  executed  showing 
the  brightness  of  the  silver ;  this  is  effected 
in  two  ways — mechanically  and  chemically. 
By  the  former,  the  layer  of  the  sulphide  of 
silver  is  completely  removed  with  a  graver, 
so  that  the  color  of  the  metal  underneath  is 
made  to  appear.  By  the  second,  that  part 
of  the  design  which  is  to  appear  bright  is 
executed  with  a  goose  quill  dipped  in  moder¬ 
ately  strong  nitric  acid,  which  changes  the 
sulphide  of  silver  into  a  sulphate,  that  can 
be  washed  off  by  dipping  the  article  for  some 
time  in  boiling  water,  after  the  drawing  of 
the  design  is  finished.  The  sulphate  of  silver 
dissolves  with  difficulty  in  water. 

It  is  not  easy  to  produce  entirely  faultless 
designs  in  this  manner,  and  especially  do  the 
contours  occasionally  lack  sufficient  sharp¬ 
ness.  Sharper  designs  are  obtained  by  coat¬ 
ing  the  places  of  the  silver  which  are  to  re¬ 
main  bright  with  asphaltum  varnish,  and, 
after  drying,  dipping  the  article  into  the 


potassium-sulphide  bath.  When  the  action 
is  satisfactory  the  article  is  rinsed  and  the 
asphaltum  lacquer  removed  by  dipping  in 
benzoin. 

By  tracing  the  design  directly  upon  the 
article,  experiments  have  also  been  success¬ 
ful  ;  a  highly  concentrated  solution  of  sul¬ 
phide  of  potassium  in  water  was  prepared, 
and  so  thickened  with  sufficient  thick  muci¬ 
lage  solution  that  it  could  have  been  used  for 
writing  and  drawing.  The  designs  upon  the 
bright  silver  were  executed  with  a  quill  and 
brush  ;  the  article  set  aside  for  24  hours,  then 
heated  so  that  the  dried  mucilage  mixture 
either  dropped  off  of  itself  or  separated  by 
gentle  tapping.  If  the  fluid  is  thickened 
sufficiently  with  the  mucilage  solution  the 
outlines  of  the  tracings  will  be  of  very  great 
sharpness,  and  the  dark  gray  sketches  on  the 
bright  silver  will  make  a  very  agreeable  effect. 

There  are  two  distinct  shades  in  use,  one 
of  which  is  produced  by  chloride,  which  has 
a  brownish  tone.  For  this  it  is  only  neces¬ 
sary  to  work  the  article  with  a  solution  of 
sal-ammoniac.  The  other,  described  in  the 
proceeding,  is  of  a  much  more  beautiful  tint. 

The  nice  blue-gray  to  black  tone,  the  char¬ 
acteristic  of  sulphide  of  silver,  is  obtained  by 
this  sulphur  bath  ;  but  if  the  silver  is  alloyed 
with  much  copper  the  color  will  be  different, 
inclining  more  to  dead  black,  and  not  so 
handsome.  When,  therefore,  an  oxidation 
simply  produced  by  sulphide  of  silver  is  to 
be  obtained,  the  article  must  be  heated  to  a 
red  heat  for  some  time,  so  as  to  oxidize  the 
copper  on  the  surface  to  a  proportionally 
great  depth  ;  this  oxide  is  then  to  be  removed 
by  pickling  twice  or  three  times.  If  the 
color  of  the  oxidized  silver  is  to  be  very  dark, 
passing  into  a  velvety  black,  dip  the  article, 
before  entering  the  liver-of-sulphur  bath,  in 
a  solution  of  proto-nitrate  of  mercury.  The 
article  assumes  thereby  a  fairly  white  color, 
metallic  mercury  separating  upon  its  surface 
which  unites  into  an  amalgam  with  the  silver. 
The  solution  of  the  proto-nitrate  of  mercury 
is  produced  by  dissolving  mercury  in  the 
cold  in  nitric  acid,  so  that  a  little  mercury 
remains  in  excess  ;  this  solution  is  to  be  kept 
in  a  closed  bottle,  upon  the  bottom  of  which 
is  a  little  mercury.  When  the  article  is  next 
immersed  into  the  sulphide  of  potassium 
bath,  a  thicker  layer  of  a  mixture  of  sulphide 
of  mercury  and  sulphide  of  silver,  of  a  vel¬ 
vety  black  tone,  is  produced. 

The  silver  oxidation  may  also  be  shaded 
by  chemical  re-agents ;  for  instance,  the  ox- 


J56 


OTHER  METHODS. 


idized  article  is  dipped  into  a  fluid  consisting 
of  io  parts  of  sulphate  of  copper,-  5  parts  of 
sal-ammoniac,  and  100  parts  vinegar,  which 
imparts  a  warm,  brown  color  to  the  bright 
places  of  the  silver.  Elegantly  colored  de¬ 
signs  may  be  produced  in  this  manner  by  a 
skillful  manipulation  of  the  process.  For  in¬ 
stance,  ornamentations  are  first  traced  upon 
the  bright  silver  surface  with  asphaltum  lac¬ 
quer  ;  the  article  is  next  oxidized  in  the  liver- 
of-sulphur  baths,  after  which  the  asphaltum 
layer  is  removed ;  next  it  is  dipped  into  the 
solution  of  proto-nitrate  of  mercury,  and 
again  oxidized,  when  black  designs  upon  a 
blue-gray  ground  are  obtained.  Now 
brighten  certain  places  of  the  silver  surface, 
dip  the  article  in  the  above-stated  copper 
solution,  and  you  will  have  the  bright  spots 
oxidized  brown.  Care  is  always  necessary 
that  the  oxidations  already  produced  are  not 
ruined  by  the  succeeding  ones,  and  it  is  al¬ 
ways  necessary  to  coat  such  finished  places 
with  asphaltum  lacquer. 


OTHER  METHODS. 

I. 

SILVER  work  may  be  oxidized  by  any  of 
the  following  processes : 


Sal-ammoniac .  2  parts. 

Sulphate  of  copper .  2  parts 

Saltpeter .  1  part. 


Reduce  the  above  ingredients  to  a  fine 
powder,  and  dissolve  it  in  a  little  acetic  acid. 
If  the  article  is  to  be  entirely  oxidized,  it 
may  be  dipped  for  a  short  time  in  the  boiling 
mixture  ;  if  only  in  parts,  it  may  be  applied 
with  a  camel’s-hair  pencil,  the  article  and  the 
mixture  both  being  warmed  before  using. 


II. 

Platinum .  1  part. 

Hydrochloric  acid .  2  parts. 

Nitric  acid .  1  part. 


Dissolve  the  platinum  in  the  mixture  of 
acids,  evaporate  to  crystallization,  and  when 
cold,  dissolve  again  in  a  little  sulphuric  ether. 
Apply  the  mixture  with  a  camel’s-hair  pencil 
to  the  parts  required  to  be  blackened. 

III. 


Saltpeter .  2  parts. 

Common  salt .  1  part. 

Spirits  of  salts . 1  part. 


Reduce  the  salts  to  powder,  and  place  it 
in  a  black-lead  crucible  along  with  the  acid, 


boil  up,  and  then  dip  the  articles  into  the 
mixture  for  a  short  time,  or  otherwise  apply 
it  to  the  parts  required  to  be  oxidized. 

These  mixtures  will  give  the  various  tints 
of  oxidation  to  silver  work  if  properly  treated  ; 
but  if  other  tints  be  desired,  the  following 
chemical  substances  may  be  employed  ac¬ 
cording  to  taste :  For  slate-colored  surface, 
dip  the  articles  into  a  boiling  solution  of  sul- 
phuret  of  potassium.  Strong  hydrosulphate 
of  ammonia  produces  a  dark  tint  of  oxidation, 
and  if  diluted  with  much  water  a  light  tint  is 
produced.  Nitric  acid  produces  a  light  sur¬ 
face.  The  fumes  of  sulphur  produce  a  beau¬ 
tiful  blue-colored  surface.  This  operation 
should  be  conducted  in  a  closed  box,  and  all 
parts  not  to  be  blackened  should  be  coated 
with  a  suitable  resist  varnish.  After  any  of 
these  processes  the  articles  may  either  be 
scratched  or  otherwise  burnished. 

IV. 

We  find  the  following  process  for  oxidizing 
silver  in  the  Journal  des  Applications  Elec- 
triques: 

The  salts  of  silver  are  colorless  when  the 
acids,  the  elements  of  which  enter  into  their 
composition,  are  not  colored,  but  they  gen¬ 
erally  blacken  on  exposure  to  light.  It  is 
easy,  therefore,  to  blacken  silver  and  obtain 
its  oxide ;  it  is  sufficient  to  place  it  in  con¬ 
tact  with  a  sulphide,  vapor  of  sulphur,  or 
the  sulphides  or  polysulphides  of  potash  or 
soda,  dissolved  in  water  and  called  eau  de 
barege.  The  chlorides  play  the  same  part, 
and  the  chloride  of  lime  in  solution  or  simply 
eau  de  javelle  may  be  used.  It  is  used  hot 
in  order  to  accelerare  its  action. 

The  bath  must  be  prepared  new  for  each 
operation  for  two  reasons :  1.  It  is  of  little 

value.  2.  The  sulphides  precipitate  rapidly 
and  give  best  effects  only  at  the  time  of  their 
direct  precipitations.  The  quantity  of  the 
re-agent  in  solution  forming  the  bath  de¬ 
pends  upon  the  thickness  of  the  deposit  of 
silver.  When  this  is  trifling,  the  oxidation 
penetrates  the  entire  deposit  and  the  silver 
exfoliates  in  smaller  scales,  leaving  the  cop¬ 
per  bare.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  in  this 
case  to  operate  with  dilute  baths  inclosing 
only  about  3  grams  (45  grains)  of  oxidizant 
at  most  per  liter.  The  operation  is  very 
simple:  Heat  the  necessary  quantity  of 

water,  add  the  sulphide  or  chloride,  and  agi¬ 
tate  to  effect  the  solution  of  the  mixture,  and 
then  at  once  plunge  in  the  silver-plated  arti¬ 
cles,  leaving  them  immersed  only  for  a  few 


FROSTING  SILVER. 


*57 


seconds,  which  exposure  is  sufficient  to  cover 
it  with  a  pellicle  of  deep  black-blue  silver. 
After  withdrawing  they  are  plunged  in  clean 
cold  water,  rinsed  and  dried,  and  either  left 
mat  or  else  polished,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  articles. 

Should  the  result  not  be  satisfactory,  the 
articles  are  brightened  by  immersing  in  a 
lukewarm  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium. 
The  oxide,  the  true  name  of  which  would  be 
the  sulphuret  or  chloruret,  can  be  raised  only 
on  an  object  either  entirely  of  silver  pr  silver- 
plated. 


FROSTING  SILVER. 

AVING  been  requested  to  give  some 
general  information  with  regard  to  the 
processes  of  frosting  and  finishing  silver  and 
metal  work,  we  give  the  following  few  par¬ 
ticulars  with  the  expressed  proviso  that,  al¬ 
though  every  process  and  detail  may  be  here 
laid  down  for  the  perfect  and  most  complete 
accomplishment  of  the  art,  the  uninitiated  or 
even  the  less  experienced  operator  can  do 
the  same  work  and  achieve  such  good  results 
as  the  skillful  workman. 

The  frosting  of  silver  goods  is  not  done 
with  an  acid  or  combination  of  acids,  but  is 
simply  due  to  scratching  with  the  scratch¬ 
brush.  These  scratch-brushes  take  different 
forms,  according  to  the  kind  of  work  to  be 
submitted  to  them  for  frosting,  and  are  made 
of  various  strengths ;  that'  is,  the  wires  of 
them  are  specially  prepared  of  several  thick¬ 
nesses,  and  when  a  very  fine  satin  finish  is 
required,  a  brush  of  very  fine  wire  is  taken, 
and  so  on.  A  brush  with  wires  thicker  and 
thicker  in  proportion  is  taken  as  a  more  ex¬ 
tended  roughness  is  desired.  These  wire 
scratch-brushes  are  fixed  upon  a  horizontal 
spindle  in  the  lathe ;  the  lathe  is  made  to  re¬ 
volve  by  means  of  the  foot  of  the  operator 
and  a  treadle  attached  to  the  crank  of  the 
lathe,  but  where  a  gas  or  other  small  power 
engine  can  be  employed  it  is  far  preferable, 
as  the  speed  is  much  greater  and  far  more 
regular.  Frosting  requires  great  speed  to  do 
the  work  nicely.  The  wires  of  the  scratch¬ 
brush  must  lie  even  on  the  surface,  all  of  the 
same  length,  and  always  kept  straight  at  the 
points,  otherwise  the  frosting  will  not  be 
regular.  Sometimes  the  little  hand  scratch- 
brushes  are  employed  for  coarser  work  ;  four 
of  them  are  taken  and  firmly  secured  in  four 
corresponding  grooves  in  a  circular  chuck, 
which  screws  into  the  lathe.  The  ends  of 


the  four  little  brushes  are  repeatedly  cut  off 
as  occasion  requires,  in  order  to  present  a 
straight  surface  for  a  continual  contact  with 
the  work. 

Metal  work  is  first  prepared  for  gilding  by 
dipping,  and  when  gilt,  submitted  in  the 
same  manner  as  silver  to  the  processes  just 
described. 

Metal  work  can  be  frosted  by  acids  with 
advantage,  whereas  no  good  results  can  be 
arrived  at  with  silver,  or  by  its  treatment  in 
any  analogous  manner,  as  the  color,  in  the 
first  place — and  this  is  highly  important — 
would  be  very  inferior,  and  the  frost  produced 
would  in  no  manner  compare  with  that  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  scratch-brush. 

A  few  good  recipes  consist  as  follows  for 
dipping  metal  goods.  Each  one  effects  a 
bright  frosted  surface  upon  work  submitted 
to  their  various  actions,  and  this,  of  course, 
is  always  providing  the  alloy  is  right  of 
which  such  work  is  composed : 

No.  i. 


Nitric  acid .  4  ounces. 

Sulphuric  acid .  1  ounce. 

Common  salt . y?  ounce. 


$y  ounces. 

In  preparing  this  solution  add  the  sul¬ 
phuric  acid  to  the  nitric,  and  lastly  put  in 
common  salt  in  a  state  of  fine,  dry  powder. 
Keep  your  work  free  from  water,  and  dip  it 
in  the  mixture  for  a  few  seconds  only.  The 
work  must  be  scrupulously  clean  and  free 
from  grease  of  every  kind. 

No.  2. 

Nitric  acid . .  4  ounces. 

Muriatic  acid .  4  ounces. 

Hydrochloric  acid .  y  drachm. 

Prepare  the  mixture,  and  treat  it  exactly 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  previous  one ;  be 
careful  and  not  leave  the  work  in  the  solution 
too  long. 

No.  3. 


Nitric  acid .  1  ounce 

Muriatic  acid .  1  ounce. 

Common  salt .  1  ounce. 


Well  mix  these  ingredients  together  by 
stirring,  and  then  dip  the  work  for  a  very 
short  time  only,  when  the  object  of  your  de¬ 
sire  will  be  readily  attained. 


POLISHING  SILVER. 


*58 


TO  ETCH  SILVER  AND  GOLD. 

THE  process  of  etching  silver  is  done  for 
the  purpose  of  embellishing  an  otherwise 
dead  flat  surface  of  a  certain  article.  When 
an  etching  is  to  be  introduced,  the  place  of 
the  article  is  slightly  warmed  to  a  temperature 
to  melt  a  coating  of  beeswax  upon  it.  The 
design  is  then  carefully  scratched  with  a 
sharp-pointed  instrument,  the  etching  needle, 
through  the  coating  of  the  beeswax,  work¬ 
ing  and  managing  the  lines  precisely  as  we 
would  if  we  were  making  a  pen-and-ink 
drawing,  forcibly  drawing  the  outline  of  the 
design — say  a  rabbit — and  if  the  operator  is 
confident  of  his  ability  to  preserve  the  round¬ 
ness  of  the  form,  let  the  furry  appearance  be 
given  in  the  etching ;  if  not,  let  him  content 
himself  with  the  outline  and  a  few  vigorous 
touches,  as  far  as  his  ability  enables  him. 

The  etching,  or  “  biting  in,”  as  it  is  also 
termed,  is  best  done  with  nitric  acid,  diluted 
with  three  or  four  times  the  amount  of  water. 
The  piece  to  be  etched  should  be  protected 
all  over  either  with  beeswax  or  shellac  var¬ 
nish  (shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol).  The  ar¬ 
ticle  or  plate  to  be  etched  is  best  sunk  in  the 
dilute  nitric  acid,  where  it  should  be  brushed 
(as  it  lies  immersed  in  the  acid)  with  a 
camel’s-hair  pencil,  to  remove  gas  bubbles. 
A  little  practice  will  enable  one  to  judge  of 
the  time  required,  as  acids  vary  so  much  in 
strength  that  no  rule  can  be  given.  The 
etching  can  be  carried  to  different  degrees 
of  depth  and  width,  by  the  time  to  which  it 
is  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  acid  ;  as,  for 
instance,  the  same  line  can  be  bitten  in  with 
acid  so  as  to  be  so  fine  and  delicate  as  to  be 
almost  imperceptible,  but  if  the  acid  action 
is  continued  it  will  bite  deeper  and  deeper, 
until  a  full,  heavy,  strong  line  is  obtained. 
Gold  can  also  be  etched  by  using  nitro-mu- 
riatic  acid  (2  parts  muriatic,  1  part  nitric), 
diluted  in  about  the  same  proportions.  In 
the  rabbit  the  effects  may  be  varied  by  mat¬ 
ting  some  portions  and  leaving  others  bright. 
After  the  etching  is  complete,  and  before  the 
bright  cutting  is  done,  the  article  should  be 
cleaned  from  the  wax  by  washing  with 
spirits  of  turpentine,  and  then  with  soap  and 
water,  after  which  it  should  be  dried  in  box¬ 
wood  sawdust.  After  the  etching  wax  is  en¬ 
tirely  cleaned  off,  the  etching  lines  should  be 
rubbed  with  a  fine  wire  scratch-brush,  to  re¬ 
move  any  oxide  of  silver  remaining  in  them. 
Such  etch  effects  can  be  made  in  figures  of 
men  or  animals,  but  more  particularly  land¬ 
scape  scenes.  When  in  the  hands  of  a  skill¬ 


ful  designer,  a  witching  little  rural  scene  can 
be  lined  in  in  a  comparatively  short  time. 


POLISHING  SILVER. 

OLISHING  is  an  important  process  with 
all  precious  metal  workers.  It  is  applied 
for  the  production  of  surface  to  their  wares, 
and  in  proportion  to  the  smoothness  required 
upon  the  work,  so  should  be  the  fineness  of 
the  material  employed  in  effecting  it.  The 
polishing  powders  are  emery,  powdered  pum¬ 
ice,  crocus,  rotten-stone,  putty  of  tin,  and 
rouge.  In  the  best  w’ork,  scratches  are  re¬ 
moved  with  a  smooth  and  rather  soft  dark 
gray  stone  (Water-of-Ayr  stone);  it  is  then 
polished  in  the  lathe  with  a  stiff  brush,  and  the 
application  of  a  little  fine  polishing  mixture. 
We  have  placed  the  materials  for  polishing  in 
their  respective  order  of  smoothness  or  fine¬ 
ness,  beginning  with  emery,  which  is  the 
coarsest.  A  very  good  mixture  for  ordinary 
work  consists  of  equal  portions  of  emery, 
pumice,  and  crocus,  with  oil  added  to  consist¬ 
ence  of  a  thick  paste.  Good  work  does  not 
want  much  polishing,  for  the  beauty  of  it  de¬ 
pends  more  on  its  being  executed  by  a  well- 
trained  workman  ;  whereas  rough  and  badly 
executed  work  requires  much  polishing,  and 
for  this  the  coarser  powders  are  preferable, 
or  a  mixture  of  them ;  but  for  the  finer, 
better  finished  work  the  finer  powders  should 
be  employed. 

The  W ater-of-Ayr  stone  employed  for  pol¬ 
ishing  is  usually  obtained  in  the  form  of 
small  square  sticks,  and  is  used  with  a  small 
quantity  of  water  to  the  surface  of  the  work, 
in  a  similar  manner  to  filing.  The  stone  is 
softer  than  the  material  upon  which  it  oper¬ 
ates  (and,  in  fact,  so  are  all  the  materials  for 
polishing),  and  therefore  wears  away,  pro¬ 
ducing  a  mud-like  substance  upon  the  article, 
which  should  be  repeatedly  moved,  in  order 
to  ascertain  the  progress  made.  This  may 
be  done  with  a  clean  rag,  or  tissue  paper. 
When  the  work  is  polished  at  the  lathe  it 
will  gradually  become  enveloped  in  grease, 
etc.,  which  should  be  removed  occasionally, 
to  show  when  the  process  has  been  carried 
far  enough.  The  polishing  of  silver  work  is 
the  branch  of  the  trade  commonly  performed 
by  girls.  It  is  hard  work  for  them,  as  the 
metal  possesses  a  very  soft  nature ;  it  there¬ 
fore  pulls  hard  against  the  brush  which  holds 
the  polishing  mixture.  The  lathe  employed 
is  the  ordinary  polishing  lathe  with  a  hori¬ 
zontal  spindle,  and  is  worked  with  a  common 


RESTORING  THE  LUSTER  OF  SILVER. 


lS9 


foot-treadle ;  steam-power  is  used  by  some 
firms  for  moving  lathes,  but  it  is  by  no 
means  the  usual  custom  at  present. 

After  the  completion  of  the  polishing  pro¬ 
cess,  the  work  is  well  washed  out  in  a  pre¬ 
pared  solution,  to  remove  the  mixture  which 
adheres  to  it ;  a  solution  of  soda  is  found  to 
answer  the  purpose  best,  both  from  its  cheap¬ 
ness  and  effectiveness.  It  should  be  used 
hot,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  soap,  and 
with  a  stiff  brush  the  dirt  is  soon  removed. 
The  quantity  of  soda  used  to  a  given  pro¬ 
portion  of  water  differs  in  the  trade,  and 
there  is  no  set  rule  to  go  by ;  it  dep/ends, 
more  or  less,  upon  the  adhesiveness  bf  the 
polishing  mixture.  We  have  found  about 
two  ounces  of  it  to  a  quart  of  water  amply 
sufficient  for  the  purpose. 


RESTORING  THE  LUSTER  OF 
SILVER. 

HE  best  way  to  restore  the  original  dead 
or  lustrous  whiteness  of  silver  goods, 
lost  or  impaired  by  exposure  to  sulphurous 
atmospheres,  or  by  having  been  too  often 
and  perhaps  carelessly  cleaned,  is  effected 
by  annealing  in  a  charcoal  fire,  or  before  the 
flame  of  a  gas  or  oil  lamp,  by  means  of  the 
blow-pipe,  which  affects  the  destroying  of  all 
organic  matter  adhering  to  the  surface  of  the 
article,  at  the  same  time  oxidizing  on  the 
surface  the  base  metals  with  which  the  silver 
is  alloyed.  The  article  is  allowed  to  cool, 
and  then  immersed  in  a  boiling  solution, 
consisting  of  from  one  to  five  parts  of  sul¬ 
phuric  acid,  and  twenty  parts  of  water — the 
quantity  of  the  water  depending  upon  the 
quality  of  the  silver  the  article  is  made  of ; 
the  coarser  the 'silver,  the  more  acidulated. 
The  boiling  in  this  solution  has  the  effect  of 
dissolving  the  extracted  deposit  of  oxide 
and  leaving  a  coating  of  pure  and  fine  silver 
on  the  surface.  The  time  for  allowing  the 
articles  to  remain  in  the  solution  also  de¬ 
pends  on  the  quality  of  the  silver ;  while 
good  sterling  silver  will  be  whitened  in  al¬ 
most  an  instant,  common  silver  will  take  a 
minute,  or  even  longer ;  care  is,  however,  to 
be  taken  not  to  allow  the  articles  to  be  too 
long  in  the  solution,  as  in  that  case  the  sur¬ 
face  will  turn  into  an  unseemly  grayish  color, 
and  the  manipulation  will  have  to  be  com¬ 
menced  afresh  ;  if  the  silver  is  very  com¬ 
mon,  the  article  will  require  to  be  repeatedly 
treated  in  this  manner  before  the  desired 
whiteness  is  obtained,  and  in  some  cases  will 


even  have  to  be  silvered  by  the  galvanic 
method.  As  soon  as  the  desired  whiteness 
of  the  article  whilst  in  the  acid  is  observed, 
it  is  removed  and  quickly  thrown  into  luke¬ 
warm  water ;  it  is  advisable  to  have  an  ad¬ 
ditional  vessel  with  warm  water  at  hand  to 
place  the  articles  in  after  having  been  re¬ 
moved  from  the  first.  The  articles  are  then 
immersed  in  boxwood  sawdust,  kept  in  an 
iron  vessel  near  the  stove,  or  any  warm 
place,  when,  after  thoroughly  drying  in  the 
sawdust,  the  article  will  be  found  to  look  like 
new.  Any  places  on  the  article  desired  to 
look  bright  are  burnished  with  a  steel  bur¬ 
nisher. 

The  annealing,  prior  to  placing  the  article 
into  the  acid  solution,  requires  some  care 
and  attention,  or  else  the  workmanship  of 
the  piece  will  be  irretrievably  lost.  It  is 
first  of  all  necessary  to  closely  examine  the- 
article,  whether  it  has  been  soft-soldered 
previously,  as  under  such  circumstances  it  is 
unfit  to  be  annealed,  as  the  heat  necessary 
for  this  would  burn  the  solder  into  the  ar¬ 
ticles  and  produce  blemish  past  remedy.  It 
is,  secondly,  necessary  to  remove  all  stones, 
steel,  or  any  material  not  silver,  or  liable  to 
be  injured  in  the  fire,  and  it  is  also  advisable 
to  remove  pins  or  tongues  from  brooches,  or 
spiral  springs  attached  to  some  very  showy 
ornaments,  to  produce  a  shaking  or  trembling 
greatly  admired  in  artistic  jewelry,  in  order 
to  preserve  the  hardness  of  the  pins  and  the 
elasticity  of  the  springs.  After  being  satis¬ 
fied  that  these  precautions  have  been  ob¬ 
served,  and  the  article  is  without  risk  fit  to 
be  annealed,  another  precaution,  and  espe¬ 
cially  by  mechanics  not  accustomed  to  such 
work,  should  be  observed,  namely,  to  pre¬ 
vent.  an  over  or  under  heating.  If  the  ar¬ 
ticle  is  overheated,  it  is  liable  to  melt,  and  if 
underheated,  the  organic  matter  adhering  is 
not  effectually  destroyed,  and  the  surface 
not  sufficiently  oxidized.  In  order  to  ob¬ 
tain  the  required  degree  of  heat,  and  running 
no  risk  of  either  under  or  over  heating,  the 
article  is  held  with  a  pair  of  pincers  very 
close  over  the  flame  of  the  lamp  so  as  to  be 
covered  with  soot  all  over,  and  then  exposed 
before  the  blast  of  a  flame  by  means  of  a 
blow-pipe,  until  the  soot  bums  or  disappears, 
when  quite  sufficient  and  yet  not  more  heat 
than  is  required  is  obtained.  The  practice 
of  this  last  precaution  will  greatly  assist  the 
manipulation  and  prevent  accidents. 

Silver  ornaments  which  have  merely  be¬ 
come  oxidized  by  exposure  in  a  sulphurous 


COLD  SILVER  PLATING. 


1 60 


atmosphere,  and  not  by  repeated  cleaning, 
are  simply  restored  by  brushing  with  a  clean 
-tooth-brush  and  a  little  carbqnate  of  soda. 


alike,  rub  it  with  very  fine  chalk  powder  or 
dust  upon  wadding  or  other  soft  cloth,  wash 
with  clean  water,  and  dry  with  a  cloth. 


TARNISHING  OF  SILVER. 

OF  the  many  agents  proposed  to  prevent 
the  tarnishing  of  silver  and  plated 
goods,  none  appear  to  have  given  as  satis¬ 
factory  results  as  a  varnish  of  collodion — a 
solution  of  gun-cotton  in  a  mixture  of  alco¬ 
hol  and  ether.  All  other  varnishes  appear 
to  impart  a  yellowish  tinge  to  the  silver  or 
plated  wares,  but  collodion  varnish  is  quite 
colorless.  The  articles  should  be  carefully 
brushed  with  the  varnish,  using  an  elastic 
brush,  making  sure  that  the  entire  surface  is 
covered.  The  film  of  collodion  will  protect 
the  underlying  metal  surface  for  a  long  time. 


TO  CLEANSE  SILVER  TARNISHED 
BY  SOLDERING. 

SOME  expose  it  to  a  uniform  heat,  allow 
to  cool,  and  then  boil  in  strong  alum 
water.  Others  immerse  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time  in  a  liquid  made  of  one-half 
ounce  of  cyanide  of  potash  to  one  pint  of  rain¬ 
water,  and  then  brush  off  with  prepared  chalk. 


TO  CLEAN  SILVER. 

TAKE  either  a  small  sponge,  a  piece  of 
flannel,  a  piece  of  chamois,  or  a  clean 
and  dry  silver  brush.  Rub  all  the  articles 
which  have  bad  spots  with  salt,  which  re¬ 
moves  the  spots  more  quickly  than  anything 
else.  The  simplest  method  is  to  place  a  little 
prepared  chalk  in  a  saucer  with  water,  of 
which  make  a  thick  paste,  and  add  a  few 
drops  of  ammonia.  In  place  of  ammonia,  the 
chalk  can  be  prepared  with  alcohol  or  simply 
with  water.  This  paste  is  to  be  brushed  or 
rubbed  carefully  over  the  article. 


RAPID  SILVER  PLATING. 

DR.  BURGER  recommends  the  follow¬ 
ing  for  rapid  silver  plating :  Prepare  a 
powder  of  3  parts  of  chloride  of  silver,  20 
parts  carefully  pulverized  cream  of  tartar, 
and  1 5  parts  pulverized  cooking  salt ;  mix 
it  into  a  thin  paste  with  water,  and  rub  it 
upon  the  well-cleaned  metallic  surface  with 
blotting  paper.  After  you  are  certain  that 
all  parts  of  the  article  have  been  touched 


SILVERING  RECIPE. 

AMONG  the  several  recipes  given  for  ob¬ 
taining  a  silvering  solution,  Marquand 
recommends  the  following  of  Mr.  C.  Eber- 
macher,  which  has  been  tested  repeatedly, 
and  was  found  very  useful,  as  it  gives,  after 
a  short  time,  lustrous  silver  layers  on  metals, 
and  especially  on  brass.  Care  must  be  taken 
that  the  pieces  which  are  dipped  in  the  metal 
bath  be  treated  before  in  the  ordinary  man¬ 
ner  in  a  potash  solution  and  dilute  hy¬ 
drochloric  acid.  The  silver  bath  is  made 
with  a  solution  of  four  ounces  lunar  caustic 
(equal  to  a  solution  of  two  and  one-half 
ounces  silver  in  seven  and  one-half  ounces 
nitric  acid) ;  the  silver  of  this  solution  is 
precipitated  as  oxide  of  silver  by  the  addi¬ 
tion  of  a  solution  of  two  and  one-half  ounces 
caustic  potash  in  six  and  one-quarter  ounces 
distilled  water ;  and  the  precipitate,  after 
being  washed,  is  added  to  a  solution  of  1 2 
and  one-half  ounces  of  cyanide  of  potassium 
in  one  quart  of  water.  This  solution  is  then 
filtered  and  water  added  to  bring  it  to  four 
and  one-quarter  quarts.  In  this  solution, 
which  is  heated  on  the  water  bath,  the  pieces 
to  be  silvered  are  left  for  a  few  minutes. 
After  being  agitated,  they  are  taken  out,  ard 
put  to  dry  in  fine  sawdust,  and  then  polished. 


COLD  SILVER  PLATING. 

FRESHLY  deposited  chloride  of  silver, 
well  washed  with  hot  water,  is  mixed 
in  equal  proportions  of  table  salt  and  cream 
of  tartar,  until  it  becomes  a  paste,  if  neces¬ 
sary,  with  additions  of  water.  The  article 
to  be  silvered  is  first  cleansed  with  a  good 
stiff  brush  and  a  solution  of  soda  and  soap, 
and  thoroughly  rinsed  to  remove  any  dirt, 
and  again  rinsed  with  hot  water.  It  is  to 
be  recommended  to  submit  it  to  a  dry  clean¬ 
ing  with  pulverized  and  washed  chalk,  pum¬ 
ice-stone  powder,  or  quartz  powder.  When 
well  rinsed  with  cold  water,  make  a  ball  of 
loose  cotton  wrapped  in  soft  muslin,  and 
with  this  coat  the  wet  article  with  a  thin 
layer  of  salt ;  then  rub  some  of  the  silvering 
paste  onto  it  until  the  whole  article  under 
treatment  is  well  silver-coated.  When  suffi¬ 
cient,  quickly  rub  with  a  little  ball  some 
cream  of  tartar  upon  the  silvering,  and 


SILVER  ALLOYS. 


wash.  The  silver  deposit  will  be  found 
handsome,  clean,  and  as  white  as  snow. 


SILVERING  WITHOUT  A  BATTERY. 

SILVERING  by  contact  is  not  as  dura¬ 
ble  as  by  battery,  although  the  color  is 
the  same.  The  solution  is  prepared  as  fol¬ 
lows  :  Take  one  part  chloride  of  silver,  six 
parts  prussiate  of  potash,  four  parts  purified 
potash,  two  parts  salt,  four  parts  caustic  am¬ 
monia,  four  and  one-half  parts  rain-water. 
First  prepare  the  chloride  of  silver,  next  dis¬ 
solve  the  prussiate  of  potash  in  water,  and 
add  then  the  potash,  salt,  and  ammonia,  and 
boil  the  whole  for  one-half  hour  in  a  porce¬ 
lain  vessel ;  filter,  and  the  fluid  is  ready  for 
silvering.  The  utmost  cleanliness  is  also  a 
primary  condition  by  this  method.  Heat 
the  fluid  up  by  boiling,  then  introduce  the 
article,  together  with  a  piece  of  clean  zinc. 
Take  it  out  after  a  few  minutes  and  brush 
it  with  cream  of  tartar,  and  put  it  back  again 
in  the  solution,  in  which  leave  it  for  three  or 
four  minutes.  Then  brush  again,  and  con¬ 
tinue  this  until  it  is  sufficiently  silvered. 
This  silvering  will  bear  polishing  with  the 
steel,  and  takes  a  nice  black  luster.  Articles 
silvered  by  this  method  cannot  be  distin¬ 
guished  from  silver  articles.  It  is  very  good 
to  protect  galvanic  casts  against  dimming. 
But  when  silvering,  no  more  must  be  taken 
of  the  fluid  than  will  be  used. 


FROSTING  POLISHED  ILVER. 

CYANIDE  of  potassium  one  ounce,  dis¬ 
solved  in  one-half  pint  of  water.  Do 
not  hold  the  silver  in  your  hands,  but  use 
boxwood  plyers,  and  apply  the  mixture  to 
the  surface  with  a  brush. 


PICKLE  FOR  FROSTING. 

SILVERWARE  may  be  frosted  and 
whitened  by  preparing  a  pickle  of  sul¬ 
phuric  acid  one  drachm,  water  four  ounces  ; 
heat  it  and  in  it  immerse  the  silver  articles 
until  frosted  as  desired  ;  then  wash  off  clean 
and  dry  with  a  soft  linen  cloth,  or  in  fine 
clean  sawdust.  For  whitening  only,  a 
smaller  quantity  of  acid  may  be  used. 


SILVER-ALUMINUM  ALLOYS. 


ALUMINUM  and  silver  make  handsome 
■  white  alloys,  which,  compared  to  those 
from  pure  aluminum,  are  much  harder,  in 


x6t 

consequence  of  which  they  take  a  much 
higher  polish,  and,  at  the  same  time,  they 
are  preferable  to  the  silver-copper  alloys,  for 
the  reason  that  they  are  unchangeable  in  air 
and  retain  their  white  color.  It  has  been 
proposed,  therefore,  no  longer  to  alloy  the 
world’s  money  with  copper,  but  with  alumi¬ 
num,  which  makes  it  far  more  durable,  and 
even  after  a  long-continued  use  it  retains  its 
white  color.  Experiments  on  a  vast  scale 
were  for  this  reason  instituted  in  European 
countries,  but  for  some  reason  or  other,  it 
appears  that  the  silver-copper  alloys  were 
retained.  According  to  the  quantities  of 
aluminum  added,  the  alloys  possess  varying 
characteristics.  An  alloy  consisting  of  ioo 
parts  aluminum  and  five  parts  silver  dif¬ 
fers  but  little  from  the  pure  aluminum,  yet  it 
is  far  harder  and  assumes  a  higher  polish. 
An  alloy  consisting  of  equal  parts  of  alumi¬ 
num  and  silver  rivals  bronze  in  hardness. 


WASHING  SILVERWARE. 

NEVER  use  a  particle  of  soap  on  your 
silverware,  as  it  dulls  the  luster,  giving  the 
article  more  the  appearance  of  pewter  than 
of  silver.  When  it  wants  cleaning,  rub  it 
with  a  piece  of  soft  leather  and  prepared 
chalk,  the  latter  made  into  a  kind  of  paste 
with  pure  water,  for  the  reason  that  water 
not  pure  might  contain  gritty  particles. 


EXTRACTING  SILVER  FROM 
WASTAGE. 

MIX  your  refuse  with  an  equal  quantity 
of  wood  charcoal,  place  in  a  crucible 
and  heat  to  a  bright  red,  and  in  a  short  time 
a  silver  button  will  be  found  at  the  bottom. 
Carbonate  of  soda  is  another  good  flux. 


SILVER  ALLOYS. 

PURE  silver  is  a  metal  of  only  an  inferior 
degree  of  hardness,  in  consequence  of 
which  silverware  manufactured  from  the 
pure  metal  would  be  subject  to  rapid  wear, 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  generally  alloyed, 
except  for  articles  for  the  chemical  labora¬ 
tory.  Silver  is  more  frequently  alloyed  with 
copper ;  beside  this,  it  is  also  alloyed  with 
gold  and  aluminum.  Alloys  containing  sil¬ 
ver  and  nickel,  or  silver,  nickel,  and  zinc, 
are  much  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
table  ware  and  articles  de  luxe ,  which,  while 
being  of  a  handsome  white  color,  are  much. 


DIPPING  MIXTURE. 


162 


cheaper  than  those  from  silver  and  copper, 
which  was  formerly  much  used  in  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  silverware. 


RESILVERING  BRASS  CLOCK  DIALS. 

HE  following  solutions  are  generally 
employed  for  electro-plating:  Silver 
solution,  No.  1  :  cyanide  of  potassium, 
lb. ;  cyanide  of  silver,  oz. ;  water,  1 
gallon.  The  cyanide  of  potassium,  in  the 
form  of  white  cakes  or  lumps,  is  dissolved  in 
the  water  and  allowed  to  settle ;  it  is  then 
filtered.  The  cyanide  of  silver,  a  white 
powder,  is  then  gradually  added  to  the  alka¬ 
line  cyanide  solution  in  the  above  propor¬ 
tions  ;  it  will  dissolve  on  stirring,  and  the 
result  is  -the  electro-plating  solution  desired. 
It  contains  1  oz.  of  silver  to  the  gallon. 
Solution  No.  2:  This  is  the  solution  of  silver 
which  is  most  easily  prepared ;  it  is  also  the 
cheapest,  and  there  is  neither  time  nor  labor 
spent  in  preparing  the  silver  salt  for  solution 
in  the  cyanide  solution.  The  materials  em¬ 
ployed  are :  Cyanide  of  potassium,  lb. ; 
water,  1  gallon.  This  solution  is  placed  in 
a  large  vessel,  and  a  similar  solution  is  placed 
in  a  flat,  porous  vessel,  which  is  supported  in 
the  larger  vessel,  so  that  the  liquid  is  the 
same  height  in  each  vessel.  In  the  porous 
vessel  is  put  a  small  and  clean  piece  of  iron, 
and  in  the  outer  vessel  a  large  and  thick 
sheet  of  pure  silver,  the  iron  being  so  fixed 
that  the  conductor  in  contact  with  it  does 
not  enter  the  solution,  and  the  silver  being 
supported  entirely  in  the  liquid  by  means  of 
thick  silver  wire.  When  these  details  are 
properly  arranged,  the  silver  plate  and  the 
iron  plate  are  so  connected  with  the  source 
of  electric  power  that  the  electric  current 
proceeds  from  the  silver  to  the  iron.  The 
size  of  the  silver  plate  may  be  half  a  square 
foot,  and  the  electric  power  employed  may 
be  equivalent  to  six  Smee’s  cells,  each  with- 
an  area  of  18  square  inches.  In  a  few  hours 
the  silver  plate  will  have  lost  1  oz.  of  the 
metal.  The  disposition  of  the  metal  on  the 
cathode  is  prevented  by  the  use  of  the  porous 
vessel.  The  liquid  in  the  porous  vessel  may 
contain  some  silver ;  this  may  be  ascertained 
by  the  addition  thereto  of  muriatic  acid. 
Although  there  is  free  caustic  potash  in  the 
solution,  which  by  contact  with  the  air  be¬ 
comes  carbonate  of  potash,  and  although  the 
resulting  solution  is  not  quite  so  conductive 
of  electricity  as  No.  1,  it  is  a  very  good  solu¬ 
tion  in  practice,  and  is  said  to  be  less  likely 


to  deposit  non-adherent  metal,  or,  in  techni¬ 
cal  terms,  metal  “  that  will  strip,”  than  many 
others. 


SILVERSMITHS’  ALLOY. 

OPPER,  1  oz. ;  nickel,  3  dwts.  12  grs. ; 
bismuth,  6  grs. ;  zinc,  2  dwts.  1 2  grs.  ; 
soft  iron,  1 2  grs. ;  tin,  1 2  grs.  This  com¬ 
pound  is  said  to  form  a  fusible  and  malleable 
metal  that  can  be  easily  worked  by  the  sil¬ 
versmith  ;  it  is  also  said  to  resist  oxidation 
through  atmospheric  influences. 


IMITATION  SILVER. 

INE  silver,  6  dwts.;  nickel,  6  dwts.; 
copper,  8  dwts. 


REMOVING  GOLD  FROM  SILVER 
ARTICLES. 

ILVER  articles  which  have  been  gilt  may 
be  brought  back  to  their  original  color 
by  simply  covering  them  with  a  thick  solu¬ 
tion  of  borax,  and  then  well  annealing  them. 
After  this  process,  if  the  articles  are  boiled 
for  a  short  time  in  one  of  the  whitening  mix¬ 
tures  and  scratched,  they  will  present  a 
beautiful  white  and  uniform  surface. 


OXIDIZING  SILVER. 

BEAUTIFUL  deep,  black  color,  pos¬ 
sessing  great  luster,  may  be  given  to 
finished  silver  work  by  boiling  it  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  preparation  for  some  time  :  Bromine, 
5  grs. ;  bromide  of  potassium,  5  dwts. ; 
water,  1  o  oz.  The  boiling  should  be  effected 
in  a  stoneware  pipkin,  and  generally  from 
two  to  five  minutes  will  suffice  for  the  pur¬ 
pose.  The  work  is  finished  after  the  proper 
color  has  been  attained  by  well  rubbing  with 
a  soft  piece  of  wash-leather  and  a  little  best 
jewelers’  rouge.  It  is  better  to  make  the 
work  as  bright  as  possible  before  submitting 
it  to  this  mixture ;  for  this  reason  it  is  pref¬ 
erable  to  thoroughly  buff  all  plain  surfaces 
on  a  piece  of  felt  by  the  application  of  the 
lathe,  as  by  that  means  a  characteristic 
brightness  is  imparted. 


DIPPING  MIXTURE. 

RASS  or  metal  goods  may  be  cleaned 
and  their  oxides  removed  by  dipping 
into  the  under-mentioned  liquid  for  a  few 
seconds  only  :  Oil  of  vitriol,  5  parts  ;  water. 


ELECTRO-PLATING  SOFT  SOLDER. 


-5  parts;  nitric  acid,  2^4  parts;  spirits  of 
salts,  two  drachms.  Well  mix  the  several 
ingredients  together,  and  immerse  the  work 
in  the  solution  cold.  The  mixture  improves 
after  a  quantity  of  work  has  been  dipped 
into  it. 


SILVER  POWDER  FOR  COPPER. 

HLORIDE  of  silver,  2  parts;  cream 
of  tartar,  2  parts ;  alum,  1  part.  Mix 
with  water  to  the  consistence  of  a  paste,  and 
.apply  with  a  soft  leather  or  sponge ;  when 
.sufficiently  whitened,  well  polish. 

ANOTHER  RECIPE. 

Chloride  of  silver,  1  oz. ;  sal-ammoniac, 
2  oz. ;  sandiver,  2  oz. ;  white  vitriol,  2  oz. ; 
bichloride  of  mercury,  5  dwts.  Make  into 
a  paste  with  water,  and  rub  the  articles  over 
with  it ;  then  expose  them  to  a  good  heat 
upon  a  clear  fire,  in  order  to  run  the  silver 
and  evaporate  the  mercury,  after  which 
process  dip  in  very  weak  sulphuric  acid  to 
clean. 


SILVER-STRIPPING  MIXTURE. 

ULPHURIC  acid,  6  parts;  nitric  acid, 
1  part.  Take  a  large  black-lead  cruci¬ 
ble  or  pipkin  and  heat  the  mixture  in  it ; 
when  this  is  done  put  in  the  work  required 
to  be  stripped,  occasionally  withdrawing  it 
to  ascertain  the  progress  made.  The  large 
proportion  of  sulphuric  acid  allows  of  the 
'dissolution  of  the  silver,  and  does  not  sensi¬ 
bly  corrode  or  interfere  with  copper  or  any 
of  its  alloys,  if  kept  quite  free  from  water ; 
therefore  be  careful  not  to  introduce  wet  ar¬ 
ticles  into  the  mixture.  After  finally  with¬ 
drawing  the  work,  it  should  be  well  rinsed, 
.annealed,  and  then  boiled  out. 


STRIPPING  SILVER. 

UT  some  strong  oil  of  vitriol  in  a  similar 
vessel  to  those  above  described,  apply 
heat,  and  during  the  process  add  a  few  crys¬ 
tals  of  saltpeter.  When  the  solution  has 
become  hot  enough,  the  work  should  be  im¬ 
mersed  in  it,  and  be  moved  about  or  agi¬ 
tated  until  the  silver  is  dissolved  from  the 
-surface.  The  articles  should  not  be  allowed 
to  remain  too  long  in  the  solution,  and  if  it 
does  not  remove  the  silver  quickly,  more 
saltpeter  should  be  added  from  time  to  time 
until  the  desired  end  be  attained. 


163 

SOFT  SOLDER. 

URE  tin,  2  parts;  lead,  1  part.  Melt, 
and  well  incorporate  together;  when 
this  is  done,  pour  into  strips  for  use. 


SOLDERING  FLUID. 

URIATIC  acid  (spirits  of  salts),  3  parts  ; 
metallic  zinc,  1  part,  or  as  much  as 
the  acid  will  take  up.  When  dissolved  and 
all  effervescence  ceases,  allow  it  to  settle, 
then  decant  the  clear  solution  from  the  sedi¬ 
ment  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  in  which  it 
has  been  made,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  If 
a  small  quantity  of  water  be  added  to  the 
mixture  at  this  stage,  say  yi,  it  will  answer 
quite  as  well  for  some  purposes.  For  solder¬ 
ing  iron  and  steel,  a  very  small  portion  of 
sal-ammoniac  is  of  great  advantage  to  the 
mixture  for  promoting  toughness. 


DISSOLVENTS. 

ISSOLVING  fine  silver:  Nitric  acid,  2 
parts ;  water,  1  part. 

Dissolving  silver  alloys:  Nitric  acid,  1 
part ;  water,  2  parts. 

Dissolving  copper:  Nitric  acid,  1  part; 
water,  4  parts. 

Dissolving  soft  solder:  Perchloride  of 
iron,  1  part ;  water  4  parts. 

Dissolving  silver  solder:  Nitric  acid  1 
part ;  water  4  parts. 

Dissolving  sealing-wax  :  Place  for  a  time 
in  a  solution  of  spirits  of  wine. 


RESIST  VARNISH. 

DISSOLVE  resin  or  copal  in  essence  of 
turpentine,  or  boiled  linseed  oil ;  to 
give  it  different  shades  of  color,  add  red 
lead,  chrome  yellow,  or  Prussian  blue. 


PLATE  POWDER. 

HITENING,  2  parts;  white  oxide  of 
tin,  1  part ;  calcined  hartshorn,  1  part. 
Reduce  to  a  powder  and  well  mix  together; 
apply  as  usual. 


ELECTRO-PLATING  SOFT  SOLDER. 

AKE  nitric  acid,  1  ounce ;  water,  2 
ounces  ;  copper,  about  x  ounce  in 
small,  flat  pieces ;  when  the  copper  has  dis¬ 
solved  and  effervescence  has  ceased,  the  so¬ 
lution  is  ready  for  use.  To  apply  it,  take 


164 


DEAD-WHITE  ON  SILVER  ARTICLES. 


up  a  few  drops  by  means  of  a  camel’s-hair 
pencil  and  apply  it  to  the  desired  part,  then 
touch  it  with  a  bright  piece  of  steel,  and 
there  will  be  instantaneously  a  film  of  copper 
deposited.  If  the  copper  has  not  spread  all 
over  the  desired  part  the  process  should  be 
repeated,  when  deposition  in  the  plating  bath 
will  take  place  with  perfect  success. 

ANOTHER  RECIPE. 

Take  sulphate  of  copper  (that  which 
accumulates  in  the  whitening  mixture),  1 
ounce  ;  water,  6  ounces.  Reduce  the  sul¬ 
phate  of  copper  to  a  fine  powder  and  dis¬ 
solve  it  in  the  water.  Treat  according  to 
the  directions  given  in  the  previous  one.  A 
good  mixture  for  effecting  the  same  result 
may  be  made  by  dissolving  verdigris  in  vine¬ 
gar. 


TESTING  SILVER  WARE. 

AKE  nitric  acid,  6  ounces  ;  water,  2 
ounces ;  bichromate  of  potash,  1  ounce. 
Reduce  the  salt  of  potash  to  a  powder  and 
mix  it  well  with  the  acid  and  water.  The 
solution  is  used  cold,  and  should  be  placed 
in  a  stoppered  glass  bottle,  the  stepper  hav¬ 
ing  a  long  dropper  extending  into  the  mixture, 
which  acts  as  the  agent  for  conveying  the 
liquid  from  the  bottle  to  the  article  to  be 
tested.  The  surface  of  the  article  should  be 
perfectly  clean ;  and  to  make  certain  what 
kind  of  metallic  substance  you  are  testing,  it 
is  advisable  to  rub  a  file  over  some  obscure 
part  of  the  surface  and  to  apply  the  liquid  to 
that  part.  The  test  liquid  should  be  used, 
by  means  of  the  glass  stopper;  to  the  filed 
part,  and  immediately  removed  by  a  sponge 
dampened  with  cold  water.  If  the  article 
consists  of  pure  silver  there  will  appear  a 
clean  blood-red  mark,  which  is  less  deep  and 
lively  in  proportion  to  the  quality  of  the 
metal.  Upon  platinum  the  test  liquid  has 
no  action  whatever ;  on  German  silver  at 
first  a  brown  mark  appears,  but  this  is  re¬ 
moved  by  the  sponge  and  cold  water ;  on 
Britannia  metal  a  black  mark  is  produced ; 
and  on  all  the  various  metals  an  entirely 
different  result  takes  place  to  that  on  silver; 
therefore  the  test  is  a  simple  one,  and  may 
be  advantageously  employed  for  the  detec¬ 
tion  of  any  fraud  in  relation  to  the  precious 
metal. 

ANOTHER  TEST. 

Water,  2  oz. ;  sulphuric  acid,  2  drs. ; 
chromate  of  potash,  4  dwts.  This  mixture 


is  applied  in  the  same  way  as  before  and 
produces  a  purple  color  of  various  depths, 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  silver.  No 
other  metallic  element  exhibits  the  same 
color  with  this  preparation. 

ANOTHER  TEST. 

The  testing  of  silver  is  far  more  difficult 
than  that  of  gold ;  an  experienced  eye 
and  a  steady  hand  are  necessary  for  doing 
it.  By  laying  bare  a  spot  with  a  scraper  an 
expert  will  easily  distinguish  whether  the 
silver  has  been  alloyed  with  white  nickel 
metals,  such  as  cadmium,  aluminum,  bis¬ 
muth,  zinc,  etc.,  which  are  generally  em¬ 
ployed  for  the  purpose ;  or  whether  it  was 
alloyed  with  copper,  in  which  case  the  fine¬ 
ness  is  easily  ascertained  by  the  use  of  a 
test-needle  upon  the  touch-stone.  The  eas¬ 
iest  test  for  distinguishing  silver  from  silver¬ 
like  metals  that  can  be  employed,  even  by  a 
layman,  is  by  scraping  or  filing  a  place  of 
the  article  rather  heavily,  so  as  to  remove 
the  coating,  for  fear  that  it  might  be  silver- 
plated,  and  then  to  moisten  the  spot  with 
nitric  acid ;  if,  after  -wiping  it  off  again,  a 
dirty  white  ground  has  formed,  it  is  silver ; 
if  no  essential  alteration  of  color  has  ensued, 
it  is  a  base  metal. 


TO  REFINE  SILVER. 

AFTER  having  rolled  the  silver,  cut  it 
.  into  pellets,  and  curl  them  to  prevent 
them  from  lying  flat ;  then  drop  them  into  a 
vessel  containing  2  ounces  of  good  nitric 
acid,  diluted  with  one-half  ounce  clean  rain¬ 
water.  When  the  silver  has  entirely  disap¬ 
peared,  add  to  the  2^  ounces  of  solution 
nearly  one  quart  of  clean  rain-w^ater.  Then 
sink  a  clean  sheet  of  copper  into  it ;  the  sil¬ 
ver  will  collect  rapidly  upon  the  copper,  and 
you  can  scrape  it  off  and  melt  it  into  a  but¬ 
ton.  _ 

TO  WHITEN  SILVER  ARTICLES. 

O  wffiiten  silver  articles,  boil  them  in  a 
solution  of  1  part  of  cream  of  tartar,  2  parts 
of  salt,  and  50  parts  of  water,  until  they  as¬ 
sume  a  fine,  unpolished  white. 


DEAD-WHITE  ON  SILVER  ARTICLES. 

EAT  the  article  to  a  cherry-red  or  a 
dull  red  heat,  and  allow  it  to  cool ; 
then  place  it  in  a  pickle  of  5  parts  sulphuric 
acid  to  100  parts  water,  and  allow  it  to  re- 


CLEANING  SILVERWARE. 


i65 


main  for  an  hour  or  two.  If  the  surface  is 
not  right  rinse  in  cold  water,  and  repeat  the 
heating  and  pickling  operation  as  before. 
This  removes  the  copper  from  the  surface  of 
the  article,  leaving  pure  silver  on  the  sur¬ 
face.  When  sufficiently  whitened,  remove 
from  the  pickle,  well  rinse  in  pure  hot  water, 
and  place  in  warm  boxwood  sawdust. 


WHITE-PICKLING  SILVER. 

HE  purpose  of  pickling  silver  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  coloring  of  gold ; 
the  alloy  lying  immediately  exposed  upon 
the  surface  is  dissolved  by  the  acid  in  the 
pickle,  whereby  the  metal  upon  the  surface 
is  made  purer  and  appears  of  the  color  of 
the  pure  and  unalloyed  metal.  After  the 
article  has  been  ground  well  it  is  heated  to 
red  heat  and,  when  cold,  boiled  in  water 
which  has  been  charged  with  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  sulphuric  acid,  so  that  it  has  the 
acid  taste  of  sharp  vinegar,  in  which  fluid  it 
is  boiled  for  one  or  two  minutes.  The  crust 
formed  upon  the  surface  of  articles  which 
are  to  be  burnished  is  rubbed  off  with  fine 
sand  or  with  the  scratch-brush  and  beer ; 
articles  which  are  to  be  matted  with  the  mat- 
brushing  machine,  are  brushed  off  with  chalk 
and  alcohol.  This  process  of  heating,  pick¬ 
ling,  and  brushing  is  to  be  repeated  three 
times.  There  is  another  kind  of  pickling, 
by  boiling  the  heated  article  in  water  which 
-contains  in  solution  one  part  cream  of  tartar 
and  two  parts  table  salt.  Silver  articles 
which  are  to  preserve  the  hardness  imparted 
to  them  by  rolling  or  hammering,  which 
consequently  cannot  be  heated,  are  pickled 
by  being  uniformly  coated  with  nitric  acid 
or  by  being  silver-plated. 


TO  SEPARATE  SILVER  FROM 
COPPER. 

IX  sulphuric  acid,  i  part ;  nitric  acid,  i 
part ;  water,  i  part.  Boil  the  metal  in 
the  mixture  until  it  dissolves ;  then  throw 
in  a  little  salt,  to  cause  the  silver  to  deposit. 


IMITATION  SILVER. 

ILVER,  i  ounce ;  nickel,  i  ounce  1 1 
dwts. ;  copper,  2  ounces  9  dwts.  Or, 
silver,  3  ounces ;  nickel,  1  ounce  1 1  dwts. ; 
■copper,  2  ounces  9  dwts.  ;  spelter,  10  dwts. 


RAPID  SILVERING. 

HE  watchmaker  is  occasionally  called 
on  to  resilver  old  clock  faces  or  other 
parts  belonging  to  clocks.  When  the  article 
is  not  exposed  to  handling,  the  following  re¬ 
cipe  for  silvering  will  be  found  to  be  very 
efficacious :  Get  ounce  of  nitrate  of  sil¬ 
ver,  to  be  had  at  every  drug  store,  dissolve 
in  a  teaspoonful  of  water,  and  then  add 
pound  of  cream 'of  tartar  and  pound  of 
common  table  salt ;  thoroughly  mix  these 
ingredients  together  with  a  wooden  stick, 
adding  sufficient  water  to  make  a  thick  paste. 
Put  this  by  in  a  glass-stoppered  bottle  for 
use  as  required,  and  it  will  keep  any  length 
of  time.  This  is  the  silvering  powder,  and 
before  applying  it  to  the  brass  this  must  be 
made  quite  clean  and  bright.  Get  a  piece 
of  chamois  leather,  and  fold  it  up  small 
enough  to  be  handy ;  with  this  rub  on  the 
silver  paste  thoroughly  all  over,  till  by  the 
appearance  of  the  brass  work  you  judge  the 
silvering  to  be  properly  effected.  Now  wash 
the  article  quite  clean,  finally  polishing  off 
with  a  little  whiting ;  this  will  finish,  as  far 
as  the  silvering  process  is  concerned ;  but 
to  make  the  coating  last  under  atmospheric 
influences,  it  must  be  protected  by  a  coat  of 
varnish.  Any  colorless  varnish  will  answer 
for  this,  which  can  be  procured  anywhere. 
Of  course  the  more  silver  powder  is  rubbed 
on  the  thicker  the  coating,  and  it  will  stand 
good  for  years.  _ 

TO  REDUCE  CHLORIDE  OF  SILVER. 

NE  of  the  best  methods  for  reducing 
chloride  of  silver  to  the  metallic  state 
is  in  use  in  the  mint  at  Paris ;  it  consists  in 
mixing  5  parts  of  dry  chloride  of  silver  with 
1  part  of  freshly  calcined  lime,  and  to  melt 
it.  The  chloride  of  lime  thus  formed  melts 
easily,  without  rising  in,  and  running  over, 
or  adhering  to,  the  crucible,  which  takes 
place  by  almost  every  other  method,  and 
produces  a  loss  of  silver. 


CLEANING  SILVERWARE. 

ACCORDING  to  Professor  Davenport, 

■  hypo-sulphurous  soda  is  the  simplest 
and  best  cleansing  agent  for  silverware.  It 
operates  quickly,  is  cheap,  and  has  not  yet 
been  proposed  for  the  purpose.  A  rag  or 
brush  moistened  with  the  saturated  solution 
of  the  salt  cleans,  without  the  use  of  cleaning 
powder,  strongly  oxidized  silver  surfaces 
within  a  few  seconds. 


i66 


MAT  BRUSHING. 


ANOTHER  RECIPE. 

Carbonate  of  ammonia,  i  oz. ;  water,  4 
oz. ;  Paris  white,  16  oz. ;  well  mix  the  in¬ 
gredients  together,  and  apply  to  the  surface 
of  the  plate  by  means  of  a  piece  of  soft 
leather  or  sponge. 

LIQUID  FOR  CLEANING  SILVER. 

HE  following  solution  will  be  found  to 
produce  a  high  brilliancy  in  silver 
work  :  Cream  of  tarar,  30  parts  ;  sea  salt,  30 
parts ;  sulphate  of  alumina  and  potash,  each 
39  parts;  water,  1,500  parts.  Boil  the  arti¬ 
cle  in  this  mixture. 


TO  CLEAN  SILVER  FILIGREE  WORK. 

ANY  goldsmiths  encounter  great  diffi¬ 
culties  in  cleaning  silver  filigree  work. 
Put  the  article  to  be  cleaned  in  a  solution  of 
cyanide  of  potassium.  It  will  come  out  per¬ 
fectly  white  and  frosted,  as  when  new. 
Rinse  with  water,  and  dry  by  shaking  in  a 
bag  of  boxwood  sawdust.  Another  method 
is  to  boil  for  a  few  seconds  in  a  strong  pot¬ 
ash  lye,  take  out  and  rinse  in  hot  water,  and 
allow  to  dry  in  hot  boxwood  sawdust.  If 
the  filigree  has  worn  bright,  its  appearance 
can  be  improved  by  a  very  slight  dip  in  the 
cyanide  of  silver  bath  of  the  electro-plater ; 
this  dulls  and  whitens  it,  and  gives  it  a  very 
chaste  appearance. 

ANOTHER  RECIPE. 

Anneal  your  work  over  a  Bunsen  flame 
or  with  a  blow-pipe,  then  let  go  cold 
(and  this  is  the  secret  of  success),  and  then 
put  in  a  pickle  of  sulphuric  acid  and  water, 
not  more  than  five  drops  to  one  ounce  of 
water,  and  let  your  work  remain  in  it  for 
one  hour.  If  not  to  satisfaction,  repeat  the 
process.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  best  pro¬ 
cess  that  can  be  used. 


RECOVERING  SILVER. 

CORRESPONDENT  inquires  of  the 
“Workshop  Notes”  editor  how  he  can 
recover  the  silver  from  silver-plated  iron. 
We  furnish  him  with  two  recipes  :  Pour  some 
concentrated  nitric  acid  on  the  electro-plated 
iron.  It  will  dissolve  the  silver,  leaving  the 
iron  intact.  When  the  operation  is  finished, 
pour  the  liquid  off  and  dilute  with  water ; 
add  a  solution  of  common  salt.  Silver 
chloride  will  settle  as  a  bulky  precipitate, 


which  must  be  filtered  and  well  washed, . 
Remove  the  silver  chloride  from  the  filter,, 
put  it  in  a  porcelain  dish,  add  a  few  cuttings 
of  sheet  zinc  and  a  little  water,  and  allow  to 
stand  for  a  week  or  two.  The  silver  will 
then  be  reduced,  forming  a  heavy  gray  pow¬ 
der.  Remove  what  remains  of  the  zinc, 
wash  well  and  melt  in  a  crucible,  adding 
some  sodium  carbonate  as  a  flux.  Or,  pro¬ 
cure  an  earthenware  pan  (of  course  the  size 
is  determined  by  the  quantity  of  material  to 
be  treated)  and  into  it  lay  the  pieces  of  iron 
until  about  three-quarters  full.  Cover  them 
with  concentrated  nitric  acid  and  gently 
warm.  As  soon  as  all  effervescence  is  fin¬ 
ished,  the  pieces  are  fished  out  and  replaced 
by  others.  This  is  continued  until  the  effer¬ 
vescence  becomes  slight ;  the  pieces  of  iron 
being  washed  and  the  washings  added  to  the 
main  quantity  of  acid.  Muriatic  acid  is 
now  added  until  no  further  white  precipitate 
is  thrown  down,  at  which  point  the  whole  is 
heated  and  allowed  to  stand  for  some  time ; 
the  clear  liquid  is  decanted  off,  and  the  pre¬ 
cipitate  thrown  into  a  thick  calico  bag  and 
well  washed  with  hot  water  and  dried.  Mix 
the  dried  mass  with  carbonate  of  soda  and 
fuse  in  an  earthen  crucible,  when  the  silver 
will  be  found  in  a  button  at  the  bottom. 


INK  STAINS  FROM  SILVER. 

HE  tops  and  other  portions  of  silver  ink- 
stands  frequently  become  deeply  dis¬ 
colored  with  ink,  which  is  difficult  to  remove 
with  ordinary  means.  It  may,  however,  be 
completely '  eradicated  by  stirring  a  little 
thloride  of  lime  into  a  paste  with  water  and 
rubbing  it  upon  the  stain. 


MAT  BRUSHING. 

ERY  excellent  results  are  obtained  by 
running  the  fine  wire  matting  brush  at 
about  2,500  revolutions  per  minute,  applying 
rain-water  or  sour  beer  diluted  with  water  at 
the  place  where  the  brush  strikes  the  work ; 
occasionally  hold  a  piece  of  sandpaper  to 
the  brush.  Should  the  points  of  the  brush 
be  too  straight,  let  them  strike  over  a  piece 
of  wire,  but  do  not  hook  them  too  much,  as 
this  would  prevent  matting.  Always  pre¬ 
serve  the  brush  in  a  good  condition  ;  should 
the  wires  become  entangled  or  twisted  into 
knots,  separate  or  cut  them  out.  After  the- 
work  is  matted  take  a  soft  hair-brush  and 
brush  it  in  soap  water,  then  rinse  it  in.  warm. 


A  NEW  ALLOY. 


167 


water  charged  with  a  small  quantity  of  spirits 
of  ammonia  and  caustic  potash ;  immerse  it 
in  pure  alcohol  for  a  short  time  and  finally 
dry  it  in  sawdust. 

TO  CLEAN  PEARLS. 

OAK  them  in  hot  water,  in  which  bran 
has  been  boiled,  with  a  little  salts  of 
tartar  and  alum,  rubbing  gently  between  the 
hands  when  the  water  will  admit  of  it. 
When  the  water  is  cold,  renew  the  operation 
until  the  discoloration  is  removed  ;  rinse  in 
luke-warm  water,  and  lay  the  pearls  in  white 
paper  in  a  dark  place  to  cool  and  dry. 


CHARCOAL. 

HE  charcoal  used  in  soldering,  nor,  in 
fact,  any  other  charcoal  used  by  the 
goldsmiths,  should  not  possess  the  evil  habit 
of  viciously  snapping  and  cracking.  Coal 
burned  from  oak,  or  any  other  coarse-grained 
wood,  will  snap  and  crack,  while  a  close, 
fine-grained,  soft-wood  coal  will  not.  The 
underlay  coal  may  have  its  snap  taken  out 
by  being  heated  very  hot  in  an  oven  or  by 
blowing  the  flame  with  a  blow-pipe  upon  it. 


JEWELERS’  SOLDER. 

O  make  platinum  firmly  adhere  to  gold 
by  soldering,  it  is  necessary  that  a  small 
quantity  of  fine  or  18-karat  gold  shall  be 
sweated  upon  the  surface  of  the  platinum  at 
nearly  white  heat,  so  that  the  gold  soaks  into 
the  face  of  the  platinum  ;  ordinary  solder  will 
then  adhere  firmly  to  the  face  obtained  in  this 
manner.  Hard  solder  acts  by  partly  fusing 
and  combining  with  the  surfaces  to  be  joined, 
and  platinum  alone  will  not  fuse  or  combine 
with  any  solder  at  a  temperature  anything 
like  the  ordinary  fusing  point  of  ordinary 
gold  solder.  _ 

ACID-PROOF  CEMENT. 

CEMENT  that  resists  acid  is  made  by 
melting  one  part  India  rubber  with  two 
parts  linseed  oil ;  add  sufficient  white  bolus 
for  consistency.  Neither  muriatic  nor  nitric 
acid  attacks  it ;  it  softens  a  little  in  heat,  and 
its  surface  does  not  dry  easily  ;  which  is  cor¬ 
rected  by  adding  one-fifth  part  litharge. 


GERMAN  SILVER. 

HE  following  alloy  has  recently  been 
invented  on  the  continent,  and  comes 
highly  recommended.  It  is  similar  to  Ger¬ 


man  silver,  contains  no  nickel,  but  man¬ 
ganese  instead.  It  consists  of  seventy-two 
and  one-half  per  cent,  of  copper,  sixteen  and 
one-half  of  manganese,  eight  and  three- 
fourths  of  zinc,  and  two  and  one-half  of  iron. 
This  alloy  is  malleable,  does  not  change  when 
immersed  in  water  for  forty  days,  takes  the 
silver  plating  well,  but  is  a  little  yellowish. 


TO  RESTORE  GERMAN  SILVER. 

N  order  to  restore  the  silver  luster  to 
articles  from  German  silver  which  they 
have  lost  by  repeated  cleaning,  use  the  fol¬ 
lowing  silvering  process :  Ten  parts  dry 
chloride  of  silver,  sixty-five  parts  cream  of 
tartar,  and  thirty  parts  table  salt  are  pulver¬ 
ized  and  intimately  mixed.  This  powder  is 
then  with  water  stirred  to  a  thin  paste,  and 
the  article  is  rubbed  with  it,  left  to  dry, 
rinsed  off  well  with  water,  and  finally  rubbed 
off  with  washed  chalk. 


TO  SOLDER  GERMAN  SILVER. 

ISSOLVE  granulated  zinc  in  muriatic 
acid  in  an  earthen  vessel.  Cleanse  the 
parts  to  be  soldered  and  apply  the  acid. 
Next  put  a  piece  of  pewter  solder  on  the  joint 
and  apply  the  blow-pipe  to  it.  Melt  German 
silver  1  part,  and  zinc  in  thin  sheets  4  parts ; 
then  powder  it  for  solder. 


NON-CORROSIVE  SOLDERING  FLUID. 

7\ /I  ANY  years  ago  I  used  to  add  bicarbonate 
1  V  1  of  soda  to  the  soldering  fluid  to  neutral¬ 
ize  the  acid  (or  nearly  so),  and  found  that  or¬ 
dinarily  it  worked  just  as  well,  and  did  not 
rust  steel  but  very  little,  if  any.  The  best 
way  to  remove  the  fluid  from  the  work  is  to 
boil  it  out  two  or  three  times  in  alcohol  (fresh 
every  time) ;  this  removes  the  acid  much 
more  surely  than  any  other  plan  I  have  ever 
known.  Soldering  fluid  should  never  be 
used  in  watch  work  or  allowed  about  the 
bench.  _ 

A  NEW  ALLOY. 

NEW  alloy,  which  is  known  as  Nurem¬ 
berg  gold  in  Germany,  is  at  present  fre¬ 
quently  employed  for  the  manufacture  of 
cheap  gold  ware,  and  is  most  excellently 
suited  for  the  purpose ;  since,  as  far  as  its 
color  is  concerned,  it  is  absolutely  identical 
with  that  of  pure  gold,  nor  is  it  in  any  manner 
influenced  by  a  continued  exposure  to  air. 


1 68 


CROCUS  FOR  POLISHING  STEEL. 


The  alloy  will  retain  its  color  even  after 
violent  use,  and  the  fracture  will  exhibit  the 
pure  gold  color.  Its  composition  is  as  fol¬ 
lows :  Copper,  1 8 ;  gold,  2]/2  ;  aluminum, 

7#-  _ 

MYSTERY  GOLD. 

AT  the  present  time  a  considerable  amount 
.  of  jewelry  made  of  this  alloy  is  believed 
to  be  manufactured  chiefly  with  the  object  of 
defrauding  pawnbrokers  to  whom  it  is  offered 
in  pledge ;  and  as  it  will  stand  the  usual 
jewelers’  test  of  strong  nitric  acid,  the  fraud 
is  often  successful.  The  article  examined 
was  a  bracelet  that  had  been  sold  as  gold  to 
a  gentleman  in  Liverpool. 

The  alloy,  after  the  gilding  had  been 
scraped  off,  had  about  the  color  of  9-karat 
gold.  Qualitative  analysis  proved  it  to  con¬ 
sist  of  platinum,  copper,  and  a  little  silver ; 
and  quantitatively  it  yielded  the  following 


results : 

Silver .  2.48 

Platinum .  32.02 

Copper  (by  difference) . 65.50 


100.00 

Strong  boiling  nitric  acid  had  apparently 
no  action  on  it,  even  when  left  in  the  acid 
for  some  time. 


ARTIFICIAL  GOLD. 

ETALLIC  alloy,  at  present  very  exten¬ 
sively  used  in  France  as  a  substitute  for 
gold,  is  composed  of:  Pure  copper,  100 
parts ;  zinc,  or  preferably  tin,  1 7  parts ; 
magnesia,  6  parts ;  sal-ammoniac,  from  3  to 
6  parts  ;  quicklime,  part ;  tartar  of  com¬ 
merce,  9  parts,  are  mixed  as  follows :  The 
copper  is  first  melted,  and  the  magnesia,  sal- 
ammoniac,  lime,  and  tartar  are  then  added 
separately  and  by  degrees,  in  the  form  of 
powder  ;  the  whole  is  now  briskly  stirred  for 
about  one-half  hour,  so  as  to  mix  thoroughly, 
and  then  the  zinc  is  added  in  small  grains  by 
throwing  it  on  the  surface  and  stirring  until 
it  is  entirely  fused  ;  the  crucible  is  then  cov¬ 
ered  and  fusion  maintained  for  about  thirty- 
five  minutes.  The  surface  is  then  skimmed 
and  the  alloy  ready  for  coating.  It  has  a  fine 
grain,  is  malleable,  and  takes  a  splendid  pol¬ 
ish.  It  does  not  corrode  readily,  and  is  an 
excellent  substitute  for  gold  for  many  pur¬ 
poses.  When  tarnished  its  brilliancy  can  be 
restored  by  a  little  acidulated  water.  If  tin 
be  employed  instead  of  zinc,  the  alloy  will 
be  more  brilliant. 


ABYSSINIAN  GOLD. 

HIS  compound  was  so  called  because  it 
was  brought  out  in  England  during  its 
war  with  Abyssinia.  It  consists  of  copper, 
90.74;  zinc,  8.33.  This  alloy,  if  of  good 
materials,  and  not  heated  too  highly,  has  a 
fine  yellow  color,  resembling  gold,  and  does 
not  tarnish  easily. 


ALUMINUM  GOLD. 

NE  part  of  aluminum  to  99  of  gold  gives 
a  metal  the  color  of  green  gold,  very 
hard  but  not  ductile.  An  alloy  of  5  parts  of 
aluminum  to  95  parts  of  gold  gives  an  alloy 
that  is  nearly  as  brittle  as  glass.  An  alloy 
of  10  parts  of  aluminum  to  90  parts  of  gold 
is  white,  crystalline  and  brittle.  An  imitation 
of  gold,  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  precious 
metal  in  cheap  jewelry,  is  made  by  fusing 
together  5  to  7^  parts  of  aluminum,  90  to 
100  parts  of  copper,  and  2^  of  gold.  The 
color  of  this  alloy  resembles  gold  so  closely 
as  to  almost  defy  detection. 


CROCUS  FOR  POLISHING  STEEL. 

HE  commercial  crocus  does  not  at  all 
times  possess  the  properties  necessary 
for  polishing  the  different  metals,  and  it  is 
advisable,  therefore,  for  the  consumer  to 
prepare  it  for  himself,  and  the  manipulations 
to  effect  this  are  easy.  Take  pure  and  the 
clearest  obtainable  sulphate  of  iron  (iron 
vitriol,  green  vitriol,  copperas),  heat  it  in  an 
iron  pan  up  to  fusion,  and  permit  to  remain 
over  the  fire,  while  constantly  stirring  it  with 
an  iron  spatula,  until  it  is  thoroughly  dry  and 
drops  into  a  pale  yellow  powder.  This  is 
then  triturated  in  a  mortar  and  sifted,  placed 
in  a  new  crucible  and  left  in  the  fire  of  a 
smelting  furnace,  or  calcined  until  no  more 
vapors  are  evolved.  After  cooling,  the  pow¬ 
der  appears  as  a  handsome  red  material, 
which  represents  the  crocus  for  the  use  of 
gold  and  silversmiths,  etc.  The  crocus  is 
found  in  several  color  gradations,  from  pale 
red  to  brown,  red,  blue,  and  violet.  The 
cause  of  the  diversity  of  its  colors  is  due  to 
the  different  degrees  of  heat  made  use  of  in 
its  manufacture,  the  darkness,  of  the  color 
increases  with  the  degree  of  heat,  and  the 
hardness  of  the  crocus  also  increases  thereby  ; 
for  which  reason  a  pale  red  (rouge)  is  used 
for  gold  and  silver,  while  violet  is  employed 
in  polishing  steel,  and  known  u”^er  the  name 
of  “steel  red.”  Each  one  of  the  different 


JEWELERS’  ARMENIAN  CEMENT. 


169 


kinds  of  crocus,  in  order  to  obtain  a  favor¬ 
able  result,  must  be  ground  as  fine  as  possi¬ 
ble,  and  then  washed  in  water.  Three  clean 
glasses  are  used  for  the  purpose,  one  of  which 
is  filled  with  water,  and  the  quantity  of  the 
crocus  is  well  stirred  in  with  a  wooden  stick, 
and  left  to  stand  for  about  one  half  minute ; 
the  fluid  is  then  carefully  decanted  from  the 
sediment  gathered  in  the  glass  in  the  second  ; 
after  it  has  stood  in  this  for  about  two  minutes 
the  fluid  is  again  poured  into  the  third  glass 
and  left  in  it  for  several  hours,  to  permit  the 
complete  settling  of  the  powder.  The  sedi¬ 
ment  of  the  first  glass  is  useless ;  that  of  the 
second  is  a  crocus  of  an  inferior  quality,  while 
that  of  the  third  is  crocus  of  the  best  grade. 
It  simply  requires  to  dry  slowly  to  be  fit  for 
use.  It  is  also  advisable  to  moisten  the  dried 
powder  with  alcohol,  and  in  some  iron  vessel 
to  ignite  it,  whereby  the  last  traces  of  fat  con¬ 
tained  in  it  are  destroyed. 

ANOTHER  RECIPE. 

Readers  living  at  a  distance  from  ma¬ 
terial  houses  will  sometimes  run  short  of  ma¬ 
terial,  and  it  is  safe  for  them  to  have  the 
formulae  for  manufacturing  stuff  needed  in 
this  manner.  For  instance,  crocus  is  pre¬ 
pared  as  follows:  Table  salt  and  sulphate 
of  iron  (iron  vitriol)  are  well  mixed  in  a 
mortar.  The  mixture  is  then  put  into  a 
shallow  crucible  and  exposed  to  a  red  heat ; 
vapor  escapes,  and  the  mass  fuses.  When 
no  more  vapor  is  evolved,  remove  the  cruci¬ 
ble  and  let  it  cool.  The  color  of  the  oxide 
of  iron  produced,  If  the  fire  was  properly  reg¬ 
ulated,  is  a  fine  violet ;  if  the  fire  was  too 
high,  it  becomes  black.  The  mass  when  cold 
must  be  pulverized  and  washed  to  separate 
the  sulphate  of  soda.  The  crocus  powder  is 
then  to  be  subjected  to  a  process  of  careful 
elutrication,  and  the  finer  particles  reserved 
for  the  more  delicate  work. 


SOLDER  FOR  ALUMINUM. 

HE  following  alloys  are  recommended 
for  the  purpose  :  1 .  Melt  twenty  parts  of 
aluminum  in  a  suitable  crucible,  and  when 
in  fusion  add  eighty  parts  zinc.  When  the 
mixture  is  melted,  cover  the  surface  with 
some  tallow,  and  maintain  in  quiet  fusion  for 
some  time,  stirring  occasionally  with  an  iron 
rod;  then  pour  into  molds.  2.  Take  fifteen 
parts  of  aluminum  and  eighty-five  parts  of 
zinc  ;  or  twelve  parts  of  the  former  and  eighty- 


eight  parts  of  the  latter ;  or  eight  parts  of  the 
former  and  ninety-two  parts  of  the  latter : 
prepare  all  of  them  as  specified  for  No.  1. 
The  flux  recommended  consists  of  three  parts 
of  balsam  copaiba,  one  of  Venetian  turpen¬ 
tine,  and  a  few  drops  of  lemon  juice.  The 
soldering  iron  is  dipped  into  this  mixture. 


ETCHING  ON  GLASS  AND  METAL. 

LASS  is  etched  by  means  of  hydrofluoric 
acid  gas  or  liquid  hydrofluoric  acid,  that 
is,  a  solution  of  the  gas  in  water.  The 
former  in  contact  with  glass  produces  a  rough 
surface,  as  on  ground  glass,  while  the  latter 
ordinarily  leaves  the  surface  clear.  The  gas 
is  prepared  by  mixing  together  finely  pow¬ 
dered  fluor-spar,  calcium  fluoride,  three  parts, 
and  strong  sulphuric  acid,  two  parts,  in  a 
leaden  dish,  and  applying  a  very  gentle  heat. 
The  plates  to  be  etched  may  be  placed  over 
the  dish.  The  operation  should  be  conducted 
under  a  hood  or  in  the  open  air,  to  avoid  in¬ 
haling  the  pernicious  fumes.  The  plates  are 
prepared  by  cooling  them  while  warm  with 
wax  or  paraffine,  through  which  to  the  surface 
of  the  glass  the  design  is  cut  with  suitable 
graving.  In  preparing  the  liquid  acid,  the 
mixture  of  spar  and  oil  of  vitriol  is  placed  in 
a  leaden  or  platinum  retort  which  is  heated 
and  the  gas  given  off  is  conducted  into  a 
leaden  bottle  partly  filled  with  water,  which 
absorbs  it.  In  contact  with  the  flesh  the 
acid  produces  stubborn  sores.  Metals  are 
usually  etched  with  dilute  nitric  acid,  or  niter 
and  sulphuric  acid,  or  sulphate  of  copper 
and  salt,  or  hydrochloric  acid  and  chlorate 
of  potash. 


JEWELERS’  ARMENIAN  CEMENT. 

HIS  cement  hasextraordinarily great  bind¬ 
ing  powers,  and  is  used  by  the  Oriental, 
principally  the  Armenian,  jewelers  for  gluing 
jewels  to  metals.  It  is  prepared  as  follows: 
Soak  two  ounces  of  isinglass  in  water,  put  it 
into  a  bottle  together  with  one  ounce  of  very 
pale  gum  arabic  (in  tears),  cover  the  ingredi¬ 
ents  with  proof  spirits,  then  add  six  large 
tears  of  gum  mastic,  dissolved  in  the  least 
possible  quantity  of  rectified  spirits.  Cork 
loosely  and  boil  it  until  a  thorough  solution 
is  effected ;  then  strain  it  for  use.  When 
carefully  made,  this  cement  resists  moisture 
and  dries  colorless.  Keep  in  a  closely  stop¬ 
pered  vial. 


170 


COLORING  GOLD  AS  IN  ETRUSCAN  JEWELRY. 


ALUM. 

LUM  is  sometimes  used  for  removing 
the  stains  left  by  soldering  in  lieu  of  acids, 
and  is  also  used  in  removing  broken  screws 
from  brass  plates  by  immersing  the  plates  in 
a  strong  solution  of  alum  and  water,  the  best 
results  being  obtained  from  a  boiling  solu¬ 
tion,  which  rapidly  converts  the  steel  into  rust, 
while  it  does  not  attack  the  brass  plate. 


CEMENT  FOR  GLASS  AND  METAL. 

RASS  letters  may  be  securely  fastened 
on  glass  panes  with  a  cement  composed 
of  the  following  ingredients :  Litharge,  two 
parts ;  white  lead,  one  part ;  boiled  linseed 
oil,  three  parts ;  gum  copal,  one  part.  To 
be  mixed  just  before  using,  and  it  will  form 
a  quickly-drying  and  secure  cement. 


VARNISH  FOR  BRASS. 

ELLOW  brass  may  be  made  to  keep 
its  color  without  appearing  to  be  var¬ 
nished,  by  means  of  a  thin  varnish  of  white 
shellac  or  a  coating  of  collodion. 


BRITANNIA. 

HIS  alloy  as  prepared  by  Roller  consists 
of  85.72  parts  of  tin,  10.34  of  antimony, 
0.78  of  copper,  and  2.91  of  zinc. 


BELL  METAL. 

AN  alloy  of  copper  and  tin,  in  proportions 
.  varying  from  66  to  80  per  cent,  of  cop¬ 
per  and  the  balance  tin. 


SUPPORT  OF  ARTICLES  IN  HARD 
SOLDERING. 

SUPPORT  for  articles  in  hard  soldering 
can  be  recommended — asbestos  board 
— a  thick  layer  of  asbestos  fibers.  This  sub¬ 
stance  is  well  known  to  be  incombustible, 
and  when  felted  together  loosely  makes  a 
very  good  support  for  heating  articles  on. 
It  resembles  thick  blotting  paper  in  appear¬ 
ance,  holds  pins  well,  and  does  not  burn  away 
any  to  speak  of,  at  least  during  any  ordi¬ 
nary  mending  operation.  It  has  been  con¬ 
siderably  used  by  jewelers,  assayers,  and 
others,  but  had  one  fault — it  would  curl  up. 
It  was  made  of  two  or  more  layers,  and  when 
heated  the  layers  would  separate  and  the 
outer  one  curl  out  of  shape.  This  fault  has 


been  remedied  by  making  a  solid  block  in  a 
single  layer,  with  wooden  frame  or  sides  to 
keep  it  in  shape  and  hold  it  by,  thus  making 
a  very  excellent  support.  This  improvement 
is  brought  out  by  the  Chalmers-Spence  Com¬ 
pany,  419  Eighth  street,  New  York,  where  it 
can  be  obtained  in  various  forms.  One  form 
sold  by  them  is  a  solid  block  having  a  cavity 
scooped  out,  large  enough  to  hold  a  lot  of 
pieces  of  gold  or  other  metal  to  be  melted. 
At  one  side  of  this  cavity  is  a  slot  extending 
out  a  short  distance.  The  scraps  are  put  into 
the  cavity  and  a  flat  piece  of  asbestos  board 
laid  over  the  slot,  then  the  scraps  are  melted 
as  usual.  A  piece  of  coal  can  be  laid  over 
them  to  increase  and  confine  the  heat  if  neces¬ 
sary.  When  all  is  fluid,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  tip  the  block  up  endways  and  let  the  metal 
run  into  the  slot  between  the  two  asbestos 
blocks,  where  it  will  soon  cool  into  an  ingot. 
This  saves  the  risk  and  trouble  of  pouring  the 
melted  metal  into  another  dish  or  mold  to 
make  an  ingot.  Before  the  melting,  the  as¬ 
bestos  pores  are  closed  by  rubbing  whiting 
over  the  surface.  _ 

SILVERING  SOLUTION. 

THE  following  is  a  good  silvering  solution 
for  electrotype  plates  :  Nitrate  of  silver,  2 
drs. ;  distilled  water,  37  drs.  Dissolve  and 
add  sal-ammoniac,  1  dr.  ;  hydrophosphite  of 
soda,  4  drs. ;  precipitated  chalk,  4  drs.  ;  agi¬ 
tate  the  preparation  occasionally  for  twelve 
hours,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  use.  Appty 
with  a  fine  sponge. 


COLORING  GOLD  AS  IN  ETRUSCAN 
JEWELRY. 

HERE  are  various  methods  for  coloring 
gold  as  in  Etruscan  jewelry;  in  fact, 
every  jeweler  has  a  method  of  his  own.  The 
following,  however,  has  been  successfully 
used  for  some  years,  and  has  given  general 
satisfaction:  2 y2  ounces  crocus,  2  ounces 
yellow  ocher,  1  y2  ounces  verdigris, 
ounces  copperas,  y2  ounce  white  vitriol, 
ounce  borax.  All  these  ingredients  are  to 
be  reduced  in  a  mortar  to  an  impalpable 
powder  and  intimately  mixed  with  5  ounces 
yellow  beeswax ;  or,  20  dwts.  saltpeter,  20 
dwts.  common  salt,  2j^  dwts.  copperas,  2j4 
dwts.  white  vitriol,  2  dwts.  alum.  The  in¬ 
gredients  are  to  be  put  into  an  old  crucible, 
and  set  over  the  fire,  and  the  articles  to 
be  colored  boiled  in  it  until  on  trial  they  are 
found  to  have  acquired  the  desired  color. 


GOLD-LIKE  VARNISH. 


The  beautiful  satin  finish  is  given  to  the  class 
of  goods  called  Roman  gold  by  carefully 
brushing  the  dead  gold  surface  with  a 
scratch-brush  made  from  spun  glass. 


RING  STICK. 

CONSIDERABLE  misapprehension 
exists  in  the  matter  of  measuring  a  ring  on 
a  gauge  ;  we  would  say  that  the  edge  of  the 
ring  should  come  as  far  as  the  mark,  while 
some  contend  that  the  mark  on  the  stick 
should  come  inside  the  ring.  This  is  not 
right,  because  any  ring  properly  made  is  of 
the  same  size  at  the  center  as  it  is  at  the 
edges,  and  the  ring  stick  is  made  tapering, 
so  that  when  the  edge  of  the  ring  is  pushed 
up  as  far  as  it  will  go,  the  center  of  the  ring 
will  necessarily  stand  off  from  the  stick.  In 
a  narrow  ring  this  would  make  little  differ¬ 
ence,  but  in  a  wide  ring  it  amounts  to 
something.  _ _ _ 

CEMENT  FOR  PETROLEUM  LAMP. 

OIL  3  parts  of  resin  with  i  part  of  caus¬ 
tic  soda  and  5  of  water.  The  compo¬ 
sition  is  then  mixed  with  half  its  weight  of 
plaster  of  paris,  and  sets  firmly  in  from  y2 
to  y  of  an  hour.  It  is  of  great  adhesive 
power,  and  not  permeable  to  petroleum,  a 
low  conductor  of  heat,  and  but  superficially 
attacked  by  hot  water. 


SOFT  SOLDERING  ARTICLES. 

OISTEN  the  parts  to  be  united  with 
soldering  fluid,  then,  having  joined  them 
together,  lay  a  small  piece  of  solder  upon 
the  joint,  and  hold  over  the  lamp,  or  direct 
the  blaze  upon  it  with  your  blow-pipe,  until 
fusion  is  apparent.  Withdraw  them  from 
the  blaze  immediately,  as  too  much  heat  will 
render  the  solder  brittle  and  unsatisfactory. 
When  the  parts  to  be  joined  can  be  made  to 
spring  or  press  against  each  other,  it  is  best 
to  place  a  thin  piece  of  solder  between  them 
before  exposing  to  the  lamp.  When  two 
smooth  surfaces  are  to  be  soldered  one  upon 
the  other,  you  may  make  an  excellent  job 
by  moistening  them  with  the  fluid,  and  then 
having  placed  a  sheet  of  tinfoil  between 
them,  holding  them  pressed  together  over 
your  lamp  till  the  foil  melts.  If  the  surfaces 
fit  nicely,  a  joint  may  be  made  in  this  man¬ 
ner  so  close  as  almost  to  be  imperceptible. 
The  bright-looking  lead,  which  comes  as  a 
lining  of  tea-boxes,  is  better  than  tinfoil. 


17B 

HOW  TO  MELT  ALUMINUM. 

O  melt  alumina  use  a  black-lead  cruci¬ 
ble.  Drive  the  alumina  foil  into  an 
iron  cone  much  the  same  shape  as  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  the  crucible,  place  the  alumina  in  the 
crucible  and  cover  with  crude  soda  and 
charcoal  pulverized  together.  Heat  slowly. 


NON-CORROSIVE  SOLDERING  FLUID. 

HE  different  fluids  bearing  this  pompous 
name  all  labor  only  under  a  common 
disadvantage,  viz.,  that  they  corrode  the  ar¬ 
ticle  for  which  they  are  used.  We  cannot,, 
however,  vouch  for  the  fact  whether  the  fol¬ 
lowing  will  do  the  same  or  not :  Small  grains 
of  zinc  are  thrown  into  muriatic  acid  until 
this  is  saturated,  to  be  recognized  by  the 
cessation  of  the  ebullition  ;  the  zinc  also  being 
added  after  this  point  remains  undissolved ; 
add  about  one  third  the  volume  of  spirits  of 
ammonia,  and  dilute  with  a  like  quantity  of 
rain-water.  The  solution  of  the  zinc  is  ma¬ 
terially  accelerated  by  slightly  warming  the 
acid.  This  fluid  causes  no  rust  on  iron  or 
steel. 


GOLD-LIKE  VARNISH. 

N  excellent  gold  varnish  which  gives 
bronze  the  color  of  gold  is  prepared  in  the 
following  manner :  Three  ounces  bright  gum- 
lac  are  dissolved  in  2  pounds  best  alcohol,  and 
tinctured  either  with  annatta  or  gamboge ; 
the  first  gives  it  a  handsome  dark  gold,  the  lat¬ 
ter  a  lemon-yellow  color.  The  bronze  to  be 
treated  is  slowly  heated  over  a  fire  of  char¬ 
coal,  left  to  cool  a  little,  and  them  dipped 
in  a  mixture  of  3  parts  water  and  1  part  nitric 
acid,  and  left  in  it  until  entirely  black,  which 
requires  time  of  about  one  or  one  and  a  half 
hours.  Then  take  it  out,  brush  it  with  a  stiff 
brush,  and  dip  into  strong  nitric  acid ;  seize 
it  with  copper  tongs,  as  those  of  iron  and 
steel  are  very  injurious.  When  the  black 
coating  of  the  first  immersion  has  entirely 
disappeared,  take  out  the  bronze,  rinse  it  off 
clean  in  lukewarm  water,  and  dry  in  sawdust. 
The  operator  must  be  cautioned  that  the 
smallest  part  of  iron  in  the  bronze  will  ruin 
the  whole  piece,  by  showing  itself  in  the 
shape  of  a  large  black  spot,  which  cannot  be 
removed  or  covered.  When  the  piece  has 
been  thus  treated,  it  is  laid  upon  a  red-hot 
iron  plate,  until  so  hot  that  it  would  burn  the 
hand.  Apply  the  varnish  in  one  or  several 
coats. 


i72 


UNITED  STATES  OUNCES  (AVOIRDUPOIS)  IN  GRAMS. 


WRITING  INSCRIPTIONS  ON 
METALS. 

AKE  one  quarter  pound  nitric  and  one 
ounce  muriatic  acid.  Mix,  shake  well 
together,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  Cover  the 
place  you  wish  to  mark  with  melted  bees¬ 
wax  ;  when  cold,  write  your  inscription  plainly 
in  the  wax  clear  to  the  metal,  using  a  sharp 
instrument ;  then  apply  the  mixed  acid  with 
a  feather,  carefully  filling  each  letter.  Let  it 
remain  from  i  to  io  minutes,  according  to 
appearances  desired,  then  throw  on  water, 
which  stops  the  process,  and  remove  the  wax. 


GOLD  TINGE. 

BRIGHT  gold  tinge  may  be  given  to 
silver  by  steeping  it  for  a  suitable  length 
of  time  in  a  weak  solution  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  water,  strongly  impregnated  with  iron 
rust. 


REFINING  SWEEPINGS. 

HE  sweepings  of  the  workshop  contain 
quite  a  quantity  of  gold  and  silver.  To 
8  ounces  of  the  dirt,  which  has  been  washed 
and  burnt,  add  salt,  4  ounces  ;  pearl  ash,  4 
ounces ;  red  tartar,  1  ounce ;  saltpeter,  y2 
ounce ;  mix  thoroughly  in  a  mortar,  melt  in 
a  crucible,  and  dissolve  out  the  precious 
metals  in  a  button. 


POLISHING  POWDER. 

N  excellent  polishing  powder  for  gold 
and  silver  consists  of  burnt  and  finely 
pulverized  rock  alum,  5  parts,  and  levigated 
chalk,  1  part.  Mix  and  apply  with  a  dry 
brush. 


FICTITIOUS  SILVER 

O.  1.  Silver,  1  ounce;  nickel,  1  ounce 
1 1  dwts.  ;  copper,  2  ounces  9  dwts.  ;  or, 
No.  2.  Silver,  3  ounces;  nickel,  1  ounce  11 
dwts.  ;  copper,  2  ounces  9  dwts.  ;  spelter, 
10  dwts.  _ 

PECULIAR  QUALITIES  OF  ALU¬ 
MINUM  BRONZES. 

SCIENTIFIC  journal  says:  Five  per 
cent,  aluminum  bronze  is  golden  in  color, 
polishes  well,  and  casts  beautifully ;  is  very 
malleable  cold  or  hot,  and  has  great 
strength,  especially  after  hammering.  The 
7  l/2  per  cent,  bronze  is  to  be  recommended 
as  superior  to  the  5  per  cent. ;  it  has  a 
peculiar  greenish-gold  color,  which  makes  it 


very  suitable  for  decoration.  All  these  good 
qualities  are  possessed  by  the  10  per  cent, 
bronze.  It  is  bright  golden,  keeps  its  polish 
in  the  air,  may  be  easily  engraved,  shows  an 
elasticity  much  greater  than  steel,  and  can 
be  soldered  with  hard  solder.  It  gives  good 
castings  in  all  sizes,  and  runs  in  sand  molds 
very  uniformly.  Thin  castings  come  out 
very  short,  but  if  a  casting  suddenly  thick¬ 
ens,  small  off-shoots  must  be  made  at  the 
thick  place  into  which  the  metal  can  run, 
and  then  soak  back  into  the  castings  by 
shrinkage  at  the  thick  part.  Its  strength, 
when  cast,  is  between  that  of  iron  and  steel, 
but  when  hammered  is  equal  to  the  best 
steel.  It  may  be  forged  at  about  the  same 
heat  as  cast  steel,  and  then  hammered  until 
it  is  almost  cold  without  breaking  or  ripping. 
Tempering  makes  it  soft  and  malleable.  It 
does  not  foul  a  file,  and  may  easily  be  drawn 
into  wire.  Any  part  of  a  machine  which  is 
usually  made  of  steel  can  be  replaced  by  this 
bronze.  The  10  per  cent,  bronze  has  a  tenac¬ 
ity  of  about  100,000  pounds,  compressive 
strength  130,000  pounds,  and  its  ductility 
and  toughness  are  such  that  it  does  not  even 
crack  when  distorted  by  this  load.  It  is  so 
ductile  and  malleable  that  it  can  be  drawn 
down  under  the  hammer  to  the  fineness  of  a 
cambric  needle.  It  works  well,  casts  well, 
holds  a  fine  surface  under  the  tool,  and  when 
exposed  to  the  weather  it  is  in  every  respect 
the  best  bronze  known.  Aluminum  brass, 
consisting  of  67  parts  copper,  30  parts  zinc, 
and  3  parts  of  aluminum,  possesses  a  break¬ 
ing  strain  of  48  kilogrammes  per  square  mil¬ 
limetre,  and  an  extensibility  of  2 1  per  cent. 
A  beautiful  alloy  is  produced  by  adding  a 
small  proportion  of  pure  silver  to  pure  alu¬ 
minum.  _ 


UNITED  STATES  OUNCES  (AVOIR¬ 
DUPOIS)  IN  GRAMS. 


Oz. 

Grams. 

Oz. 

Grams. 

% 

7 

8 

227 

% 

14 

9 

255 

% 

2iy 

IO 

283 

I 

28-35 

1 1 

3  I2 

2 

57 

I  2 

340 

3 

85 

J3 

369 

4 

1 J3 

14 

397 

5 

142 

15 

425 

6 

170 

l6 

454 

7 

198 

COLORING  AND  LACQUERING  BRASS. 


FLUORIC  ACID  FOR  ETCHING  GLASS. 

THE  operator  can  make  his  own  fluoric 
(sometimes  called  hydro-fluoric)  acid, 
by  getting  the  fluor,  or  Derbyshire  spar, 
pulverizing  it,  and  putting  as  much  of  it  in 
a  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  as  this  will  dis¬ 
solve.  Inasmuch  as  the  acid  is  very  destruc¬ 
tive  to  glass,  it  can  only  be  kept  in  lead  or 
gutta-percha  bottles. 

TO  SOLDER  A  PEARL  RING. 

HE  country  watchmaker,  who  is  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  conversant  with  the  art  of 
soldering,  must  be  very  careful  when  he  has 
to  perform  this  on  a  pearl-set  ring,  as  it  is 
quite  a  risky  job,  and  difficult  to  hard  solder 
under  any  circumstances ;  in  fact,  should  it 
be  broken  up,  it  can  in  no  other  manner  be 
hard  soldered,  except  by  taking  out  the 
pearls.  If,  however,  the  break  is  at  the 
bottom,  or  far  from  the  set,  it  can  be  hard 
soldered  as  follows :  First,  clean  the  ring 
well,  make  it  the  size  wanted,  fit  close  and 
even  to  where  to  be  soldered ;  make  the  size 
a  little  smaller  than  wanted,  to  allow  for 
dressing  and  toning  up ;  tear  tissue  paper 
into  strips,  twist  it  loosely,  wrap  around  the 
sets  every  way,  thoroughly  covering  them ; 
take  one  coil  of  binding  wire,  twist  it  around 
the  paper  so  as  to  hold  it  together ;  put  the 
set  part  of  the  ring  in  clean,  clear  water,  un¬ 
til  the  paper  swells  full ;  lay  or  pin  on  a 
piece  of  good  charcoal ;  put  a  slip  of  coal 
between  paper  and  the  part  you  wish  to  sol¬ 
der  ;  apply  the  borax ;  use  good,  easy-flow¬ 
ing  solder ;  make  a  large  blaze ;  blow  di¬ 
rectly  on  the  point  you  wish  to  solder ;  keep 
as  much  of  the  blaze  off  the  paper  as  possi¬ 
ble  ;  make  the  solder  flow  quick,  and  stop  as 
soon  as  it  flows ;  take  the  ring  off  the  coal 
and  put  it  in  the  water  to  cool  off.  Should 
the  paper,  during  soldering,  become  dry  and 
commence  to  burn,  stop,  and  apply  more 
water  on  it,  tear  the  paper  off  and  finish.  By 
working  it  this  way,  the  expert  man  will 
never  fail  to  save  the  most  delicate  setting, 
unless  the  ring  is  extra  heavy  all  round. 


SOLDERING  STONE-SET  RINGS. 

HERE  are  various  ways  for  doing  this, 
but  the  following  will  be  found  to  be  as 
good  as  any :  Take  tissue  paper  and  tear  it 
into  strips  about  three  inches  wide  ;  twist  them 
into  ropes,  and  then  make  them  very  wet, 
and  wrap  the  stone  with  them,  passing  around 


the  stone  and  through  the  ring  until  the  cen¬ 
ter  of  the  ring  is  a  little  more  than  half  full 
of  paper,  always  winding  very  close,  and  then 
fasten  upon  charcoal,  allowing  the  stone  to 
project  over  the  edge  of  the  charcoal,  and 
solder  very  quickly.  The  paper  will  prevent 
oxidation  upon  the  part  of  the  ring  it  covers, 
as  well  as  protect  the  stones. 


TO  PROTECT  THE  POLISH  OF 
METALS. 

ELT  one  part  by  weight  of  best  wax  par¬ 
affine,  and  when  sufficiently  cooled,  add 
three  parts  of  petroleum.  Mix  well  together, 
and  apply  to  the  polished  article  by  means  of 
a  soft  brush.  The  protecting  film  need  only 
be  very  thin,  wherefore  not  too  much  should 
be  applied.  _ 

CEMENT  FOR  FASTENING  METAL 
UPON  GLASS. 

N  order  to  quickly  and  well  fasten  metal¬ 
lic  objects  upon  glass,  the  use  of  the  fol¬ 
lowing  cement  is  recommended:  ioo  grams- 
of  finely  pulverized  litharge  and  50  grams 
dry  white  lead  are  intimately  mixed  together, 
and  with  boiled  linseed  oil  and  copal  varnish 
worked  into  a  half  stiff  paste.  The  propor¬ 
tion  between  boiled  linseed  oil  and'  copal 
varnish  hereby  is  as  follows :  3  parts  linseed 
oil  and  1  part  copal  varnish.  The  quantity 
of  the  latter  depends  upon  the  quantity  of 
the  litharge  and  white  lead  used.  In  every 
case  sufficient  of  the  oil  is  added  to  the  lat¬ 
ter  to  make  a  suitable  paste.  The  cement¬ 
ing  is  very  simple :  The  lower  face  of  a 
medallion,  etc.,  is  filled  with  the  cement, 
pressed  upon  the  glass,  and  the  exuding  ex¬ 
cess  is  removed.  The  cement  dries  very 
rapidly  and  becomes  very  hard. 


COLORING  AND  LACQUERING  BRASS. 

HE  FOLLOWING  general  descrip¬ 
tion  of  the  methods  employed  in  color¬ 
ing  and  lacquering  brass  work  are  useful  for 
all  metal  workers,  goldsmiths,  mathematical 
and  optical  instrument  makers,  etc.  Brass, 
it  may  be  remembered,  is  an  alloy  of  copper 
and  zinc,  and,  by  dissolving  or  cutting  out 
either  of  those  metals  from  the  surface,  a 
certain  amount  of  variety  of  color  can  be 
produced.  For  instance,  if  brass  is  left  for 
some  time  in  moist  sand  it  assumes  a  very 
handsome  brown  color,  which,  if  polished 
with  a  dry  brush,  remains  constant,  and  re¬ 
quires  no  cleaning  or  polishing.  A  darker 


>74 


THE  SIZES  OF  WATCH  MOVEMENTS. 


•or  lighter  green  color  may  be  imparted  if  a 
thin  layer  of  verdigris  is  created  upon  the 
surface  by  means  of  dilute  acids,  which  are 
to  be  left  on  until  dry.  The  antique  appear¬ 
ance  imparted  to  the  brass  in  this  manner  is 
very  handsome  and  more  or  less  durable. 
But  it  is  not  always  possible,  for  want  of 
time,  to  do  this  with  each  article,  and  a  more 
rapid  method  for  effecting  the  end  is  there¬ 
fore  necessary,  and  the  simplest  way  to  do 
it  is  to  cover  the  brass  with  a  coat  of  var¬ 
nish.  All  the  necessary  work  to  be  done  is 
performed  before  the  bronzing.  The  brass 
is  annealed,  dipped  in  old  or  dilute  nitric 
acid  until  the  scales  can  be  loosened  from 
the  surface,  and  is  then  treated  with  sand 
and  water  and  dried.  The  next  step  is  to 
produce  the  necessary  bronze.  Although 
this  word  actually  signifies  a  bronze  color, 
it  is  rather  loosely  applied  in  the  trades  at 
present  and  applied  to  all  colors.  Brown  of 
all  shades  is  produced  by  immersion  in  a 
solution  of  nitrate  or  chloride  of  iron,  the 
strength  of  the  bath  determining  the  depth 
■of  the  color.  Violet  shades  are  obtained  by 
immersing  in  a  solution  of  chloride  of  anti¬ 
mony  ;  olive  green,  by  means  of  a  solution 
•of  iron  and  arsenic  in  muriatic  acid,  polish¬ 
ing  afterward  with  a  plumbago  brush,  and, 
when  warm,  coating  with  a  lacquer  com¬ 
posed  of  one  part  varnish  lacquer,  four  parts 
turmeric,  and  one  part  gamboge.  A  steel 
gray  color  is  precipitated  upon  brass  by 
means  of  a  weak  boiling  solution  of  arsenic 
•chloride,  and  a  blue  by  an  attentive  treat¬ 
ment  with  strong  sulphide  of  soda.  Black 
is  much  used  for  optical  instruments,  and  is 
produced  by  painting  with  a  platinum  solu¬ 
tion  or  with  chloride  of  gold  mixed  with 
nitrate  of  tin. 

The  success  in  the  art  of  bronzing  chiefly 
depends  upon  circumstances  ;  for  instance, 
the  temperature  of  the  alloy  or  solution,  the 
proportions  and  qualities  of  the  material 
used  for  alloying,  the  proper  moment  at 
which  the  article  is  to  be  withdrawn,  its  dry¬ 
ing,  and  a  hundred  other  minutiae  of  atten¬ 
tion  and  manipulation,  require  a  skill  only 
taught  by  experience. 

If  the  brass  is  to  receive  no  artificial  color, 
but  simply  to  be  protected  against  tarnishing 
and  oxidizing,  it  is  to  be  lacquered  after  hav¬ 
ing  been  thoroughly  cleansed.  In  order  to 
prepare  the  brass  for  this  coating  it  must  be 
dipped,  after  having  been  annealed,  and,  as 
aforesaid,  rinsed  and  washed,  dipped  either 
for  a  moment  in  pure  commercial  nitric  acid 


ahd  then  washed  in  clean  water  and  dried  in 
sawdust,  or  immersed  in  a  pickle  of  equal 
parts  of  nitric  acid  and  water,  until  covered 
with  a  white  coating  of  the  appearance  of 
curdled  milk,  when  the  article  is  taken  out, 
rinsed  in  clean  water  and  dried  in  sawdust. 
In  the  first  case  the  brass  becomes  lustrous, 
in  the  latter  it  becomes  mat,  which  is  gen¬ 
erally  improved  by  smoothing  and  polishing 
the  prominent  places.  The  article  is  then 
dipped  for  a  moment  in  nitric  acid  as  found 
in  commerce,  and  containing  a  little  crude 
cream  of  tartar  in  order  to  preserve  the  color 
up  to  the  moment  of  lacquering,  and  finally 
dried  in  warm  sawdust.  When  prepared  in 
such  a  manner  the  article  is  taken  in  hand  to 
be  lacquered,  for  which  purpose  it  is  first  to 
be  heated  upon  a  hot  plate  to  be  lacquered 
afterward.  For  this  purpose  is  used  a  sim¬ 
ple  alcohol  varnish,  consisting  of  i  ounce 
shellac  dissolved  in  i  pint  alcohol.  To  this 
simple  varnish  are  afterward  to  be  added 
the  coloring  substances,  such  as  sanders 
wood,  dragon’s  blood  and  annatto,  which 
increase  the  luster  of  the  color.  In  order  to 
moderate  the  shading  of  the  color,  turmeric, 
gamboge,  saffron,  cape  aloes,  and  gum  san- 
darac  are  added.  The  first  colors  make  the 
lacquer  reddish,  the  second  yellowish,  while 
the  two,  when  mixed,  give  a  nice  orange. 

A  good  pale  lacquer  consists  of  3  parts 
aloes  and  1  part  turmeric,  to  one  part  of  the 
simple  varnish.  A  gold  lacquer  is  obtained 
by  adding  4  parts  dragon’s  blood  and  1  part 
turmeric  to  1  part  of  the  simple  varnish, 
while  a  red  lacquer  is  produced  from  32 
parts  annatto  and  8  parts  dragon’s  blood,  to 
1  part  of  the  varnish. 


THE  SIZES  OF  WATCH  MOVEMENTS. 

HERE  are  four  different  methods  of  ex¬ 
pressing  the  sizes  of  movements.  The 
French  and  Swiss  measure  across  the  dial, 
and  give  its  diameter  either  in  millimeters  or 
in  French  lines.  A  millimeter  is  about  four 
one-hundredths  (j^y)  of  an  inch  ;  or,  more 
accurately  expressed  in  decimals,  0.03937 
inch.  A  French  line  is  about  nine  one-hun¬ 
dredths  (T^o)  °f  an  inch,  or,  in  decimals, 
0.0888  inch. 

English  movements  are  sized  by  what  is 
called  the  Lancashire  Movement  Gauge, 
which  is  a  three-inch  measure.  The  sizes 
begin  with  one  inch,  i.  e.,  a  movement  1  inch 
in  diameter  is  size  o.  The  sizes  differ  by 
one-thirtieth  )  of  an  inch.  Size  16  Eng- 


HOW  TO  CONVERT  THE  THERMOMETER  SCALES. 


175 


lish  would,  therefore,  be  iff  inch  in  diame¬ 
ter,  and  so  on.  But  it  must  be  remembered 
that  English  sizes  refer  to  the  diameter  of 
the  pillar  plate  of  the  movement,  not  that  of 
the  dial.  As  everybody  knows,  the  dial  of 
an  English  watch  is  considerably  larger  than 
the  movement,  to  allow  the  dial  plate  to  rest 
upon  the  watch  case,  while  the  movement 
goes  inside  of  the  case  and  is  supported  in 
its  place  by  the  dial  plate — the  movement 
itself  not  being  allowed  to  touch  the  case. 
The  dial  is  five  sizes  larger  than  the  move¬ 
ment  ;  so  a^  1 6  size  English  watch  would 
have  a  dial  iff  inch  in  diameter,  or,  in  deci¬ 
mals,  1.700  inches.  A  French  or  Swiss  watch 
having  approximately  the  same  size  of  dial 
would  be  called  a  19  line  watch  or  a  43 
millimeter  watch.  The  American  move¬ 
ments  are  sized  by  the  Lancashire  gauge, 
only  omitting  the  allowance  of  five  sizes  be¬ 
tween  the  movement  and  the  dial — measur¬ 
ing  the  dial  itself  to  get  the  size  of  the  watch. 
The  table  will  be  found  on  p.  176. 


CONVERSION  OF  WEIGHTS  AND 
MEASURES. 

ANY  people  who  have  no  difficulty  in 
reading  a  French  journal  or  book  find 
it  a  nuisance  to  translate  the  metric  into 
English  measures  and  weights.  For  such  the 
following  rule  may  be  useful.  To  convert 
grams  to  ounces,  avoirdupois,  multiply  by 
20  and  divide  by  567.  To  convert  kilo¬ 
grammes  to  pounds,  multiply  by  1000  and 
divide  by  454.  To  convert  liters  to  gallons, 
multiply  by  22  and  divide  by  100.  To  con¬ 
vert  liters  to  pints,  multiply  by  88  and  divide 
by  50.  To  convert  millimeters  to  inches, 
mutiply  by  10  and  divide  by  254.  To  con¬ 
vert  meters  to  yards,  multiply  by  70  and  di¬ 
vide  by  64.  _ 

HOW  TO  CONVERT  THE  THER¬ 
MOMETER  SCALES. 

ORMERLY,  when  the  different  nations 
of  Europe  kept  more  secluded  one  from 
the  other,  by  reason  of  the  want  of  facilities 
of  rapid  locomotion,  each  adopted  a  coinage, 
weights,  and  measures,  etc.,  best  suited  to  its 
requirements ;  their  little  traffic  jogged  along 
all  right,  and  every  other  nation  accommo¬ 
dated  itself  to  the  peculiar  institutions  of  its 
neighbors.  Times  have  changed  since  then, 
however,  and  international  traffic  has  as¬ 
sumed  proportions  which  even  the  boldest 
minds  of  our  forefathers  did  not  foresee,  and 


we  are  beginning  to  sadly  want  all  our  coin¬ 
age,  measures  of  time,  of  bulk,  etc.,  reduced 
to  an  international  standard,  so  that  one  na¬ 
tion  living  thousands  of  miles  away  from 
another  will  readily  be  able  to  understand 
its  local  institutions  in  this  regard.  None  of 
the  least  perplexing  are  the  various  thermom¬ 
eter  scales ;  the  educated  man,  of  course, 
understands  how  to  compute  one  differing 
from  that  used  in  his  country,  but  then  we 
have  not  all  had  the  opportunity  of  becom¬ 
ing  educated  men,  and  for  the  latter  the  fol¬ 
lowing  ready  means  of  converting  one  scale 
into  another  may  be  of  interest.  By  the 
way,  the  thermometer  scales  are  a  forcible 
illustration  of  the  Biblical  verse  about  the 
prophet  enjoying  the  least  honor  in  his  own 
country.  Reaumur,  whose  scale  is  princi¬ 
pally  used  in  Germany,  was  a  Frenchman, 
but  the  French  use  the  Celsius  scale  (100  °), 
who  was  a  Swede.  Fahrenheit  was  a  Ger¬ 
man,  but  his  scale,  although  almost  unknown 
in  Germany,  is  exclusively  used  in  England 
and  America.  Again,  the  latter  scale,  al¬ 
though  apparently  the  most  irrational  and 
arbitrary  of  the  three,  is  nevertheless  about 
the  best  for  our  moderate  zone.  The  render 
of  these  Notes  is  well  aware  that  both  Cel¬ 
sius  (the  centigrade  scale)  and  Reaumur  fix 
their  freezing  point  at  the  congealing  point 
of  water — a  very  unsafe  point,  for  irrelevant 
reasons,  and  call  it  o 0 ;  Fahrenheit,  how¬ 
ever,  has  his  zero  at  a  temperature  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  mixture  of  ice  and  salt,  while  the 
freezing  point  is  located  at  320.  The  range 
from  the  boiling  point  at  2120  and  o°  F. 
embraces  about  all  the  degrees  of  heat  and 
cold  likely  to  occur  in  our  zone,  and  thereby 
dispenses  with  the  +  or  —  necessary  to  be 
added  to  the  other  scales  ;  plus  ( +  )  for  de¬ 
grees  above  the  freezing  point,  and  minus 
( — )  for  those  below.  For  instance,  when 
Celsius  has —  170,  Fahrenheit  has  still 
+  I-4°- 

Fahrenheit  into  Centigrade  ( or  Celsius ). — 
Subtract  320  from  Fahrenheit’s  degrees,  mul¬ 
tiply  the  remainder  by  5,  then  divide  by 
9.  The  product  will  be  the  temperature  in 
Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit  into  Reaumur. — Subtract  320 
from  Fahrenheit’s  degrees,  multiply  the  re¬ 
mainder  by  4,  and  divide  by  9.  The  prod¬ 
uct  will  be  the  temperature  in  Reaumur’s 
degrees. 

Centigrade  into  Fahrenheit. — Multiply  the' 
Centigrade  degrees  by  9,  divide  by  5,  and 
add  32  to  the  product.  The  sum  will  be 


SIZES  OF  WATCH  MOVEMENTS. 


176 

the  temperature  according  to  Fahrenheit’s 
scale. 

Reaumur  to  Fahrenheit. — Multiply  the 
degrees  on  Reaumur’s  scale  by  9,  divide  by 
4,  and  add  32  to  the  product.  The  sum 
will  be  the  temperature  by  Fahrenheit’s  scale. 
Tables  will  be  found  on  p.  178. 


DIAMOND,  GOLD,  ETC.,  WEIGHTS. 

TROY  WEIGHT. 

IN  Switzerland  the  old  French  ounce,  = 
30.59  grams,  is  still  much  used.  It  is 
divided  into  24  deniers,  each  at  24  grains. 

In  England  the  Troy  ounce  is  divided 
into  thousandths. 

In  the  United  States  the  English  Troy 
ounce  is  divided  into  20  dwts.  (penny¬ 
weights),  each  at  24  grains.  1  pound  Troy 
r=  12  oz.  -  -  24  grains  =  373*/^  grams. 

4  grains  =  1  karat. 

24  grains  =  1  pennyweight. 

20  dwts.  or  480  grains  =  1  ounce. 

12  oz.,  or  5760  grains  =  1  pound  (ft.) 


DIAMOND  WEIGHT. 

16  parts  =  1  grain. 

4  grains  =  1  karat. 

1  karat  =314  grains  Troy  (nearly). 

151*4  karats  =  1  oz.  Troy. 

According  to  this  the  karat  =  Stwt  grains 
Troy. 

In  giving  the  weight  of  a  diamond  we  say 
it  weighs  so  many  karats,  or  a  fraction  of 
such  karat,  and  do  not  express  it  either  in 
grains  or  pennyweights. 


AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 

I  drachm  (dr.)  =  2  7**-  grains. 

16  drachms  =  1  ounce  (oz.)  or  437*4  grs. 
16  ounces  =  1  pound  (ft.)  or  7000  grains. 
28  pounds  =  1  quarter  (qr.). 

4  quarters  =  1  hundred-weight  (cwt.). 

20  cwts.  =  1  ton. 


RANDOM  WEIGHTS. 

i  ducat  =  3)4  grams  fine  gold. 

1  mark  gold  weight  =  8  ounces  avoirdu¬ 
pois. 

i  loth  (German)  =16^4  grams. 

1  pound,  German  (avoirdupois)  =  500 
grams. 


*1  pound,  English  and  American  (avoirdu¬ 
pois)  =  453.59  grams. 

1  ounce,  English  and  American  (avoirdu¬ 
pois)  =  28.35  grams. 


GRAM 

WEIGHT 

IN  TROY 

WEIGHT. 

Grams. 

Oz. 

Dwts. 

Grains. 

IOOO 

= 

32 

3 

o-34 

9OC 

28 

18 

17.10 

800 

= 

25 

*4 

9.86 

700 

: 

22 

10 

2.63 

600 

— 

*9 

5 

19.40 

5°° 

— 

16 

1 

12.17 

400 

r:: 

1 2 

*7 

4-03 

3°° 

rr: 

9 

12 

21.70 

200 

6 

8 

14.16 

100 

3 

4 

7.08 

SIZES  OF  WATCH  MOVEMENTS. 


English. 

Swiss. 

size  in 
Millimeters. 

0 

Size 

30.48 

1 

U 

*4  Ig- 

(31-58 

m.) 

3*  -33 

2 

tl 

32.18 

3 

ti 

33-°2 

4 

a 

i5  " 

33-87 

5 

it 

34-72 

6 

a 

35-56 

7 

a 

16  “ 

(36.09 

") 

36.41 

8 

a 

3  7- 2  5 

9 

a 

38.10 

10 

a 

17  “ 

(38.35 

“) 

38.95 

1 1 

a 

39-79 

1 2 

a 

18  " 

40.64 

*3 

a 

4*-49 

*4 

a 

42-33 

*5 

a 

19  “ 

(42.86 

“) 

43-lS 

16 

a 

44-03 

*7 

a 

44.87 

18 

a 

20  “ 

(45- 12 

“) 

45-72 

*9 

a 

46  57 

20 

a 

21  “ 

47.41 

21 

a 

48.26 

22 

a 

49.11 

23 

a 

_  _  if 
22 

(49-63 

“) 

49-95 

24 

a 

50.80 

25 

a 

it 

23 

(51.88 

“) 

5i-65 

26 

a 

52-49 

27 

a 

53-34 

28 

a 

.  .  ft 

24 

54-i9 

29 

a 

55-°3 

3° 

a 

55-88 

THE  NEW  METRIC  SYSTEM  OF  SPECTACLE  LENSES. 


1 7  7 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

AKING  water  at  i.o,  the  specific  weight 
of  aluminum  is  2.56;  zinc,  cast,  6.80; 
-zinc,  rolled,  7.20;  iron,  cast,  6.90-7.50; 
iron,  wrought,  7.60-7.84;  German  silver 
and  brass,  8.55;  copper,  cast,  8.75;  cop¬ 
per,  wrought,  8.78-9.00;  bell  metal,  8.80; 
nickel,  8.82  ;  silver,  10.57  ;  palladium, 
11.80;  mercury,  15.60;  gold,  19.26;  plat¬ 
inum,  21.50. 


CONVERSION  OF  MILLIMETER  AND 
INCH  MEASURES. 


Millimeter. 

Inch. 

Millimeter. 

Inch. 

0 . 01 

0.0003937 

18 

0 . 70866 

0 .02 

0 . 0007874 

x9 

ro 

O 

00 

’'d- 

r— 

O 

0.03 

0 . 001 181 1 

0 . 04 

0 . 0015748 

20 

0 . 78740 

0.05 

0 . 0019685 

21 

0. 82677 

0 . 06 

0. 0023622 

22 

0 . 86614 

0.07 

0.0026559 

2  3 

0.90551 

0 . 08 

0.0031496 

24 

0.94488 

0 . 09 

0-0035433 

25 

0.98425 

26 

1 .02362 

0 . 1 

0-003937 

27 

1 . 06299 

0 . 2 

0 . 007874 

28 

1 . 10236 

o-3 

0 . 01 181 1 

29 

1 • X4X  73 

0.4 

0.015748 

°*  5 

0.019685 

3° 

1 . 181 10 

0 . 6 

0 .023622 

3i 

1 . 22047 

0.7 

0.026559 

32 

1.25984 

0.8 

0.031496 

33 

1 . 29921 

0.9 

0-035433 

34 

1 -33858 

35 

1 -37795 

1 

0-03937 

36 

1 -41732 

2 

0 .07874 

37 

1 .45669 

3 

0 . 1 181 1 

38 

1 . 49606 

4 

0.15748 

39 

x-53543 

5 

0 . 1 9685 

6 

0.23622 

40 

1.57480 

7 

0.26559 

41 

1 .61417 

8 

o.3t496 

42 

x.65354 

9 

o-35433 

43 

1 . 6929 1 

44 

1 . 73228 

1 0 

0-3937° 

45 

r. 77165 

I  I 

o- 433°7 

46 

1.81102 

1 2 

0.47244 

47 

1.85039 

X3 

0.51181 

48 

1 . 88976 

x4 

o-55IlS 

49 

1 .92913 

x5 

0.59056 

16 

0.62992 

5° 

1 . 96850 

17 

0 . 66929 

CONVERSION  OF  MILLIMETER  AND 
INCH  MEASURES— Continued. 


Inch. 

Millimeter. 

Inch. 

Millimeter. 

0.001 

0.025399 

0 . 2 

5.0798 

O  .  002 

0.050798 

0.3 

7.6197 

O  .  OO3 

0 . 076197 

0.4 

IO.1596 

O  .  OO4 

0 . 101596 

0.5 

12.6995 

O.OO5 

0.126995 

0 . 6 

x5-2394 

O  .  006 

0 • 1 52394 

o-7 

17-7793 

O  .  OO7 

o- 1 77793 

0.8 

20.3192 

O  .  008 

0. 203192 

0.9 

22 . 859I 

O  .  OO9 

0. 228591 

1 . 0 

25.899O 

O  .  OI 

o-25399 

1  . 1 

27.9389 

O  .02 

0.50798 

1 . 2 

3O.4788 

0.03 

0.76197 

1  -3 

33 • oi87 

O  .  04 

1.01596 

1  -4 

35-5586 

O.05 

1.26995 

1  -  5 

38.0985 

O  .  06 

x.52394 

1 . 6 

40.6384 

O.07 

1 • 77793 

1  •  7 

43.x783 

O.08 

2.03192 

1.8 

45 • 7 i82 

O  .  09 

2.28591 

1  -9 

48. 2581 

O  .  I 

2-5399 

2 . 0 

50.7980 

THE  NEW  METRIC  SYSTEM  OF 
SPECTACLE  LENSES. 


OLD  SYSTEM. 

Numbers  in 
inches. 

NEW  SYSTEM. 

Numbers  in 
Dioptrics. 

OLD  SYSTEM. 

Numbers  in 
inches. 

NEW  SYSTEM. 

Numbers  in 
Dioptrics. 

(160) 

2.25 

8 

5- 

80 

°-5 

7 

(5-25) 

60 

(0.67) 

7 

5-5 

5° 

o-75 

6^ 

6. 

40 

1. 

6 

6-5 

36 

(1.11) 

sH 

7- 

30 

1.25 

5  X 

7-5 

24 

x-5 

5 

8. 

(22) 

M5 

4^ 

9- 

20 

2. 

4 

10. 

18 

2.25 

3^ 

10.5 

16 

2-5 

3^2 

1 1. 

14 

2-75 

3% 

1 2. 

x3 

3- 

3 

X3*  ! 

1 2 

3-25 

23^ 

14. 

Ii 

3-5 

2  ^ 

16. 

10 

4- 

18. 

9 

4-5 

2 

20. 

CONVERSION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  THERMOMETER  SCALES. 


THE  SCALES  BELOW  ZERO. 


c. 

R. 

F. 

c. 

R. 

F. 

c. 

R. 

F. 

—30 

- 24.O 

- 22.0 

- 20 

- 16.O 

-  4.0 

— 10 

—8.0 

14.O 

—29 

- 23.2 

- 20.2 

—19 

—  15-2 

-  2.4 

—  9 

—7-2 

15.8 

—28 

- 22.4 

- 18.4 

—18 

—  14.4 

0.4 

—  8 

—6.4 

17.6 

—27 

- 2  1.6 

- 16.6 

—17 

—  13.6 

1.4 

—  7 

—5-6 

19.4 

— 26 

- 20.8 

- 14.8 

- 16 

—  12.8 

3-2 

—  6 

—4.8 

2  1.2 

—25 

- 20.0 

—  13.O 

—15 

- 1  2.0 

5-° 

—  5 

—4.0 

23.O 

—24 

- 19.2 

- 1  1.2 

—14 

— 1 1.2 

6.8 

—  4 

—3-2 

24.8 

—23 

—  18.4 

—  9-4 

—13 

— 1 0.4 

8.6 

—  3 

—2.4 

26.6 

- 22 

- 1  7.6 

—  7-6 

- 1  2 

—  9.6 

10.4 

—  2 

—  1.6 

28.4 

- 2  I 

—  l6.8 

-  5-8 

- 1  I 

—  8.8 

12.2 

-  I 

—0.8 

30.2 

THE  SCALES  ABOVE  ZERO. 


c. 

R. 

F. 

c. 

R. 

F. 

c. 

R. 

F. 

0 

0.0 

32.O 

34 

27.2 

93-2 

68 

544 

1544 

I 

0.8 

33-8 

35 

28.0 

95-° 

69 

55-2 

156.2 

2 

1.6 

35-6 

36 

28.8 

96.8 

70 

56.0 

158.O 

3 

2.4 

37-4 

37 

29.6 

98.6 

7 1 

56.8 

159.8 

4 

3-2 

39-2 

38 

304 

1 00.4 

72 

57-6 

1 6 1. 6 

5 

4.0 

41.0 

39 

3  1  -2 

102.2 

73 

584 

1634 

6 

4.8 

42.8 

40 

32.0 

104.0 

74 

59-2 

165.2 

7 

3-6 

44.6 

4i 

32.8 

105.8 

75 

60.0 

167.0 

8 

6.4 

46.4 

42 

33-6 

107.6 

76 

60.8 

168.8 

9 

7.2 

48.2 

43 

344 

109.4 

77 

61.6 

1 70.6 

1 0 

8.0 

50.0 

44 

35-2 

1 1 1.2 

78 

62.4 

172.4 

1 1 

8.8 

51.8 

45 

36.0 

113.0 

79 

63.2 

174.2 

1 2 

9.6 

53-6 

46 

36.8 

1 14.8 

80 

64.0 

1 76.0 

13 

10.4 

55-4 

47 

37-6 

1 16.6 

81 

64.8 

177.8 

H 

1 1.2 

57-2 

48 

384 

1 1 8.4 

82 

65.6 

1 79-6 

15 

1 2.0 

59-o 

49 

39-2 

1 20.2 

83 

66.4 

181.4 

l6 

12.8 

60.8 

5° 

40.0 

122.0 

84 

67.2 

183.2 

17 

1 3.6 

62.6 

5 1 

40.8 

123.8 

85 

68.0 

185.0 

18 

14.4 

64.4 

S2 

41.6 

125.6 

86 

68.8 

186.8 

*9 

15.2 

66.2 

53 

424 

127.4 

87 

69.6 

188.6 

20 

16.0 

68.0 

54 

43-2 

1 29.2 

88 

70.4 

190.4 

2 1 

16.8 

69.8 

55 

44.0 

I3I-° 

89 

71.2 

192.2- 

22 

1 7.6 

7 1.6 

56 

44.8 

132.8 

90 

72.0 

194.0 

23 

18.4 

73-4 

57 

45-6 

134.6 

91 

72.8 

195.8 

24 

19.2 

75-2 

58 

46.4 

1364 

92 

7  3-6 

i97.6 

25 

20.0 

77.0 

59 

47.2 

138.2 

93 

744 

199.4 

26 

20.8 

78.8 

60 

48.0 

140.0 

94 

75-2 

201.2 

27 

2 1.6 

80.6 

6l 

48.8 

141.8 

95 

76.0 

203. c 

28 

22.4 

82.4 

62 

49.6 

J43-6 

96 

76.8 

204.8 

29 

23.2 

84.2 

63 

5°4 

1454 

97 

77.6 

206.6 

3° 

24.0 

86.0 

64 

51.2 

147.2 

98 

784 

208.4 

31 

24.8 

87.8 

65 

52.0 

149.0 

99 

79.2 

210.2 

32 

25.6 

89.6 

66 

52.8 

150.8 

IOO 

80.0 

2  I  2.'“ 

33 

26.4 

9r4 

67 

53-6 

152.6 

KARATS  IN  THOUSANDTHS. 


179 


CONVERSION  OF  GRAM  WEIGHT  INTO  TROY  WEIGHT. 


Grams. 

SWISS. 

ENGLISH. 

AMERICAN. 

O  z. 

Deniers. 

Grains. 

0 z.  in 

Oz. 

Dwts. 

Grains. 

1 

18.83 

0.032 

1 5-43 

2 

I 

1 3-67 

0.064 

I 

6.86 

3 

2 

8.50 

0.096 

I 

22.30 

4 

3 

3-33 

0.1  29 

2 

x3-73 

5 

3 

22.17 

0.161 

3 

5.16 

6 

4 

1 7.00 

0.193 

3 

20.59 

7 

5 

18.83 

0.225 

4 

12.03 

8 

6 

6.67 

0.257 

5 

346 

9. 

7 

1.50 

0.290 

5- 

18.89 

10 

'7 

20.33 

0.322 

6. 

10,32 

20 

US 

16.70 

0.644 

1 2 

20.60 

3° 

23 

13.00 

0.965 

J9 

7.00 

40 

I 

7 

9-3° 

1 .288 

I 

5 

1l-3° 

48 

I 

13 

16.00 

1  *545 

I 

1 0 

20.70 

MELTING  POINTS  OF  THE  PRIN¬ 
CIPAL  METALS. 


Names  of  elements. 

Fahrenheit. 

Centigrade. 

Platinum  * . 

Cast-iron . 

2786 

1 53° 

Nickel . 

2700 

1482 

Gold . 

2016 

1102 

Copper . 

1984 

1090 

Silver . 

i87  3 

1023 

Aluminum . 

1300 

7°5 

Zinc . 

773 

412 

Lead . 

612 

322 

Bismuth . 

497 

258 

Tin . 

442 

228 

Antimony  t . 

*  Infusible,  except  by  the  oxy-hydrogen  blow-pipe, 
t  Fuses  a  little  below  red  heat 


KARATS  IN  THOUSANDTHS. 


FINENESS  IN 

FINENESS  IN 

Karats. 

Milliemes. 

Karats. 

Milliemes. 

24 

1 . 000 

1 2 

•  500 

23 

•958 

I  I 

•  458 

22 

•  9T7 

10 

•  41  7 

2 1 

•875 

9 

•375 

20 

•  833 

8 

•333 

X9 

.792 

7 

.  292 

18 

•75° 

6 

.250 

1 7 

.  708 

5 

.  208 

16 

.  667 

4 

.  167 

*5 

.625 

3 

•  I25 

14 

.583 

2 

.083 

13 

.542 

1 

.042 

i8o 


LETTER  ENGRAVING. 


LETTER  ENGRAVING. 

OR  practice,  not  only  in  setting  up  the 
tool,  but  also  in  using  it,  the  learner  will 
find  a  square  graver  the  best.  A  square 
graver  is  also  the  best  for  cutting  coarse  let¬ 
tering,  such  as  is  required  upon  door-plates, 
coffin-plates,  satchel-plates,  dog-collars,  etc. 
For  cutting  upon  articles  of  jewelry,  watch 
cases,  cane  heads,  and  such  like,  where  a 
smaller  and  lighter  cut  lettering  is  needed,  a 
graver  somewhat  on  the  lozenge  in  shape 
should  be  used,  the  point  of  which,  when  the 
surplus  steel  is  ground  away,  would  be  of 
about  the  same  shape  as  a  three-cornered  file 
— the  width  of  it  across  the  face,  from  side 
to  side,  equalling  the  width  of  either  face  of 
its  belly. 

In  setting  the  face  of  any  graver  for  ordi¬ 
nary  use,  grind  it  back  so  as  to  be  at  an  an¬ 
gle  of  about  sixty  degrees  from  the  line  of 
the  edge  of  its  belly.  A  less  acute  angle  can 
be  given  to  a  graver  and  fair  work  be  done 
with  it.  This  is  sometimes  a  necessity  aris¬ 
ing  from  the  quality  of  the  metal  to  be  cut 
with  it,  or  the  temper  of  the  tool  used.  In 
cutting  such  articles  as  solid-handled  silver- 
Tplated  table  knives,  stock  mountings  to  re¬ 
volvers,  plates  made  of  rolled  nickel  or  brass, 
a  graver  that  will  continually  keep  losing  its 
point  when  its  face  is  set  at  sixty  degrees  will 
often  retain  it  with  average  pertinacity  when 
its  face  is  set  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees. 

Good  work  cannot  be  done  with  a  graver 
the  face  of  which  is  set  at  a  less  acute  angle 
than  forty-five  degrees.  So  much  force  has 
to  be  used  in  displacing  the  metal  that  the 
strokes  cut  with  it,  if  so  set,  are  apt  to  be 
A‘  burry  ”  instead  of  “  clean,”  and  their  termi¬ 
nations  in  manyinstances,  especiallyin  cutting 
script  lettering,  are  too  blunt  to  be  beautiful. 

In  practicing  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  a 
polished  graver,  but  in  actual  business  it  is 
very  often  requisite.  Silver  and  plated  ware, 
both  flat  and  hollow,  are  now  so  largely  fin¬ 
ished  with  what  is  known  as  the  “  satin  finish  ” 
that  a  polished  graver  is  a  tool  always  needed 
■on  the  bench,  for  the  strokes  cut  with  the 
graver,  the  surfaces  of  the  belly  and  the  face 
of  which  are  finished  with  no  finer  finish 
than  an  Arkansas  oil-stone  will  give  them, 
will  not  show  effectively,  the  surface  of  the 
article  having  a  dead  style  of  finish  given 
to  it,  demands  that  the  work  upon  it,  in 
order  to  be  seen,  must  possess  a  finish  which 
shall  be  exactly  opposite  in  kind,  and  so 
produce  the  desired  effect  by  contrast — the 
.sharper  the  contrast  the  better. 


The  face,  as  well  as  both  sides  of  the  belly 
of  the  tool,  should  be  polished  when  “  bright- 
cut  ”  work  is  to  be  done. 

The  materials  ordinarily  used  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  graver  polishing  are  the  same  as  used 
by  watchmakers  for  polishing  steel;  chief 
among  which  are  diamantine,  Vienna  lime, 
crocus  and  saphirine.  In  using  any  or  all  of 
them,  a  small  quantity  should  be  put  upon  a 
piece  of  wood,  hard  and  close  in  texture, 
and  finished  down  as  flat  as  can  be.  In  us¬ 
ing,  moisten  the  material  with  a  little  alcohol 
and  apply  the  piece  of  wood  so  charged  to 
the  graver  and  after  the  manner  of  a  buff ; 
or,  reverse  the  process  and  apply  the  graver 
to  the  wood,  in  the  same  manner  as  though 
it  were  an  oil-stone. 

In  country  towns  it  is  not  an  easy  thing 
to  get  any  of  the  materials  named,  and  so  it 
may  come  “  handy  ”  to  know  of  some  means 
always  available,  if  not  quite  so  effective,  for 
doing  the  work.  A  very  fair  polish  can  be 
put  upon  the  belly  and  face  of  a  graver  in 
the  following  manner :  Take  an  Arkansas 
oil-stone,  clean  the  flattest  part  of  it ;  then  rub 
the  point  of  a  lead-pencil  over  the  cleaned 
portion  of  the  stone  until  the  pores  are  well 
filled  with  the  lead.  When  this  is  done,  ap¬ 
ply  the  surfaces  of  the  tool  to  be  polished  to 
the  stone  as  though  sharpening  the  graver 
upon  it.  The  polish  on  the  tool  can  be  im¬ 
proved  by  mixing  a  little  rouge  with  the  lead 
upon  the  stone.  The  pencil  should  be  one 
having  a  fine  quality  of  lead  in  it — free  from 
all  traces  of  grit. 

It  may  be  well  to  say  a  word  right  here 
about  the  quality  of  the  various  makes  of  grav¬ 
ers  in  the  market.  The  Vautier  and  Baumel 
gravers  are  the  cheapest — and  they  ought  to 
be,  for  they  are  the  poorest.  Few  of  them 
will  “  stand  ”  for  any  length  of  time,  if  used 
in  cutting  other  metals  than  the  soft  white 
metal,  of  which  hollow  silver-plated  ware  is 
made,  and  silver.  Experience  has  shown 
to  the  writer  that  the  most  reliable  gravers 
for  general  use  are  those  made  by  Renard, 
John  Sellers,  and  Stubbs.  Stubbs’  gravers  are 
good  for  cutting  German  silver  and  brass, 
whether  rolled  or  cast,  and  for  all  heavy 
work,  such  as  door-plates,  etc.  The  others 
named  have  no  superiors  for  the  ordinary 
run  of  letter  engraving  in  demand  by  jewel¬ 
ers  and  silversmiths.  Burt  makes  a  good, 
fine-finished,  and  consequently  high-priced 
graver.  The  next  best  gravers  are  also  of 
the  Burt  make. 

The  amount  of  pressure  needful  for  the 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  EYES. 


propulsion  of  a  graver  in  cutting  script  let¬ 
tering  in  silver  is  about  from  one  to  three 
ounces,  according  to  the  fineness  or  breadth 
of  the  stroke  made  with  it. 

In  holding  a  graver,  it  should  be  placed 
diagonally  across  the  palm  of  the  hand,  with 
the  bulb  of  the  handle  resting  a  trifle  below 
its  center.  From  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and 
from  no  other  source,  should  the  graver  re¬ 
ceive  all  the  force  necessary  at  any  time  in 
using  it.  The  hand  is  steadied  while  cutting 
by  the  thumb  resting  upon  the  block,  or  the 
work  in  hand,  as  the  case  may  be.  The 
thumb  forms  a  sort  of  side  rest  for  the  graver 
in  its  forward  and  backward  motion,  the 
thumb  moving  its  position  but  little,  excepting 
in  cutting  very  extended  straight  lines.  The 
fingers  are  gathered  lightly  around  the  blade 
of  the  tool,  which  in  no  case  must  be  grasped 
and  held  down  by  them,  as  such  action  in¬ 
terferes,  if  not  entirely  prevents,  the  freedom 
of  motion  necessary  to  its  successful  use, 
making  out  of  it  either  a  scraper  or  a  digger, 
and  incision  in  metal  cannot  be  made  in  free 
and  graceful  forms  in  any  fashion,  let  alone 
with  the  perfection  of  “  cleanness  ”  and 
smoothness  that  must  be  given  to  the  strokes 
in  good  letter  engraving. 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  EYES. 

APTAIN  MARRY  AT  has  justly  said: 
“A  man  may  damn  his  own  eyes,  but 
has  no  right  to  exercise  a  similar  prerogative 
over  other  people’s  visual  organs ;  ”  and 
while  a  Chicago  contemporary  does  not  pre¬ 
sume  to  “  damn  ”  at  all,  it  proceeds  in  the 
following  interesting  article  to  endeavor  to 
lead  those  who  are  suffering  from  remediable 
ocular  defects — enduring  the  inconvenience, 
the  headaches,  and  other  afflictions  which 
such  defects  occasion — to  conduct,  as  it 
were,  their  visual  organs  through  the  courts 
of  retributive  justice,  so  that  if  they  have 
given  trouble,  they  may  not  only  be  sworn 
at,  but  also  indicted,  condemned  to  trial, 
and  sentenced  to  proper  correction. 

Throughout  life,  from  youth  to  old  age, 
there  is  a  process  of  change  occurring  in  the 
refractive  media  of  all  eyes,  so  that  every  one 
who  attains  to  a  ripe  old  age  will,  at  some 
time  or  other  during  his  or  her  existence,  be 
a  fit  subject  for  the  oculist — or,  in  other 
words,  will  need  to  wear  glasses.  In  young 
people  this  change  is  usually  gradual  and 
unperceived,  but  from  middle  life  onward  its 
effects  are  plainly  apparent.  Those  who  have 


1 81 

normal  vision  while  young  will  require  glasses 
for  reading  when  they  have  passed  beyond 
the  age  of  forty,  and  those  who  are  near¬ 
sighted  before  the  age  is  reached,  need  glasses 
in  early  life,  if  the  degree  of  near-sightedness 
(myopia)  be  at  all  great,  and  yet  they  may 
be  able  to  read  perfectly  well  without  glasses 
when  fifty  or  even  sixty  years  of  age.  Per¬ 
sons  who  are  included  in  this  category  are 
apt  to  consider  themselves  as  lucky  excep¬ 
tions  to  general  laws,  and  are  usually  very 
proud  of  their  sharp  sight. 

But  not  only  does  the  eye  undergo  certain 
normal  changes  as  age  advances,  but  it  may 
be  abnormally  formed ;  and  hence  optical 
defects  are  not  only  possible,  but  quite  com¬ 
mon  in  infants.  The  eye  is  a  camera,  and, 
while  it  may  be  free  from  disease  and  per¬ 
fectly  sound,  still  vision  may  be  bad  because 
the  rays  of  light  are  not  focussed  upon  the 
retina.  Hence  comes  the  necessity  for  wear¬ 
ing  glasses,  for,  by  placing  suitable  lenses  be¬ 
fore  these  eyes,  normal,  distinct  vision  may 
— within  certain  limits — be  obtained.  It  is 
not  generally  known  that  it  is  the  exception, 
and  not  the  rule,  to  find  eyes  that  are  perfect 
in  shape,  or,  technically  speaking,  that  are 
“  emmetropic.”-  Still  it  does  not  follow  that 
all  eyes  that  are  not  perfect  in  shape  should 
have  glasses  fitted  to  them,  for  some  errors 
of  refraction  do  not  interfere  seriously  with 
vision,  and  never  give  rise  to  disease  or  de¬ 
cided  discomfort  to  the  patient ;  but,  as  a 
rule,  persons  whose  eyes  are  “  weak,”  or  who 
suffer  from  complaints  similar  to  those  which 
we  shall  soon  consider,  should  present  them¬ 
selves  to  some  competent  oculist  for  the 
detection  and  subsequent  correction  of  any 
existing  errors  of  refraction.  Let  me  briefly 
say  that  by  “  competent  oculist  ”  is  meant 
one  who  has  not  only  a  knowledge  of  the 
delicate  mechanism  of  the  eye,  but  of  the 
other  organs  of  the  body  as  well ;  for  abnor¬ 
malities  and  diseases  of  the  eye  link  them¬ 
selves  very  closely  to  diseased  conditions  of 
other  portions  of  the  physical  economy. 
Consequently,  the  competent  oculist  is  a  doc¬ 
tor  of  medicine,  although  he  may  devote  him¬ 
self  entirely  to  the  study  and  practice  of  oph¬ 
thalmology.  The  jeweler  is  not  always  and 
the  peddler  is  never  a  proper  person  to  fit 
glasses;  and,  while  it  is  true  that  certain  op¬ 
ticians  are  conscientious  enough  to  send  the 
party  to  an  oculist  when  they  find  that  they 
cannot  correctly  fit  a  patient  with  glasses,  still 
there  are  opticians  who  are  less  conscientious, 
and  who,  lest  the  acknowledgment  of  inca- 


182 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  EYES. 


pacity  might  lower  their  standard  in  the  pub¬ 
lic  mind,  or  cause  the  loss  of  a  customer, 
advise  glasses  which  are  not  correct  in  every 
respect.  Moreover,  the  oculist  has  means 
at  his  command  for  the  detection  of  errors 
of  refraction  which  cannot  be  applied  by  the 
optician,  and  possesses  a  knowledge  of  the 
proper  correction  of  these  errors  which  years 
of  study  and  experience  can  alone  bestow. 

There  still  exists  quite  a  prejudice  in  the 
minds  of  many  against  the  use  of  glasses ; 
but  why  such  prejudice  should  exist  is  very 
difficult  of  explanation  on  any  other  grounds 
than  wilfulness  and  ignorance.  All  ophthal¬ 
mologists  teach  the  great  necessity  of  correct¬ 
ing  errors  of  refraction  by  wearing  proper 
glasses,  and  we  shall  herein  endeavor  to  show 
some  of  the  undesirable,  and  even  portentous, 
results  of  permitting  optical  defects  to  go 
uncorrected.  As  a  rule,  glasses  add  nothing 
to  the  appearance  of  the  wearer,  and  they 
are  often  a  source  of  inconvenience,  and,  un¬ 
less  there  is  a  definite  object  to  be  attained 
by  their  use,  patients  are  better  without  them ; 
but  where  they  are  indicated  and  advised  by 
one  competent  to  decide,  neither  vanity  nor 
prejudice  should  prevent  their  being  em¬ 
ployed. 

The  purposes  for  which  glasses  should  be 
prescribed  may  be  briefly  summed  up  thus : 
First,  to  prevent  disease  of  the  eyes  from 
“eye  strain”';  second,  to  aid  in  the  curing 
of  certain  diseases  and  abnormal  conditions, 
by  releasing  all  strain  and  giving  the  eyes 
rest ;  third,  to  enable  the  patient  to  better 
pursue  his  avocation  in  life ;  and  fourth,  for 
his  comfort  and  convenience.  Our  consid¬ 
eration  of  these  items  must  necessarily  be 
brief,  and  consequently  imperfect.  The  first 
two  are  of  paramount  importance,  and  afford 
material  for  many  chapters  in  the  study  of 
refraction.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that 
all  eiTors  of  refraction  which  reduce  the 
patient’s  vision  to  any  extent  below  the  nor¬ 
mal,  or  which  produce  any  marked  change 
in  either  the  near  or  the  far  points,  require 
correction  by  the  use  of  suitable  glasses. 
These  errors  are :  hyperopia ,  or  far-sight ; 
myopia ,  or  near-sight ;  presbyopia ,  or  old- 
sight  ;  and  astigmatism ,  or  irregular  sight. 

Let  us  first  consider  the  dangers  from  hy¬ 
peropia.  There  is  x  constant  strain,  known 
as  “  an  effort  of  accommodation,”  upon  every 
far-sighted  eye  when  viewing  both  near  and 
remote  objects.  This  effort  of  accommoda¬ 
tion  is  a  muscular  exertion,  and  hence  a  tax 
upon  the  nervous  system,  and,  if  long  con¬ 


tinued,  results  in  more  or  less  exhaustion. 
When  far-sighted  eyes  are  used  for  reading 
or  near  work  for  any  considerable  period  of 
time,  the  effort  required  produces  congestion 
and  redness  of  the  eyes,  a  larger  flow  of  blood 
is  sent  to  them,  and  hence  there  is  an  in¬ 
creased  secretion  of  mucus,  or  “watering  of 
the  eyes  ”  ;  and,  if  the  work  be  still  continued, 
dizziness,  headache,  a  feeling  of  sickness,  or 
even  actual  vomiting,  may  be  induced.  But 
in  far-sighted  children  another  condition  not 
infrequently  arises  as  soon  as  they  are  made 
to  apply  themselves  to  books.  A  child  be¬ 
gins  to  have  a  cast  in  the  eye — that  is,  to 
squint,  or  look  “cross-eyed.”  At  first  the 
squint  may  be  periodic,  and  appear  only 
when  close  work  is  undertaken ;  but  unless 
means  are  employed  to  prevent  it,  it  soon 
becomes  permanent.  In  the  great  majority 
of  cases,  internal  squint  is  due  to  hyperopia. 
An  excessive  effort  of  accommodation  is 
always  associated  with  increased  conver¬ 
gence,  and,  as  a  far-sighted  eye  must  always 
increase  its  accommodation  in  order  to  gain 
clear  vision,  it  naturally  squints  inward. 
Nervous  twitchings  of  the  eyelids  and  other 
portions  of  the  face  are  sometimes  occasioned 
by  hyperopia.  Fortunately,  the  condition 
of  hyperopia  can  be  easily  corrected  by  suit¬ 
able  convex  spherical  glasses,  and  thus  the 
conditions  of  weariness  and  exhaustion  of 
the  eyes,  catarrh  of  the  eyes,  twitching,  head¬ 
ache,  etc.,  can  be  prevented  ;  or,  where  they 
have  already  occurred  as  consequences  of 
long  sight,  they  are  usually  at  once  and  per¬ 
manently  removed  as  soon  as  the  hyperopia 
is  corrected  by  appropriate  glasses.  Squint 
is  also  thus  prevented  by  glasses,  and  in  a 
certain  number  of  cases  where  it  is  already 
manifested  in  children,  it  may  be  remedied 
by  correcting  the  existing  error  of  refraction. 

Myopia,  or  short  sight,  is  often  hereditary 
or  congenital,  but  may  be  acquired  from 
prolonged  straining  of  the  eye.  This  condi¬ 
tion  is  not  infrequently  the  precursor  of  se¬ 
rious,  and  sometimes  irremediable,  impair¬ 
ment  of  vision,  and  hence  skilled  advice  and 
proper  glasses  are  of  highest  importance  to 
the  patient  in  preventing  the  accidents  to 
which  every  myopic  eye  is  liable.  In  high 
degrees  of  myopia  there  is  an  excessive  de¬ 
mand  made  upon  the  muscles  that  converge 
the  eyes,  in  the  efforts  made  to  keep  them 
both  fixed  upon  small  objects  held  close  to 
the  face,  and  sometimes,  being  unable  to 
withstand  this  strain,  they  give  out,  and  one 
eye  is  then  turned  outward  by  the  opposing 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  EYES. 


muscle,  forming  a  divergent  squint.  Very 
-serious  intra-ocular  changes,  that  are  beyond 
rhe  reach  of  therapeutic  measures,  are  some- 
rimes -occasioned  by  high  degrees  of  myopia. 
Short-sighted  eyes,  above  all  others,  require 
the  most  rigid  hygiene. 

The  vision  should  be  rendered  normal— 
except  in  very  high  degrees — by  the  use  of 
concave  spherical  glasses,  and  everything 
which  tends  to  congest  the  eyes — such  as 
reading  or  writing  in  the  recumbent  or  stoop¬ 
ing  posture,  or  by  faulty  light — is  to  be  most 
carefully  avoided. 

Presbyopia,  or  the  far  sight  of  old  age,  is 
caused  by  a  lack  of  power  of  accommoda¬ 
tion,  and  although  distant  vision  remains  un¬ 
impaired,  there  is  a  constant  recession  of  the 
near  point.  This  is  first  noticed  by  the  pa¬ 
tient  when  he  finds  that  he  is  obliged  to  hold 
his  paper  farther  away  from  his  eyes  than 
before,  and  that  the  print  is  not  so  clear  as 
Tormerly.  Presbyopia  is  easily  corrected  by 
convex  glasses  for  reading,  and  they  should 
be  employed  as  soon  as  the  affection  becomes 
manifest.  It  does  not  usually  cause  incon¬ 
venience  until  after  the  age  of  forty.  Far¬ 
sightedness,  when  not  corrected  by  appro¬ 
priate  glasses,  causes  the  condition  of  pres¬ 
byopia  to  manifest  itself  earlier  in  life  than 
it  does  in  eyes  not  thus  affected,  or  in  those 
in  which  the  error  has  been  properly  cor¬ 
rected. 

In  astigmatism,  or  irregular  sight,  the 
refraction  differs  in  different  portions  or  me¬ 
ridians  of  the  eye,  and  the  retinal  image  is 
thus  confused.  This  condition  is  usually  con¬ 
genital  and  may  be  hereditary ;  it  is,  how¬ 
ever,  sometimes  acquired,  often  occurring 
after  inflammations  of  the  cornea,  and  may 
even  be  occasioned  by  the  use  of  improper 
glasses.  It  is  a  very  common  optical  defect, 
and  is  corrected — according  to  the  variety 
— either  by  cylindrical  lenses  or  by  .combin¬ 
ing  cylindrical  with  spherical  lenses.  Irreg¬ 
ular  astigmatism  cannot  be  entirely  corrected. 
As  astigmatism  is  either  a  variety  of  hyper¬ 
opia  or  of  myopia,  or  a  mixture  of  both,  it 
can  be  productive  of  the  train  of  symptoms 
already  shown  to  be  occasioned  by  these 
errors  of  refraction — such  as  headache,  diz¬ 
ziness,  nausea,  and  nervous  irritability — and 
consequently,  in  all  varieties  of  astigmatism, 
suitable  glasses  (preferably  spectacles)  should 
be  worn  continually,  for  both  distant  and 
mear  vision. 

A  different  refractive  condition  in  the  two 
■eyes  of  the  same  person  is  quite  common. 


183 

One  eye  may  be  correct,  and  the  other  long¬ 
sighted  or  short-sighted  ;  or  they  may  have 
different  degrees  of  the  same  defect ;  or, 
again,  one  eye  may  be  long-sighted  and  the 
other  short-sighted.  And  since,  in  such 
cases,  the  condition  of  one  eye  can  scarcely 
be  improved  by  the  same  glass  adapted  to 
correct  the  error  in  the  other,  the  vast  im¬ 
propriety  of  selecting  glasses  at  random  from 
the  counter  of  a  dealer  is  plainly  obvious. 
Both  eyes  must  be  tested  separately,  and 
fitted  acordingly.  Where  it  is  known  that 
presbyopia — the  condition  due  to  age — alone 
exists,  patients  may  select  their  own  glasses, 
for  any  given  distance,  according,  to  the 
needs  of  convenience  of  the  patient.  As 
age  advances,  the  amount  of  presbyopia  in¬ 
creases,  and  new  and  stronger  glasses  will  be 
from  time  to  time  required. 

Heterophoria,  or  weakness  of  some  one 
or  more  of  the  ocular  muscles,  is  very  often 
a  complication  of  some  error  of  refraction. 
In  this  condition  there  is  a  continual  strain 
upon  the  weaker  muscle  in  order  to  do  its 
work,  and  this  alone  will  cause  very  many 
headaches,  neuralgias,  and  general  nervous 
symptoms.  We  have  already  considered  this 
subject  in  cases  where  the  irregular  action  of 
the  muscles  of  the  eyeball  is  sufficiently 
marked  to  produce  squint,  but  ofttimes  there 
is  merely  a  loss  of  function,  which  can  be 
determined  only  by  careful  examination. 
This  condition,  which  is  termed  muscular 
insufficiency,  is  overcome  by  correcting  the 
refractive  error,  and  combining  the  glasses 
thus  required  with  properly  selected  and  ap¬ 
plied  prisms. 

Let  us  now  look  at  some  common  troubles 
not  generally  known  to  be  due  to  ocular  de¬ 
fects.  Not  a  small  number  of  reflex  neuroses 
are  caused  by  these  defects.  Headaches 
which  come  on  after  sewing,  reading,  watch¬ 
ing  a  play,  or  otherwise  using  the  visual  or¬ 
gans  in  a  special  direction  for  a  period  of 
time,  are  usually  the  direct  results  of  these 
defects.  Neuralgia,  dizziness,  mental  depres¬ 
sion,  melancholia,  chorea  (St.  Vitus’  dance), 
and  even  epilepsy,  have  been  shown  to  be 
directly  dependent,  in  certain  cases,  upon  re¬ 
fractive  errors  for  their  causation.  Out  of 
nine  cases  of  epilepsy  in  which  there  were 
optical  defects,  recently  experimented  upon, 
four  cases  were  positively  cured  by  correc¬ 
tion  of  the  defects ;  two  of  the  cases  were 
entirely  relieved  for  periods  of  four  and  six 
months  respectively  ;  in  another  case  the  fits 
were  greatly  reduced  in  number  during  a 


1 84 


SPECTACLES  AND  EYE-GLASSES. 


I 


given  period  of  time,  after  the  application  of 
proper  spectacles  ;  while  two  cases  were  not 
influenced  by  glasses.  Recurring  styes  are 
not  infrequently  due  to  some  optical  defect, 
and  when  thus  occasioned  they  are  to  be 
cured,  not  by  pulling  out  the  lashes,  but  by 
having  the  defect  corrected. 

That  by  improving  his  defective  vision 
one  is  enabled  to  pursue  life’s  duties  to  bet¬ 
ter  advantage  and  with  increased  conven¬ 
ience  to  himself,  need  not  be  insisted  upon. 
Some  people  go  through  much  or  all  of  life 
content — through  ignorance  or  prejudice — 
without  seeing  but  half  of  their  surroundings, 
and  often  enduring  the  ills  which  we  have 
seen  to  result  from  remediable  ocular  defects. 
To  some  people  glasses  are  a  revelation — 
revealing  powers  and  beauties  of  vision  never 
before  known  to  exist. 


SPECTACLES  AND  EYE-GLASSES. 

ENSES  are  ground  in  the  following  man¬ 
ner:  pieces  of  glass  are  cemented  on 
tools  of  the  required  curve  and  ground  with 
emery  of  different  grades  until  very  fine  is 
used,  and  they  are  polished  on  cloth  cemented 
to  the  tools,  rouge  or  putty  powder  being 
used  to  give  them  the  last  finish.  The  tools 
are  made  of  any  required  curve ;  say  a  five 
inch  glass  is  wanted.  Open  a  pair  of  dividers 
five  inches,  draw  a  curve  with  them,  take  a 
section  of  the  curve,  make  a  wooden  pattern 
like  a  saucer  with  a  peg  on  the  under  part  to 
hold  the  tool  by,  then  make  another  tool  just 
the  same,  but  on  one  you  put  the  peg  on  the 
convex  side,  and  on  the  concave  side  of  the 
other  get  two  pairs  of  castings  made ;  get 
them  turned  out  by  a  machinist  to  the  shape 
of  the  curve,  then  with  emery  grind  them 
together.  One  pair  has  to  be  finished  with 
rough  emery  for  roughing  down  the  glass ; 
the  other  pair  finish  off  with  fine  emery  for 
finishing  and  polishing  on.  Now,  if  you 
want  glasses  of  five  inch  focus  :  convex  pitch 
on  pieces  of  flat  glass  until  the  convex  tool 
is  full ;  fasten  to  a  block  your  concave  tool, 
and  before  the  pitch  is  too  cold  lay  the  con¬ 
vex  tool  with  the  glasses  on  it  upon  the  con¬ 
cave  tool.  To  get  the  glasses  down  even  let 
the  pitch  get  cold,  then  put  on  some  rough 
emery  in  the  concave  tool  and  commence 
grinding.  The  emery  will  touch  the  glass 
on  the  edges,  and  keep  on  grinding  until  the 
glasses  are  of  the  same  curve  as  the  tool ; 
then  wash  out  all  the  rough  emery  and  use 
some  finer;  then  wash  that  off  and  repeat 


the  process  with  fine  or  flour  emery,  and  after 
grinding  a  little  while  the  emery  will  get 
finer ;  then  with  a  wet  sponge  wipe  off  half 
the  emery  and  add  a  little  water,  and  com¬ 
mence  again.  Get  the  glasses  so  fine  and 
smooth  that  when  you  wet  them  they  look 
like  polished  glass.  Now  dissolve  a  little 
pitch  in  turpentine  and  paint  the  tool  with 
it ;  lay  on  your  cloth,  and  by  rubbing  with 
your  hand  you  will  get  the  cloth  to  lay  down 
flat  to  the  tool.  Let  it  dry  for  a  few  minutes 
and  add  rough  or  putty  powder ;  wet  the  cloth 
a  little  and  commence  polishing,  which  will 
be  very  quickly  done  if  you  have  smoothed 
the  glasses  nicely.  For  concave  glasses  re¬ 
verse  the  process  by  pitching  the  glasses  on 
the  convex  tool  and  let  the  convex  tool  be 
the  grinder.  Then  reverse  the  glasses  and 
grind  the  other  side,  and  when  done  you  will 
have  glasses  of  five  inch  focus. 

If  you  took  a  ball  of  glass  five  inches  in 
diameter,  it  would  be  five  inches  focus.  Cy¬ 
lindrical  glasses  are  made  just  the  same  way, 
but  are  ground  on  cylindrical  shaped  tools, 
and  the  focus  or  curves  are  measured  in  the 
same  way  by  inches  or  meters.  The  latter 
is  a  good  scale,  but  causes  a  great  deal  of 
confusion  and  trouble  because  tools  are  made 
in  this  country  and  England  by  the  inch 
scale,  and  if  the  English  inch  was  divided  by 
tenths  and  not  by  eighths,  it  would  be  very 
simple  and  convenient.  The  way  of  making 
odd  glasses,  say  five  and  one-half  inches,  or 
any  odd  number  that  may  be  required,  can 
be  done  by  grinding  a  glass  on  one  side  on 
the  five-inch  tool,  and  the  other  on  a  six-inch 
tool,  which  would  give  you  a  glass  of  five 
and  one-half  inches  focus. 

Periscopic  glasses  are  concave  on  one  side- 
and  convex  on  the  other,  and  they  are  used 
to  give  more  clearness  of  vision  when  looking 
obliquely  through  the  glasses,  and  give  a 
larger  field  of  vision.  In  setting  the  glasses- 
into  the  spectacle  or  eye-glass  frame  take  a 
piece  of  thin  brass  or  tin,  make  it  the  shape 
of  the  frame,  but  a  trifle  smaller,  lay  it  on  the 
glass,  then  with  a  glazier’s  diamond  cut  round 
the  pattern,  break  off  the  edges  with  a  pair 
of  pliers,  and  grind  it  to  the  required  size  on 
a  grindstone,  care  being  taken  to  get  the 
center  of  the  lens  in  the  center  of  the  frame. 

And  this  is  very  often  the  cause  of  a  great 
deal  of  trouble  to  the  seller  and  pain  to  the 
wearer.  Be  sure  that  your  glasses  are  of 
exactly  the  same  focus,  and  they  vary  con¬ 
siderably.  Take  a  five-inch  French  glass  and 
it  will  be  different  in  power  to  a  five-inch 


I 


ETCHING  FLUID  FOR  STEEL. 


English  glass ;  and  this  is  not  the  worst  of 
it,  but  glasses  of  first  quality  will  be  different 
in  power  to  second,  second  quality  will  be 
different  from  third,  and  so  on.  Therefore 
in  matching  glasses,  except  you  keep  a  large 
stock  of  glasses  of  all  qualities  and  numbers, 
it  is  better  to  put  in  a  pair ;  if  not,  you  can 
never  match  a  glass,  and  the  wearer  will  com¬ 
plain  of  not  seeing  as  well  with  his  spectacles 
since  he  had  a  new  glass  put  in,  and  give  him 
pain  caused  by  seeing  sometimes  two  objects, 
or  seeing  one  like  a  shadow  and  the  other 
one  clear  and  sharp. 

Periscopic  glasses  are  sometimes  called 
meniscus,  and  the  focus  is  determined  by  the 
following  rule : 

Divide  twice  the  product  of  the  two  radii  by 
the  difference  of  the  radii. 

Thus :  say  a  glass  is  ground  on  one  side 
on  a  six-inch  convex  curve,  and  on  the  other 
side  it  is  ground  on  a  fifteen-inch  concave 
curve,  the  focus  would  be  twenty  inches. 

Glasses  are  numbered  as  follows:  5,  6,  7, 

8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  18,  20,  22, 
54,  30,  36,  42,  48,  60.  Some  English  op¬ 
ticians  call  60-inch  focus  No.  1  ;  48,  No.  2, 
and  so  on.  It  is  a  very  arbitrary  rule  for 
some  to  commence  at  48  and  call  it  No.  1, 
others  again  to  commence  at  42  and  some 
at  36,  and  only  use  fourteen  numbers,  as  fol¬ 
lows  : 

Numbers  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  n, 
12,  13,  14. 

Inches,  36,  30,  24,  20,  18,  16,  14,  12,  io, 

9,  8,  7,  6,  5. 

A  new  scale  is  being  introduced  into  oph¬ 
thalmology,  and  is  giving  to  opticians  no  end 
of  trouble.  By  the  following  rule  it  will  be 
seen  that  one  dioptric  is  equal  to  about  a 
36-inch  focus : 

Dioptrics— 0.5,  0.75,  1.,  1.25,  1.5,  1.75, 
2.,  2.25,  2.5,  3.,  3.25,  3.5,  3.75,  4.,  4.5,  5., 
6;  7-,  7-5- 

Inches - 72,  48,  36,  30,  24,  20,  18,  16, 

15,  13,  12,  11,  10,  9,  8,  7,  6,  sy2,  5- 

It  is  a  very  good  scale,  and  calculations 
can  be  very  easily  made  with  it.  One  meter 
is  the  unit,  and  it  is  called  one  dioptric. 


TO  WORK  HARD  STEEL. 

F  steel  is  rather  hard  under  the  ham¬ 
mer  when  heated  to  the  proper  cherry- 
red,  it  may  be  covered  with  salt  and  ham¬ 
mered  to  about  the  shape  desired.  More 
softness  can  then  be  obtained,  if  required  to 
give  a  further  finish  to  the  shape,  by  sprink¬ 


185, 

ling  it  with  a  mixture  of  salt,  blue  vitriol,  sal- 
ammoniac,  saltpeter  and  alum,  made  cherry- 
red  again,  sprinkled  with  this  mixture,  and 
hammered  into  shape.  This  process  may 
be  repeated  until  entirely  finished.  When 
ready,  the  steel  is  hardened  in  a  solution  of 
the  same  mixture.  This  method  is  recom¬ 
mended  by  prominent  workers. 


SOLDERING  CAST  STEEL. 

HE  material  employed  is  pulverized 
white  marble.  The  two  pieces  to  be 
soldered  are  simply  heated,  rolled  in  the 
marble  dust,  then  quickly  placed  one  to  the 
other  and  hammered.  This  recipe  is  by  Mr. 
A.  Fiala,  an  eminent  mechanician  of  Prague, 
and  was  communicated  by  Mons.  G.  Ber¬ 
trand  to  the  Revue  Chronometrique. 


BRONZE  COATING  ON  IRON,  ETC. 

N  order  to  cover  articles  of  iron  and 
brass  with  a  durable,  antique  bronze 
coating,  100  grains  of  protosulphate  of  nickel 
and  ammonia,  100  grains  of  hyposulphate 
of  soda,  and  50  grains  sal-ammoniac  are 
dissolved  in  10  quarts  boiling  water,  and  the 
well-cleaned  metallic  articles  are  laid  in  at 
once.  After  a  few  minutes  they  have  as¬ 
sumed  a  handsome  lustrous  bronze  color. 
By  a  prolonged  exposure  in  the  bath,  sus¬ 
tained  at  a  heat  of  from  700  to  8o°,  cast  or 
wrought-iron  articles  have  become  hand¬ 
somely  coated  with  sulphide  of  nickel,  but 
they  must  be  made  lustrous  again  by  clean¬ 
ing,  since  they  have  become  mat  in  color. 
The  bath  may  be  used  again  until  its  bluish- 
green  color  has  disappeared  as  well  as  the- 
hydroxide  of  iron. 


ETCHING  FLUID  FOR  STEEL. 

E  find  the  following  praised  highly  for- 
being  an  excellent  etching  fluid  for 
steel :  Mix  one  ounce  of  sulphate  of  copper,, 
one-half  ounce  of  alum,  and  one-half  a  tea¬ 
spoonful  of  salt  reduced  to  powder,  with 
one  gill  of  vinegar  and  twenty  drops  of  nitric 
acid.  This  fluid  may  be  used  for  either 
eating  deeply  into  the  metal  or  for  imparting 
a  beautiful  frosted  appearance  to  the  surface, 
according  to  the  time  it  is  allowed  to  act. 
Cover  the  parts  necessary  to  be  protected 
from  its  influence  with  beeswax,  tallow,  or 
some  other  similar  substance. 


i  86 


EXCELLENT  CEMENT. 


BRONZING  IRON  AND  STEEL. 

FIRST  clean  the  piece  to  be  treated  in 
the  usual  manner,  for  which  a  bath  of 
strong  soda  water  is  one  of  the  quickest 
methods,  and  most  thorough ;  then  expose 
the  piece  to  the  action  of  vapors  arising 
from  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  hydrochloric 
and  nitric  acids,  temperature  550  to  6oo° 
F.  When  the  piece  has  cooled,  rub  over 
Avith  vaseline ;  heat  until  this  begins  to 
decompose,  then  allow  to  cool  and  repeat 
the  dose  of  vaseline.  Should  the  color 
.appear  darker  than  desired,  mix  acetic  acid 
with  the  other  acid  in  proportion  to  the 
change  desired. 


PAINT  FOR  SHEET  IRON. 

GOOD  varnish,  one-half  gallon  ;  add  red 
lead  sufficient  to  bring  to  the  consist¬ 
ency  of  common  paint ;  then  apply  with  a 
brush.  This  paint  is  applicable  to  any  kind 
of  iron  tvork  which  is  exposed  to  the 
weather,  thoroughly  protecting  the  metal 
from  rust. 


PALE  GOLD  LACQUER. 

BEST  shellac  (picked  pieces),  eight 
ounces ;  sandarac,  tAVO  ounces ;  tur¬ 
meric,  eight  ounces  ;  annatto,  two  ounces  ; 
-dragon’s  blood,  one-fourth  ounce  ;  alcohol, 
one  gallon.  Mix,  shake  frequently,  till  all  is 
-dissolved,  and  the  color  extracted  from  the 
coloring  matter,  and  then  allowed  to  settle. 


PREVENTING  RUST  ON  MACHINERY, 
ETC. 

THE  folloAving  formula  can  be  recom¬ 
mended  for  the  prevention  of  rust  on 
machinery.  One  ounce  of  camphor  dis¬ 
solved  in  one  pound  of  melted  lard  ;  take  off 
the  scum  and  mix  in  as  much  fine  black  lead 
as  will  give  it  an  iron  color.  Clean  the 
machinery  and  smear  it  Avith  this  mixture. 
After  about  twenty-four  hours,  rub  clean 
with  soft  linen  rags.  It  will  keep  clean  for 
months  under  ordinary  circumstances.  Iron 
and  steel  may  be  kept  bright,  even  in  the 
presence  of  dampness,  by  giving  them  a  coat 
of  chlorate  of  potash. 

Nuts  are  frequently  rusted  so  tightly  upon 
the  screAVS  that  the  wrench  will  not  loosen 
them  ;  kerosene  or  naphtha,  turpentine,  even, 
Avill,  in  a  short  time,  penetrate  between  the 
nut  and  stem.  Next  heat  them  in  a  fire, 
which  Avill  quickly  sever  them.  In  fact, 


kerosene  is  excellent  for  removing  rust;  leave 
the  article  for  some  time  in  it  and  the  rust 
will  come  off  easily. 

Cast-iron  is  best  preserved  by  rubbing  it 
with  black  lead.  For  polished  work,  varnish 
Avith  wax  dissolved  in  benzine,  or  add  a  little 
olive  oil  to  copal  varnish,  and  thin  with 
spirits  of  turpentine.  To  remove  deep- 
seated  rust,  use  benzine  and  polish  off  with 
fine  emery ;  or  use  tripoli,  2  parts ;  pulver¬ 
ized  sulphur,  1  part.  Apply  with  soft 
leather.  Emery  and  oil  is  also  very  good. 


METAL  LETTERS  ON  PLATE-GLASS. 

IT  is  often  necessary  to  attach  glass  or 
metal  letters  to  plate-glass.  Use  the 
following  binder:  Copal  varnish,  15  parts; 
drying  oil,  5  parts ;  turpentine,  3  parts ;  oil 
of  turpentine,  2  parts ;  liquefied  glue,  3 
parts.  Melt  in  a  Avater  bath,  and  add  10 
parts  slaked  lime.  ■  " 


TO  PREPARE  CHALK. 

PULVERIZE  the  chalk  thoroughly,  and 
then  mix  Avith  clean  rain-water,  in 
proportions  of  two  pounds  to  the  gallon. 
Stir  well,  and  let  it  stand  for  about  two 
minutes.  In  this  time  the  gritty  matter  will 
have  settled  to  the  bottom.  Slowdy  pour 
the  water  into  another  vessel,  so  as  not  to 
stir  up  the  sediment.  Let  stand  until  en¬ 
tirely  settled,  and  then  pour  off  as  before. 
The  settlings  in  the  second  vessel  will  be 
prepared  chalk,  ready  for  use  as  soon  as 
dry.  Spanish  whiting,  treated  in  the  same 
Avay,  makes  a  \rery  good  cleaning  or  polish¬ 
ing  poAvder.  Some  watchmakers  add  a  little 
crocus,  and,  Ave  think,  it  is  an  improvement ; 
it  gives  the  powder  a  nice  color  at  least. 


ALABASTER  CEMENT. 


MELT  alum  and  dip  the  fractured  faces 
into  it ;  then  put  them  together  as 
quickly  as  possible.  RemoA^e  the  exuding 
mass  with  a  knife. 


EXCELLENT  CEMENT. 

A  CEMENT  for  fastening  glass  upon 
wood  is  prepared  by  dissolving  1  part 
India  rubber  in  64  parts  chloroform,  to  which 
16  parts  mastic  haA^e  been  added.  Let  the 
mixture  stand  until  dissolved.  It  is  then  ap¬ 
plied  with  a  brush. 


POWDERED  GLASS. 


187 


SMOOTHING  OIL-STONES. 

IL-STONES  are  apt  to  wear  hollow, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  smooth  them. 
For  this  purpose  take  coarse  emery  and 
water  upon  a  slate  or  marble  slab,  and  with 
a  circular  motion  grind  the  oil-stone.  An¬ 
other  very  good  way  is  to  nail  a  piece  of 
coarse  emery  paper  upon  a  board,  and  treat 
it  in  the  aforesaid  manner.  Paper  is  best, 
because  the  grains  of  emery  remain  station¬ 
ary,  while,  when  loose  upon  a  slab,  they  roll 
around,  and  therefore  are  less  effective. 


TO  CLEANSE  BRUSHES. 

HE  best  method  of  cleansing  a  watch¬ 
makers’  and  jewelers’  brush  is  to  wash 
it  out  in  strong  soda  water.  If  the  back  is 
wood,  favor  that  part  as  much  as  possible, 
for  being  glued,  the  water  may  loosen  it. 


piece  of  iron  wire  put  on  the  spot  a  drop  or 
two  of  fluoric  acid  and  it  will  eat  through 
the  glass.  If  not  sufficient,  make  a  second 
or  third  application  of  the  acid.  After  this 
has  eaten  quite  through,  it  may  be  enlarged 
or  shaped  with  a  copper  wire  with  rotten - 
stone  and  oil;  or  use  dilute  (1:5)  sulphuric 
acid  with  the  ordinary  drill.  When  shaping 
or  enlarging  the  hole,  also  apply  this  fluid  to 
the  file  from  time  to  time  while  using ;  when 
finished  wash  the  latter  well. 


ALLOY  FOR  MODELS. 

GOOD  alloy  for  making  working 
models  is  four  parts  copper,  one  part 
tin,  and  one-quarter  part  zinc.  This  is  easily 
wrought.  The  hardness  increases  by  doub¬ 
ling  the  proportion  of  the  zinc. 


CEMENT  FOR  MEERSCHAUM. 


A  CEMENT  for  meerschaum  can  be 
made  of  quicklime  mixed  to  a  thick 
■cream  with  the  white  of  an  egg.  This 
•cement  will  also  unite  glass  or  china. 


BENDING  GLASS  TUBES. 

FILL  the  tube  with  finely  sifted  sand, 
close  both  ends,  and  heat  it  over  the 
flame  of  a  Bunsen  burner.  It  can  thus 
easily  be  bent  without  losing  its  roundness 
at  the  elbow. 


TO  DRILL  ONYX. 

IN  order  to  drill  onyx,  the  simplest  meth¬ 
od  is  to  use  a  diamond  drill  (cost  about 
$2)  with  oil,  turning  the  drill  with  the  bow 
which  gives  the  necessary  back  and  forward 
motion.  Another,  but  slower,  way  is  to 
use  a  hollow  iron  wire  with  diamond  pow¬ 
der.  The  wire  is  placed  in  the  chuck  of  a 
lathe  perpendicularly.  It  ought  to  run 
2,500  or  3,000  turns  per  minute.  A  good 
way  of  starting  or  countersinking  the  stone 
is  by  using  iron  wire  turned  into  a  little 
wheel  or  knob  at  the  end,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  hole  desired.  This  can  only  be 
used  in  a  horizontal  lathe. 


TO  MAKE  A  HOLE  IN  GLASS. 


SPREAD  on  thinly  some  wax  after 
warming  the  glass.  Remove  the  wax 
where  you  wish  the  hole  to  be  made ;  with  a 


TRANSPARENT  CEMENT. 

ORDINARY  cements  generally  leave 
yellowish  traces  which  look  disagree¬ 
able,  especially  with  transparent  objects. 
The  following  recipe,  according  to  the  Mon. 
des  prod.  Chim .,  makes  a  perfectly  colorless 
varnish :  Sixty  grams  chloroform  are  poured 
over  7.5  grams  India  rubber,  cut  into  small 
pieces,  and  contained  in  a  bottle  which  can 
be  closed  air-tight.  When  the  India  rubber 
has  been  dissolved  thoroughly,  1 5  grs.  mastic 
are  added  and  digested  for  about  8  days 
until  dissolved.  The  cement  prepared  in 
this  manner  is  used  like  any  other. 


POWDERED  GLASS. 

POWDERED  glass  is  largely  taking  the 
place  of  sand  in  the  manufacture  of 
sandpaper.  It  is  readily  pulverized  by  heat¬ 
ing  it  red  hot  and  throwing  it  into  cold 
water,  the  finishing  being  done  in  an  iron 
mortar.  By  the  use  of  sieves  of  different 
sizes  of  mesh  the  powder  can  be  separated 
into  various  grades,  from  the  finest  dust  to 
the  very  coarse,  and  these  grades  should  be 
kept  separate.  A  strong  paper  is  tacked 
down  and  covered  with  a  strong  size  or  glue, 
and  the  coating  covered  with  powdered 
glass  of  the  desired  fineness ;  when  the  glue 
is  dry,  the  surplus  glass  is  shaken  or  brushed 
off.  Muslin  is  much  better  than  paper  and 
lasts  much  longer. 


MAGNETIZED  WATCHES. 


1 88 


MAGNETIZED  WATCHES. 

TO  ascertain  if  any  part  of  a  watch  is  mag¬ 
netized,  take  a  small  piece  of  iron  wire 
(jewellers’  binding  wire),  attach  it  to  a  silk 
thread,  and  fasten  the  silk  thread'  to  a  small 
brass  rod,  or  a  pegwood,  and  approach  the 
part  or  parts  suspected.  If  the  iron  is  at¬ 
tracted  or  set  in  motion,  magnetism  is  the 
cause,  and  the  suspected  piece  is  affected. 
Before  making  a  test,  remove  the  watch  move¬ 
ment  from  the  case ;  if  this  contain  case 
springs,  try  these  separately,  as  in  most  in¬ 
stances  case  springs  are  affected  by  magnet¬ 
ism,  while  parts  of  the  movement  are  not.  It 
is  also  advisable,  in  testing  a  watch  move¬ 
ment,  to  take  the  movement  apart  and  test 
the  pieces  separately.  The  parts  most  likely 
to  be  affected  are  the  balance,  the  balance 
spring,  and  the  fork.  In  some  instances, 
very  rare,  however,  every  part  of  the  move¬ 
ment  is  affected. 

PROTECTIONS,  REMEDIES,  AND  PREVENTA- 
TIVES. 

There  are  methods  and  means  for  protect¬ 
ing  watches  from  magnetism,  remedying  the 
evil  after  they  have  become  affected,  and  for 
preventing  them  from  being  magnetized. 
The  present  article  will  deal  with  the  second 
proposition,  as  a  debate  of  all  three  would 
make  it  too  lengthy  for  these  Workshop 
Notes. 

i.  The  employes  around  electric-light  sta¬ 
tions  practice  what  might  be  called  an  “  em¬ 
pirical  ”  method  with  the  “  turnips”  they  wear 
in  the  shop.  They  hang  the  watch  by  the 
pendant  at  the  end  of  a  stiff  cord,  twist  the 
cord  tightly,  then,  holding  the  upper  end  of 
the  cord  in  one  hand,  let  the  watch  hang  near 
the  pole  piece  of  a  powerful  dynamo.  Hold 
ing  it  still  with  the  other  hand  for  a  moment, 
to  let  the  magnetism  get  “soaked  in,”  they 
“  then  let  her  spin,”  and  as  the  string  gradu¬ 
ally  untwists,  slowly  walk  away,  removing  the 
whirling  watch  further  and  further  from  the 
source  of  magnetism.  The  dose  is  repeated 
whenever  the  watch  shows  signs  of  ailments. 

2.  When  the  work  of  demagnetizing  is  to 
be  performed  on  a  watch  of  good  quality,  it 
is  necessary  to  have  three  or  four  magnets  of 
different  sizes,  also  a  good  horse-shoe  mag¬ 
net  for  recharging,  for  these  straight  magnets 
soon  lose  strength.  A  piece  of  bar  steel  of 
the  required  size,  hardened  first,  and  then 
charged  by  the  horse-shoe  magnet,  answers 
the  purpose,  or  an  old  worn-out  round  or 
square  file,  or  stump  of  an  old  graver,  will  do 


equally  well,  and  save  the  trouble  of  harden¬ 
ing.  The  size  of  the  magnet  used  must  be 
determined  by  the  size  of  the  article  operated 
on.  Take  a  watch-balance,  for  instance — 
which  is  one  of  the  most  troublesome  things 
to  treat.  Take  a  magnet  about  three  inches 
long  and  one-quarter  inch  square.  It  will  be 
found  that  polarity  is  situated  principally  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  arms,  and  these  are 
the  points  to  be  first  attacked.  Hang  the 
balance  by  its  rim  on  a  piece  of  brass  wire, 
and  approach  the  magnet  toward  the  rim  in 
the  direction  of  one  of  the  bars.  If  it  should 
be  attracted  toward  the  magnet,  try  the  other 
pole,  and  it  will  be  found  to  repel.  Now 
take  the  balance  in  your  hand  and  bring  the 
repelling  pole  of  the  magnet  in  momentary 
contact  with  the  balance  at  the  point  tried, 
then  test  it  with  a  minute  fragment  of  small 
iron  binding  wire,  as  directed  in  the  introduc¬ 
tory  ;  if  still  magnetic,  bring  the  magnet  in 
contact  again,  and  so  on — trying  after  each 
•contact — till  the  magnetism  is  entirely  out  at 
that  point.  Suspend  the  balance  on  the  brass 
wire,  as  before,  and  proceed  to  try  the  rim  at 
the  point  where  the  second  arm  comes,  and 
the  same  with  the  third.  Having  expelled 
the  magnetism  at  these  three  points,  there 
will  be  but  little  remaining  in  the  balance. 
However,  try  it  carefully  all  round,  when  sev¬ 
eral  places  will  probably  be  found  retaining 
sufficient  magnetism  to  pick  up  a  small  frag¬ 
ment  of  iron.  These  must  all  be  treated  in 
the  manner  before  described  ;  but  when  the 
magnetism  is  very  feeble,  a  smaller  magnet 
must  be  used,  for  if  the  magnet  is  too  power¬ 
ful,  the  article  operated  upon  discharges  what 
little  remains,  and,  before  contact  can  be 
broken,  begins  to  be  charged  again  by  the  re¬ 
verse  pole.  After  having  operated  success¬ 
fully  on  the  other  portions  of  the  balance,  it 
frequently  happens  that  it  has  become  slightly 
charged  again  by  one  of  the  arms ;  try  the 
pole,  as  before,  and  a  few  contacts,  some¬ 
times  but  one,  of  one  of  the  smaller  magnets 
will  suffice. 

A  little  patience  is  required,  for  it  is  often 
twenty  minutes  or  more  before  the  desired 
end  is  accomplished.  After  treating  a  bal¬ 
ance,  always  try  it  whether  it  is  in  poise. 
The  balance  spring  stud,  which  is  usually 
found  to  be  charged  when  the  balance  is  so, 
is  easily  treated.  Try  the  poles,  and  a  few 
contacts  will  draw  all  the  magnetism  out  of 
one  end,  when  so  little  will  be  found  remain¬ 
ing  in  the  other  that  one  touch  of  the  other 
pole  will  usually  be  sufficient.  Even  the  bal- 


THE  PENDULUM  AND  ITS  LAWS  OF  OSCILLATION. 


189 


unce  spring  may  be  successfully  treated, 
though  so  strongly  charged  as  to  be  “  feath¬ 
ered  ”  with  iron  filings  after  being  immersed 
in  them. 

A  good  way  to  try  the  polarity  of  many 
pieces  is  to  suspend  the  article,  by  means  of 
a  particle  of  wax,  to  a  piece  of  the  finest  silk. 
Steel  filings,  or  fragments  of  chain  wire,  should 
on  no  account  be  used  for  testing  ;  for  if  not 
magnetic  to  begin  with,  they  speedily  become 
so  by  contact  with  the  article  under  treatment. 
Even  with  soft  iron,  it  is  well  to  occasionally 
charge  the  fragment  you  are  testing. 


THE  PENDULUM  AND  ITS  LAWS  OF 
OSCILLATION. 

I  STORY  furnishes  us  with  the  informa¬ 
tion  that  Galileo  in  1542,  while  in  the 
cathedral  at  Pisa,  observed  the  oscillations 
of  a  lamp  which  had  been  accidentally  set 
in  motion.  He  was  struck  with  the  apparent 
measured  regularity  of  its  vibrations,  and 
tested  this  observation  by  comparing  these 
oscillations  with  his  own  pulse.  Galileo  there 
invented  the  simple  pendulum  as  a  means 
of  measuring  short  intervals  of  time.  But 
for  many  years  the  pendulum  was  used  with¬ 
out  the  clock  movement,  and  astronomers 
counted  the  oscillations  performed  in  a  given 
time  to  measure  the  periods  of  celestial  phe¬ 
nomena. 

THE  THEORETICALLY  PERFECT  PENDULUM. 

In  describing  the  pendulum  I  will  first 
begin  with  a  theoretically  perfect  pendu¬ 
lum,  which  would  consist  of  a  heavy  mole¬ 
cule  suspended  at  the  extremity  of  a  perfectly 
flexible  cord,  and  oscillating  in  a  vacuum. 
This  ideal  pendulum,  of  course,  could  not 
exist,  but  to  demonstrate  the  simple  pendu¬ 
lum,  we  will  use  a  small  metal  ball  suspended 
by  a  silk  thread  ;  if  this  freely-suspended  ball 
is  drawn  from  the  vertical  and  allowed  to 
oscillate,  these  oscillations  will  gradually  di¬ 
minish  in  extent  on  account  of  the  earth’s  at¬ 
traction,  producing  what  are  called  long  and 
short  arcs.  The  function  of  the  clock  move¬ 
ment  proper,  besides  registering  the  time  and 
number  of  oscillations  on  the  dial,  is  to  fur¬ 
nish  to  the  pendulum  the  small  amount  of 
impulse  that  is  necessary  to  carry  the  same 
in  its  excursion  from  the  vertical  line  up¬ 
ward,  so  it  will  return  each  time  to  the  orig¬ 
inal  point  of  starting  and  thus  overcome  the 
influence  of  gravity,  and  add  enough  force 
‘  in  its  descent  toward  the  vertical  to  maintain 


a  uniform  arc  of  oscillation  to  the  required 
number  of  degrees.  The  oscillations  of 
the  pendulum  were  thought  and  affirmed 
by  Galileo  to  be  made  in  the  same  inter¬ 
val  of  time,  whether  the  arcs  were  long  or 
short. 

That  there  is  a  difference,  although  very 
slight,  between  long  and  short  arcs,  where 
the  distance  passed  over  is  not  too  great,  is 
nevertheless  true;  and  it  was  not  till  1658 
that  Huyghens  discovered  and  proved  that 
long  arcs  required  more  time  than  short  arcs 
to  perform  the  oscillations  of  the  same  vibrat¬ 
ing  length  of  pendulum.  I  will  add  here,  as 
the  question  is  often  asked,  what  constiutes 
the  length  of  a  pendulum.  It  is  the  distance 
from  the  point  of  suspension  to  the  center 
of  oscillation.  This  point  is,  in  theory,  very 
near  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  pendulum, 
and  it  is  described  as  being  just  below  the 
gravity  point.  In  order  to  describe  the  cen¬ 
ter  of  oscillation  more  clearly,  I  will  make 
this  simple  illustration : 

If  a  blow  is  struck  with  a  club  and  the 
impingement  takes  place  beyond  the  point 
of  concussion,  the  blow  is  partially  inflicted 
on  the  hand ;  and  the  same  result  is  expe¬ 
rienced  if  the  impingement  takes  place  be¬ 
tween  the  hand  and  the  point  of  concussion, 
only  in  a  reversed  manner.  The  full  force 
of  the  blow  is  obtained  only  when  the  exact 
point  of  concussion  meets  the  object.  Now, 
it  is  true  that  the  center  of  oscillation  in  the 
pendulum  is  identical  with  the  point  of  con¬ 
cussion  in  the  club,  and  the  time-producing 
qualities  of  a  pendulum  depend  entirely  on 
the  above  mentioned  oscillating  point. 

THE  LAWS  CONTROLLING  THE  PENDULUM. 

I  will  first  call  your  attention  to  the  laws 
of  motions  controlling  the  simple  pendulum, 
and  will  refer  to  the  cycloidal  pendulum  later. 
First,  the  pendulum  is  a  falling  body,  and 
is  controlled  by  laws  governing  such  a  body, 
and  when  at  rest  points  directly  toward  the 
center  of  the  earth.  Next,  the  square  of  the 
time  of  oscillation  is  directly  as  its  length, 
and  inversely  as  the  earth’s  attraction. 

For  instance,  a  pendulum  vibrating  sec¬ 
onds  at  the  level  of  the  sea  in  the  latitude 
of  New  York  city,  would  be  39.101 53  inches, 
and  a  pendulum  vibrating  two  seconds  in 
the  same  location  would  be  the  square  (of 
the  time)  or  two  seconds,  which  squared 
would  be  four,  multiplied  by  the  length  of 
the  one  second,  39.10153  pendulum,  which 
is  equal  to  156.4  inches,  something  over  13 


igo 


CYCLOIDAL  PENDULUM. 


feet  long.  This  rapid  increase  in  length  for 
a  comparatively  small  change  in  the  time  of 
oscillation  has  resulted  in  fixing  two  seconds 
as  the  limit  for  any  precision  pendulum,  as 
beyond  this  point  the  instrumental  errors 
would  be  increased  in  the  same  ratio  and 
would  be  difficult  to  overcome.  The  great 
Westminster  pendulum  vibrates  in  two  sec¬ 
onds,  and  is  probably  the  most  accurately 
compensated  long  pendulum  in  the  world. 
The  correction  for  errors  of  lateral  and  cub¬ 
ical  dilatation,  barometrical  error,  long  and 
short  arcs  of  oscillation,  are  all  reduced  to  a 
minimum. 

As  we  have  said  so  much  about  seconds, 
it  might  be  in  order  to  say  there  are  two 
kinds,  solar  and  sidereal,  and  they  differ  from 
each  other  in  length. 

The  interval  of  time  we  call  a  second  is 
reduced  from  the  solar  day,  which  is  the 
time  between  two  successive  returns  of  the 
sun  to  the  same  meridian,  and  this  interval 
divided  into  86,400  parts.  These  solar  days 
are  not  equal ,  but  are  made  so  by  the  daily 
equation  of  time  added  to  or  subtracted  from 
the  apparent  solar  day. 

The  sidereal  day  is  the  interval  between 
two  successive  returns  of  a  fixed  star  to  the 
same  meridian,  and  is  3  minutes,  56.5  sec¬ 
onds  shorter  than  the  solar  day,  and  this  day 
divided  into  hours,  minutes,  and  seconds  fur¬ 
nishes  us  with  the  sidereal  seconds.  The 
sideral  day  represents  the  time  of  the  rotation 
of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  and  is  the  most 
accurate  observation  of  time  that  can  be 
made,  as  it  requires  no  equation,  and  has  not 
changed  as  much  as  one-hundredth  part  of 
a  second  in  over  two  thousand  years.  As¬ 
tronomers  use  astronomical  clocks  reading 
24  hours  on  the  dial,  with  pendulums  vibrat¬ 
ing  sidereal  seconds,  and  by  this  time  only 
do  they  find  and  locate  celestial  bodies. 

ATTRACTION  OF  GRAVITATION. 

Another  law  governing  the  pendulum  is 
this :  The  action  of  gravity  or  the  mutual 
attraction  between  bodies  varies  with  their 
masses,  and  inversely  as  the  square  of  their 
distances.  Following  from  this,  a  pendulum 
will  vibrate  seconds  only  in  a  given  place. 
Our  standard  of  measurement  is  taken  from 
a  pendulum  vibrating  seconds  in  a  vacuum 
at  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  also  follows  that 
the  further  a  pendulum  is  removed  from  the 
center  of  the  earth  the  less  it  will  be  attracted 
in.  its  descent  toward  the  vertical.  This  ex¬ 
plains  why  a  pendulum  loses  on  being  trans^ 


ferred  from  the  sea  level  to  the  mountain,  or 
from  one  of  the  earth’s  poles  toward  the 
equatoi,  as  the  earth  is  a  spheroid  slightly 
flattened  at  the  poles. 

A  very  interesting  experiment  can  be  made 
to  show  the  influence  of  mutual  attraction 
between  masses.  Take  two  well-regulated 
astronomical  clocks  with  second  pendulums, 
place  them  side  and  side,  and  cause  each 
pendulum  to  oscillate  simultaneously  on  the 
same  side  of  the  vertical ;  the  pendulums  will 
oscillate  to  the  right  together,  and  to  the  left 
for  a  time  together,  then  they  will  change  so 
as  to  oscillate  in  opposite  directions,  and  will 
never  depart  from  this  motion.  Another  rea¬ 
son  why  a  pendulum  loses  on  being  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  equator  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
rotation  of  the  earth  gives  rise  to  centrifugal 
force  at  its  surface.  This,  being  zero  at  the 
poles,  gradually  increases  to  a  maximum  at 
the  equator ;  and,  as  it  acts  in  opposition  to 
the  force  of  gravity,  it  counteracts  a  gradu¬ 
ally  increasing  proportion  of  this  force  which 
shows  in  the  time  of  oscillation.  The  rota¬ 
tion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  also  has  another 
effect  upon  the  oscillation  of  the  pendulum, 
as  you  have  just  seen  by  the  demonstration 
of  the  pendulum  of  Foucault  by  Prof.  K. 
Ellicott.  The  error  caused  by  the  tendency 
of  the  pendulum  to  oscillate  in  one  given 
plane  is  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  the  use 
of  short  arcs  of  oscillation,  and  is  of  very  lit¬ 
tle  importance  in  comparison  with  other  er¬ 
rors. 


CYCLOIDAL  PENDULUM. 

HE  arcs  of  oscillation  of  any  ordinary 
simple  pendulum  are  a  part  of  a  circle 
with  the  point  of  suspension  as  a  center. 

Now,  a  pendulum  producing  isochronal 
oscillations,  namely,  producing  unequal  arcs 
in  equal  time  is  called  cycloidal ,  because  the 
center  of  oscillation  must  describe  a  cycloidal 
path  during  each  excursion  on  either  side  of 
the  vertical  line. 

This  curve  is  one  of  the  most  interesting, 
of  any  known,  both  in  respect  to  its  geo¬ 
metrical  properties  and  connection  with  fall¬ 
ing  bodies,  and  is  described  in  this  manner: 

If  a  circle  roll  along  a  straight  line  on  its  own 
plane,  a  point  on  its  circumference  will  de¬ 
scribe  a  cume  which  is  called  a  cycloid.  The 
peculiar  value  of  this  curve  in  relation  to  the 
pendulum  will  be  better  shown  by  inverting 
a  cycloid  curve. 

The  time  of  a  body  descending  from  a 
point  of  rest  which  we  will  call  A  to  the 


CYCLOIDAL  PENDULUM. 


lowest  point  of  the  curve  at  B  will  be  the 
same  from  whatever  point  it  starts.  In  other 
words,  a  pendulum  will  fall  from  A  to  the 
lowest  point  £  of  the  curve  in  precisely 
the  same  time  it  would  from  a  point  C 
lying  between  A  and  B,  which  is,  say,  about 
half  the  distance.  Following  from  this,  a 
cycloidal  pendulum  produces  unequal  arcs 
in  equal  time  or  isochronism.  The  extreme 
mechanical  difficulty  of  executing  a  pendu¬ 
lum  that  will  describe  a  cycloidal  path  dur¬ 
ing  each  excursion  has  led  horologists  to  orig¬ 
inate  many  ingenious  devices  to  accomplish 
this  end.  The  pendulum  described  here 
is  constructed  so  as  to  cause  the  center  of 
oscillation  to  move  in  a  cycloidal  path,  by 
coming  in  contact  with  cycloid  cheeks  near 
its  point  of  suspension,  but  the  effects  of 
moisture,  friction,  dilatation  and  adhesion  of 
contact  against  these  cheeks  would  in  time 
give  rise  to  errors  as  great  as  those  sought  to 
be  overcome.  We  therefore  must  make 
efforts  in  another  direction. 

The  best  method  of  to-day  for  producing 
isochronism  is  to  cause  the  arc  of  oscillation 
to  be  as  short  as  possible,  and  also  have  the 
suspension  spring  of  a  given  length  and  given 
strength  in  proportion  to  the  length  and 
weight  of  the  pendulum.  Then  we  will  only 
have  to  deal  with  the  molecular  arrangement 
of  the  spring,  which  is  constantly  changing ; 
but  this  error  is  very  small  and  exceedingly 
regular. 

The  length  of  the  pendulum  rod  is  just 
double  the  diameter  of  the  generating  circle. 
.Now,  from  relations  of  parts  of  the  cycloid, 
it  is  shown  that  the  time  of  falling  down  the 
semi-cycloid  is  to  the  time  of  fall  through 
the  diameter  of  the  generating  circle  as  a 
quadrant  is  to  a  radius. 

THE  BAROMETRICAL  ERROR. 

A  pendulum  is  affected  by  the  density  of 
the  atmosphere,  but  to  a  degree  that  would 
only  be  of  importance  in  a  precision  time¬ 
piece,  where  all  the  errors  are  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  An  increase  of  density  of  the  air 
is  equivalent  to  reducing  the  action  of  gravity , 
while  the  inertia  of  the  moving  body  remains 
the  same.  The  rule  is,  that  the  velocity  of 
the  pendulum  varies  directly  as  the  force  of 
gravity  and  inversely  as  the  inertia,  and  it 
follows  then  that  an  increase  of  density  di¬ 
minishes  the  velocity  and  shortens  the  time 
of  oscillation,  causing  the  clock  to  gain  time. 
The  barometrical  error  can  be  reduced  to 
within  three  to  four  tenths  of  a  second  in 


191 

twenty-four  hours  for  each  inch  rise  or  fall 
of  the  barometer.  Short  arcs  of  oscillation- 
are  also  essential  in  reducing  the  barometrical 
error.  An  apparatus  is  sometimes  attached 
to  the  pendulum  to  assist  in  reducing  this 
error. 

THE  COMPENSATED  PENDULUM. 

Bodies  increase  in  volume  with  an  eleva¬ 
tion  of  temperature  and  diminish  when  it 
falls.  The  pendulum  then  changes  its  di¬ 
mensions  with  every  variation  of  temperature, 
and  the  same  is  the  case  with  all  other  parts 
of  the  machine. 

The  elongation  of  a  body  in  any  one  direc¬ 
tion  by  heat  is  known  as  its  linear  dilatation , 
and  its  increase  in  volume,  that  is,  in  all  three 
directions,  is  the  cubical  dilatation ;  this 
depends  on  its  linear  dilatation  in  length,, 
breadth,  and  thickness. 

The  result  to  be  obtained  in  a  pendulum 
by  compensation  is  to  so  construct  the  same 
that  the  center  of  oscillation  will  always  be 
in  the  same  point.  It  is  evident  that  heat 
lowers  this  point  and  cold  raises  it,  and,  as 
we  said  before,  that  the  time-producing  qual¬ 
ities  of  the  pendulum  depend  on  this  oscillat¬ 
ing  point,  and  only  by  compensation  is  the 
desired  effect  obtained. 

I  will  show  you  two  of  the  best  methods- 
of  producing  compensation,  and  begin  first 
by  using  two  metals.  The  principle  under¬ 
lying  this  method  is  the  unequal  expansion 
of  different  metals  in  the  same  temperature. 
This  furnishes  us  with  the  first  step  toward 
compensation. 

Let  us  take  a  steel  rod  of  the  length  ar¬ 
rived  at  by  calculation,  with  a  nut  and  screw 
on  the  lower  end ;  resting  on  this  nut  is  a 
brass  collar  with  a  groove  cut  in  the  top. 
Here  is  a  rolled  and  drawn  zinc  tube  of  a 
calculated  length  and  thickness  in  proportion 
to  the  main  rod.  This  zinc  tube  is  drawn 
on  over  the  main  rod,  and  rests  on  the  brass 
collar  at  the  lower  end  and  at  the  upper  end 
of  the  zinc  tube ;  and  resting  on  the  same  is 
an  iron  collar  into  which  is  firmly  screwed 
an  iron  tube  which  is  slipped  on  over  the  zinc 
tube,  and  at  the  lower  end  of  this  iron  tube 
is  attached  the  weight  or  bob.  It  will  be 
seen  that  this  main  rod  lengthens  with  heat, 
and  as  it  lowers,  the  zinc  tube  which  sur¬ 
rounds  it  lowers  also ;  but  the  upper  end  of 
the  zinc  being  free,  and  this  metal  possessing 
greater  linear  dilatation,  moves  upwards  on 
the  main  rod,  and  with  it  draws  up  the  iren 
tube  that  surrounds  the  zinc  and  carries  wiVi 


192 


CYCLOIDAL  PENDULUM. 


it  the  weight  or  bob.  The  upward  dilatation 
-of  the  zinc  tube  is  just  sufficient  to  overcome 
the  downward  dilatation  of  the  main  rod, 
thus  keeping  the  center  of  oscillation  in  the 
same  point.  In  order  to  construct  a  com¬ 
pensated  pendulum  of  this  kind  it  is  necessary 
to  have  the  proper  proportions  of  one  metal 
to  the  other;  and  besides  this,  corrections 
are  made  from  actual  tests  in  different  de¬ 
grees  of  temperature. 

The  principal  objection  to  this  kind  of 
■compensation  is  that  metals  expand  and  con¬ 
tract  by  infinitesimal  waves  or  jumps,  prob¬ 
ably  owing  to  the  molecular  friction  of  the 
metals,  and  this  is  most  apparent  in  zinc, 
owing  to  its  crystalline  formation ;  and  this 
metal  is  useless  unless  carefully  drawn  and 
prepared  before  using  for  the  purpose  in 
•question. 

THE.  MERCURIAL  COMPENSATION. 

This  pendulum  is  constructed  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  manner :  A  steel  rod  of  the  calcu¬ 
lated  length  and  diameter  is  selected,  and  at 
its  lower  end  is  firmly  attached  a  brass  stir¬ 
rup,  into  which  is  placed  and  secured  from 
one  to  four  glass  jars  containing  mercury. 
If  one  jar  is  used,  the  volume  must  be  suffi¬ 
cient  to  allow  its  cubical  dilatation  to  raise  the 
center  of  oscillation  just  as  the  longitudinal 
dilatation  of  the  rod  has  lowered  this  point; 
•md  if  four  jars  are  used,  their  diameters 
shall  be  reduced  to  the  point  that  the  four 
will  contain  the  volume  of  the  one  jar,  and 
be  filled  each  to  the  same  level  as  it  rose  in 
the  single  jar.  This  represents  more  exposed 
surface  to  the  changing  temperatures  and 
improves  the  conductibility  of  the  mercury , 
•causing  the  compensation  to  respond  more 
promptly  to  sudden  changes.  The  four-jar 
compensation  is  the  most  difficult  to  con¬ 
struct,  but  when  well  made  and  carefully  ad¬ 
justed  is  exceedingly  satisfactory,  and  has 


the  preference  in  seconds  pendulums  when 
greater  accuracy  is  required. 

THE  SEISMIC  ERROR. 

This  uncontrollable  error  is  caused  by  earth 
waves,  and  may  occur  at  any  time.  One  pe¬ 
culiarity  is,  that  many  hours  elapse  before 
this  error  shows  in  the  time  of  the  instru¬ 
ment.  This  error  may  not  be  suspected  un¬ 
til  compared  by  transit  observations. 

The  time  it  takes  to  develop  this  error  is 
probably  due  to  the  molecular  disturbances 
and  re-arranging  of  particles  that  is  taking 
place  in  the  mercury  used  for  compensation. 
The  most  accurately  compensated  pendulums 
have  been  known  to  vary  several  seconds  in 
a  day.  I  remember  while  in  Geneva  in  1872 
that  twice  in  one  summer  the  standard  pen¬ 
dulum  of  the  Cantonal  Observatory  varied 
once  seven  and  one-half  seconds,  and  at  an¬ 
other  time  five  seconds  in  twenty-four  hours ; 
at  that  time  it  was  not  well  understood  what 
caused  these  sudden  variations  in  a  pendu¬ 
lum  having  a  known  daily  equation.  But 
later  experiments  have  shown  this  error  to 
be  caused  by  seismic  waves. 

From  the  simple  observation  of  the  lamp 
swinging  from  the  roof  of  the  cathedral  at 
Pisa,  more  than  three  hundred  and  forty 
years  ago,  has  grown  the  thought  included 
in  the  foregoing  laws.  The  laws  of  inverse 
squares  and  mutual  attraction  as  shown  in 
the  simple  pendulum,  the  properties  of  the 
cycloid  and  cycloidal  pendulum,  the  influ¬ 
ence  of  the  linear  and  cubical  dilatation,  the 
influence  of  atmospheric  pressure  on  the  pen¬ 
dulum  and  the  centrifugal  force  from  the 
revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  and  by 
reducing  all  these  errors  to  a  minimum  we 
are  furnished  with  an  instrument  that  per¬ 
forms  its  work  with  as  much  accuracy  as 
any  piece  of  mechanism  ever  produced  by 
man. 


PART  II. 


Note  to  Third  Edition. 


HEN  the  first  edition  of  “Workshop  Notes 


for  Jewelers  and  Watchmakers”  was 


K  *  offered  to  the  craftsmen  for  whom  it  was  pub¬ 
lished,  we  were  convinced  that  its  elements  of  utility 
would  be  evident  to  the  average  observer,  but  we 
hardly  hoped  that  it  would  meet  with  the  hearty  re¬ 
ception  it  did,  that  an  entire  edition  would  be,  com¬ 
paratively  speaking,  so  rapidly  exhausted,  and  that 
the  demand  for  it  would  necessitate  not  only  a  second 
edition  but  now  a  third  edition.  For  it  must  be  re¬ 
membered  that  the  field  for  its  distribution  is  limited, 
and  that  in  every  craft  there  is  a  number  of  workers 
who  possess  little  or  no  ambition  to  increase  their 
store  of  knowledge.  But  while  this  number  of  non¬ 
readers  is  considerable  the  demand  for  such  a  book  as 
“Workshop  Notes”  is  evidence  that  more  workers 
are  desirous  of  perfecting  themselves  in  their  crafts 
and  of  performing  their  work  satisfactorily  than  gener, 
alizing  pessimists  are  inclined  to  assert. 

The  virtue  of  “  Workshop  Notes  ”  resides  in 
the  fact  that  it  brings  together  in  convenient  and 
handy  form  for  reference  numerous  stray  and  isolated 
recipes  and  processes  distinctly  applicable  to  the  var¬ 
ious  branches  of  horology,  gold  and  silversmithing, 
and  their  allied  crafts.  In  printing  a  third  edition, 
we  have  accepted  the  opportunity  to  add  to  the  volume 
new  matter  to  the  extent  cf  about  50  per  cent.,  occupy¬ 
ing  the  pages  195  to  290,  this  new  matter  being  prop¬ 
erly  classified  and  indexed. 


1899. 


The  Publishers. 


NOTES  ON  HOROLOGY. 


RELATION  OF  ESCAPEMENT  TO 
BALANCE  SPRING. 

he  relation  of  the  lever  escapement  to 
the  balance  spring  is  quite  an  impor¬ 
tant  matter.  Most  workmen  imagine  that 
adjusting  is  a  great  mystery,  and  that  the 
man  who  masters  this  portion  of  the  watch¬ 
maker’s  art  must  necessarily  stand  at  the 
head  of  the  profession.  The  word  “pro¬ 
fession  ”  is  used  advisedly,  and  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  the  different  horological  schools 
will  sooner  or  later  bestow  degrees  as  do 
schools  of  law  and  medicine. 

It  is  well  known  that  a  balance  spring 
adjusted  to  isochronal  vibrations  in  a 
duplex  or  chronometer  watch  would  not 
possess  this  property  if  placed  in  a  de¬ 
tached  lever.  To  make  this  proposition 
better  understood,  suppose  we  were  to  make 
two  movements,  one  of  which  was  provided 
with  a  detached  lever  escapement  of  the 
most  perfect  construction,  the  other  a 
detent  or  so-called  chronometer  escape¬ 
ment,  the  trains  of  each  watch  as  far  as  the 
scape  wheel  being  precisely  alike;  for  these 
movements  we  made  but  one  balance  staff 
and  balance  spring.  In  other  words,  the 
balance  staff  and  balance  spring  were  in¬ 
terchangeable  after  we  changed  the  rollers 
on  the  staff  to  adapt  it  to  the  escapement 
of  the  particular  movement  to  be  experi¬ 
mented  with.  The  balance  and  its  spring 
were  perfectly  adjusted  to  isochronism  with 
the  lever  escapement. 

Now,  if  we  changed  the  balance  with  its 
spring  to  the  chronometer  movement  we 
would  find  the  general  rate  of  the  watch 
about  the  same  ;  that  is,  if  the  weights  of 
the  rollers  were  alike ;  but  the  spring, 
which  was  perfectly  isochronal  with  the 
lever  escapement,  was  badly  out  with  the 
chronometer.  What  does  this  tell  us? 


Simply,  that  the  escapement  is  a  great  fac¬ 
tor  in  isochronal  adjustments.  This  influ¬ 
ence  does  not  exist  in  an  abstract  sense, 
because  one  is  a  lever  escapement  and  the 
other  a  chronometer  escapement,  and  that 
if  the  balance  had  been  changed  to 
another  lever  escapementthat  was  adapted 
to  receive  it,  it  would  have  been  per¬ 
fectly  isochronal,  as  it  was  with  the  first 
movement.  One  fault  in  watch  manu¬ 
facture  should  be  remedied,  viz.:  the 
watch  constructor  and  watch  adjuster 
should  be  one  person,  because  the  ad¬ 
juster  is  constantly  trying  to  remedy  the 
defects  of  the  constructor.  If  the  maker 
did  the  adjusting  also,  he  would  be  able 
to  correct  the  fault  and  remedy  it  instead 
of  trying  to  make  one  error  correct 
another,  which  is  much  like  the  doctrine 
of  doing  evil  that  good  may  come  of  it. 
Much  of  the  adjusting,  especially  of  the 
more  delicate  methods  relating  to  posi¬ 
tion,  consists  of  remedying  downright 
mechanical  defects. 

Adjusting  is  divided  into  three  depart¬ 
ments,  viz.  :  heat  and  cold,  isochronism, 
and  position,  and  it  is  the  adjuster’s  prov¬ 
ince  to  treat  his  balance  and  balance 
spring  in  such  a  way  that  they  are  ren¬ 
dered  proof  against  any  alterations  occur¬ 
ring  in  the  latter,  jointly  or  severally. 


TRUING  AN  EXPANSION  BALANCE. 

The  truth  of  an  expansion  balance  plays 
a  very  important  part  in  the  time¬ 
keeping  of  a  watch,  and  with  practise  the 
truing  of  one  is  a  very  easy  and  simple 
thing;  but  in  this  as  in  all  operations  con¬ 
nected  with  the  watch,  great  care  and 
judgment  are  essential  to  success.  The 
delicacy  of  the  arms  and  segments  requires 


J95 


DECEPTIVE  BALANCES. 


196 

that  they  be  so  handled  that  the  metal  is 
strained  the  least  amount  possible  when 
restoring  them  to  their  original  shape ; 
with  this  point  in  view  as  well  as  that  of 
convenience  and  ease  of  handling,  there 
is  no  form  of  tool  better  adapted  to  this 
job  than  the  figure-8  caliper  made  so  heavy 
that  there  is  no  perceptible  spring  even 
with  a  pressure  in  excess  of  what  is  re¬ 
quired  to  do  the  actual  work  of  truing. 

The  joints  must  be  well  made  so  as  to 
work  somewhat  stiffly,  yet  smoothly,  so 
that  when  in  putting  the  balance  into  the 
caliper,  it  can  be  done  with  no  danger  of 
injury  to  the  pivots.  The  staff  must  he 
wholly  supported  by  the  cones  of  the  pivots 
and  not  on  the  ends  of  them,  as  they  would 
be  bent  or  broken.  A  cross  hole  should  be 
drilled  so  that  the  point  of  the  pivot  may 
be  seen  when  the  staff  is  in  the  caliper, 
this  being  necessary  as  well  to  keep  the 
holes  free  from  any  foreign  particles.  The 
index  or  guide  is  a  very  important  part 
and  should  be  so  made  as  to  get  a  delicate 
adjustment  in  any  direction,  the  best  form 
being  an  arc  of  a  circle  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  long  and  conforming  to  the  cir¬ 
cle  of  the  balance  rim.  Such  a  guide  will 
facilitate  the  ease  and  accuracy  of  the  work, 
as  will  be  proven  by  a  trial.  The  tool  for 
bending  the  rim  in  the  round  is  made  of  a 
pifce  of  brass  wire  about  three  and  one- 
half  inches  long  flattened  for  about  half  an 
inch  from  the  end  by  filing  on  both  sides, 
leaving  it  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch 
thick;  then  cutting  several  slots  crosswise 
to  fit  the  different  thicknesses  of  the  bal¬ 
ance  rims. 

When  it  appears  that  a  balance  is  not 
true,  first  examine  the  staff  to  see  if  it  is 
bent  ;  being  satisfied  that  it  is  true,  exam¬ 
ine  to  see  if  the  balance  is  fastened  firmly 
on  the  staff,  as  otherwise  it  wdl  be  impos¬ 
sible  to  do  a  good  job.  Now  examine  the 
balance,  by  twirling  it  around,  and  if  it  is 
badly  out,  it  must  be  first  approximately 
trued  in  the  flat  and  round  before  the  final 
finishing.  The  arms  of  the  balance  must 
be  tested  to  see  that  they  are  of  exactly  the 
same  length,  and  if  they  are,  the  truing 
may  be  proceeded  with,  but  if  they  are  not 
they  must  be  made  so  by  stretching.  This 
may  be  done  best  in  the  staking  tool  by 
putting  in  a  flat-faced  stump  and  using 
the  punch  with  which  most  staking  tools 
are  provided.  This  punch  resembles  a 
chisel,  but  instead  of  being  sharp,  the 
edge  is  slightly  rounded.  One  arm 
shorter  than  the  other  indicates  unskilful 


work  in  the  making,  and  while  such  a  de¬ 
fect  might  be  corrected  by  taking  out  the 
staff  and  boring  the  hole  out  true  in  the 
lathe,  by  using  the  boring  tool  in  the 
slide  rest,  yet  it  would  be  doubtful,  as 
there  is  liable  to  be  other  faults  that 
could  not  be  seen.  Consequently  should 
this  occur  in  any  except  the  cheapest 
grades,  the  surest  way  would  be  to  put  in 
a  balance  that  is  known  to  be  well  made. 
When  the  arms  are  equal,  true  them  in 
the  flat,  that  is  so  that  each  is  in  the 
same  plane.  When  truing  a  balance  it  is 
necessary  to  get  the  body  in  such  a  posi¬ 
tion  that  it  will  be  perfectly  steady,  and 
this  can  be  best  done  by  using  a  seat  as 
low  as  possible  so  that  the  elbow  and 
forearm  will  rest  on  the  bench.  If  the 
shoulders  are  almost  on  a  level  with  the 
top  of  th6  bench  the  position  is  right. 

Truing  in  the  round  is  done  by  bend¬ 
ing  the  rim  where  needed  with  the  piece 
of  slotted  wire,  but  in  the  flat  it  is  best  to 
use  only  the  fingers.  The  guide  must  at 
all  times  be  set  as  close  as  possible,  with¬ 
out  touching  at  any  point,  to  get  the 
greatest  accuracy.  If  the  light  is  strong 
it  will  be  an  advantage  to  shade  the  top 
of  the  balance  with  the  left  hand  while 
holding  the  tool  so  that  the  light  will  be 
reflected  from  a  white  bench  paper  below. 
The  temperature  of  the  room  should  be 
about  70  degrees,  this  being  about  the 
mean  ;  above  or  below  this,  the  balance  rim 
will  not  he  true  in  the  round  owing  to  the 
expansion  and  contraction,  but  this  change 
will  have  no  effect  upon  the  poising  if  the 
balance  be  a  good  one.  If  necessary  a 
screw  should  be  removed  to  make  a  bend 
at  the  proper  place.  With  some  experi¬ 
ence  there  need  be  no  fear  of  bending  the 
staff  even  with  a  balance  having  heavy 
arms.  When  the  truing  is  done,  test  the 
poise. 


DECEPTIVE  BALANCES. 

n  evil  that  watch  repairers  may  justly 
complain  of,  as  it  also  is  a  growing 
one,  is  the  number  of  what  are  called  com¬ 
pensation  balances  that  are  now  to  be  met 
with  in  the  commonest  of  watches.  For¬ 
merly,  these  sham  compensation  balances 
were  not  cut  through,  but  occasionally  a 
nick  was  cut  on  the  upper  side  of  the  rim, 
for  the  sake  of  appearance,  so  these  bal¬ 
ances  were  no  worse  than  the  ordinary  solid 
metal  ones;  but  now  the  practise,  having 
its  origin  in  the  same  motive  that  induces 


IMPROVED  METHOD  OF  STRAIGHTENING  BENT  PIVOT. 


I97 


manufacturers  to  apply  Breguet  springs  to 
this  class  of  watch,  is  to  cut  the  balance 
through  ;  and,  as  these  balances  are  of  the 
commonest  make  and  the  softest  materials, 
it  is  difficult  to  handle  them  without  bend¬ 
ing.  If  the  balance  be  bent,  it  will  be  out 
of  poise,  and  of  course  the  time  of  the 
watch  in  different  positions  will  be  all  out. 
Bat  even  if  the  equipoise  of  balance  was 
perfect,  a  balance  out  of  circle  would  be  an 
eye-sore  to  even  the  wearer,  and  so  the  re¬ 
pairer  must  spend  as  much  time  over  get¬ 
ting  the  balance  true  as  it  takes  him  to 
clean  the  watch.  But  supposing,  as  must 
often  be  the  case,  that  the  balance  has  been 
bent  and  tried  by  some  not  very  skilful 
operator,  the  repairer’s  task  of  making  it 
look  nearly  true  has  become  infinitely 
greater,  if  not  impossible,  as  the  first  oper¬ 
ator  has  no  doubt  used  either  pliers  or 
tweezers  freely,  and  here  the  illustration  of 
the  bent  pin  becomes  applicable  and  im¬ 
portant. 

Watch  repairers,  and  even  watch  manu¬ 
facturers,  have  sometimes  strange  notions 
as  to  the  division  of  labor,  and  the  difficulty 
of  doing  certain  things  that  appear  diffi¬ 
cult  and  mysterious,  only  because  they 
hive  not  taken  the  trouble  to  ascertain 
where  the  difficulty  lies,  nor  why  one  man 
should  be  able  to  do  a  certain  thing  better 
thrn  another  man  who  is  equally  capable. 
And  one  of  the  things  assigned  to  a  certain 
trade  is  the  cutting  and  truing  of  compen¬ 
sation  balances.  A  repairer  should  be  able 
to  do  this  as  well  as  any  balance  maker,  as 
he  has  certainly  far  more  opportunities  of 
seeing  balances  in  all  forms  of  distortion, 
and  more  practise  in  correcting  them  than 
a  balance  maker  can  have.  It  is  true  that 
the  cutting  of  balances  is  not  very  much  in 
the  line  of  the  watch  repairer,  but  getting 
them  true  is  his  every-day  work,  and  he 
should  be  able  to  do  this  efficiently  and 
quickly.  Although  it  is  both  the  precept 
and  practise  of  some  people  to  take  the 
screws  out  of  the  balances  before  com¬ 
mencing  operations,  I  should  never  think 
of  doing  so,  even  to  a  new  balance ;  it  is  a 
mere  waste  of  time,  as  in  those  jobs  that 
oftenest  require  the  balance  to  be  trued, 
the  balance  rim  is  soft  and  the  screws  so 
badly  fitted  that  screwing  them  into  the 
holes  again  would  frequently  make  the  bal¬ 
ance  as  untrue  as  it  was  at  first. 

The  first  requisite  then  is  a  pair  of  cali¬ 
pers  with  good  centers  that  move  moderately 
tight  and  without  guard  or  adjusting  bar 
screwed  on  to  them.  As  the  cross  bar  or 


touch  piece  is  better  held  by  the  finger  and 
thumb  of  the  left  hand  this  bar  should  be 
of  thin  sheet  brass  and  the  point  for  touch¬ 
ing  the  inside  of  the  rim  of  the  balance 
filed  up  small  and  square  ;  this  point  can 
be  brought  to  bear  on  the  inside  corner  of 
the  balance,  free  of  the  taps  of  the  screws. 
If  the  rim  is  bent  outward  there  is  no  other 
way  so  good  as  bending  it  in  with  the 
fingers  ;  if  the  circle  of  the  rim  is  complete, 
this  bending  will  be  sufficient,  but  if  it  is 
only  complete  in  a  small  segment  close  to 
the  arm,  and  is  bent  either  outward  or  in¬ 
ward  after  that,  the  rim  of  the  balance 
should  be  held  tightly  in  the  finger  and 
thumb  of  the  left  hand,  at  the  part  where 
it  deviates  from  the  circle,  and  the  outer 
end  of  the  lamina  bent  either  out  or  in  by 
holding  a  peg  against  the  inside  of  the  bal¬ 
ance  in  the  right  hand,  pressing  the  thumb 
against  the  outside,  always  taking  care  not 
to  bend  too  much.  This  process  might  be 
called  the  rule  of  thumb ;  but  it  is  the 
simplest  and  best  way  of  truing  a  compen¬ 
sation  balance,  and  under  no  circumstances 
should  pliers  or  tweezers  be  used,  except 
in  a  case  where  these  tools  have  been  used 
freely  before,  and  where  the  bends  are  so 
sharp  and  numerous  that  the  process  de¬ 
scribed  would  be  ineffectual,  when  bending 
with  a  pair  of  tweezers,  made  of  hard  wood 
or  ivory,  may  be  resorted  to. 


IMPROVED  METHOD  OF  STRAIGHT. 
ENING  A  BENT  BALANCE  PIVOT. 

Any  workman  who  has  tried  to  straighten 
a  bent  pivot  knows  how  uncertain  and 
unsatisfactory  are  the  results  obtained  bv 
the  ordinary  method,  generally  resulting  in 
a  broken  pivot,  or  at  best  in  not  being  able 
to  get  it  as  true  as  is  desirable.  It  is  not 
to  be  understood  that  such  a  course  is  to  be 
recommended  in  the  higher  grades  where 
accurate  work  is  required,  but  as  there  are 
a  great  many  cases  in  which  the  customers 
would  refuse  to  pay  a  price  sufficient  to  al¬ 
low  the  workman  to  put  in  a  new  staff,  it  is 
well  for  him  to  know  how  such  a  job  may 
be  done  with  the  least  expense,  doing  the 
best  he  can  in  each  instance. 

It  will  not  be  necessary,  except  in  rare 
cases,  to  draw  the  temper  of  the  pivot,  as 
the  strain  is  only  what  is  required  to  bend 
it  back  to  its  original  position — no  bending 
back  and  forth.  The  only  tool  required  in 
addition  to  an  American  lathe,  which  every 
workman  should  have,  is  a  small  tool 


198 


ISOCHRONISM  IN  FLAT  AND  BREGUET  SPRINGS. 


which  can  be  easily  made,  resembling  one 
of  the  small  pivot  gauges  with  the  long 
tapering  slot ;  in  fact  it  is  the  same  tool  ex¬ 
cept  that  the  sharp  corners  of  one  side  are 
rounded  so  as  not  to  mar  the  pivot  if  con¬ 
ical,  or,  if  a  shoulder,  the  side  having  the 
sharp  corner  may  be  used.  The  making 
of  such  a  tool  is  so  simple  that  any  work¬ 
man  can  do  it  in  a  short  time  ;  but  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  sides  of  the  slot 
must  be  smooth  and  polished  and  exactly 
at  right  angles  to  the  outside  faces  of  the 
tool.  Having  such  a  tool  on  the  bench, 
put  the  staff  in  the  lathe  so  that  it  will  run 
true  and  clamp  it  firmly  so  that  it  will  not 
move  with  the  pressure  necessary  to  bend 
the  pivot  to  its  original  position.  Now 
place  the  tail-stock  in  position  with  a  flat¬ 
faced  brass  taper  in  it.  Carefully  place  the 
tool  on  the  pivot  with  the  corner  next  that 
fits  the  pivot  best,  at  the  same  time  holding 
the  tail-stock  spindle  against  it  lightly  to 
keep  it  from  rocking  with  the  pivot,  as  the 
lathe  is  turned  slowly.  As  the  lathe  is 
turned,  the  tool  must  be  forced  gently  down 
so  that  the  slot  fits  the  pivot  and  so  trues 
it.  The  pivot  should  be  well  oiled  to 
prevent  sticking.  Repolishing  the  pivot  is 
now  all  that  remains  to  be  done,  after  which 
the  repairer  will  have  performed  a  job  that 
it  will  be  difficult  for  anyone  to  detect. 


ISOCHRONISM  IN  FI/AT  AND  BRJ5- 
GUFT  SPRINGS. 

BY  M.  SANDOZ. 

By  isochronism,  from  the  Greek,  meaning 
equal  time,  is  designated  the  property 
possessed  by  the  pendulum  and  balance 
spring  of  accomplishing  their  arcs  of  vibra¬ 
tions  of  different  amplitudes  in  the  same 
space  of  time.  In  a  pendulum,  the  only 
condition  required  is  that  its  length  be  such 
as  to  make  the  center  of  gravity  move  ac¬ 
cording  to  its  cycloid  curve  ;  but  in  the  bal¬ 
ance  spring  the  means  change  with  the  form 
of  the  spring.  In  the  spherical  or  conical 
springs,  the  extreme  curves,  constructed 
after  the  mathematical  rules  discovered  by 
Professor  Philippe,  of  the  Polytechnical 
School  of  Paris,  will  produce  an  isochron¬ 
ism  very  nearly  perfect.  In  the  flat  springs 
these  curves  cannot  exist;  therefore  other 
means  must  be  resorted  to.  I  shall  now 
give  the  result  of  several  years  of  experi¬ 
ment  and  study  embodied  in  the  follovying 
theorems. 

1.  In  the  flat  spring,  every  coil  has,  theo¬ 


retically,  a  point  where  the  vibrations  are  is- 
ochronical.  2.  t  hat  point  of  isochronism  is 
determined  by  the  relative  positions  of  the 
two  points  connecting  the  balance  spring 
with  the  collet  and  stud,  called  points  d’at- 
tache. 

These  two  propositions  form  the  base  of 
isochronism  in  the  flat  spring  ;  therefore  the 
idea  generally  accredited  among  watch¬ 
makers  that  the  isochronical  property  of  a 
flat  spring  is  incorrect,  since  the  tenth  as  well 
as  the  twentieth  coil  of  the  spring  is  able  to 
produce  isochronism,  the  only  limit  being 
such  size  of  springs  as  would  perfect  the 
freedom  of  its  action. 

Freedom  of  action  being  necessary  for  the 
isochronical  properties  of  the  spring  to  de¬ 
velop  themselves,  the  spring  must  be  bent 
to  the  center.  If  the  first  coil  is  too  near 
or  the  curve  too  flat,  so  that  even  a  minute 
part  of  the  spring  touches  the  collet,  it  will 
hinder  isochronism.  Next,  the  spring  must 
be  pinned  perfectly  tight  in  the  collet  and 
stud,  and  move  freely  between  the  regulator 
pins.  These  conditions  being  complied 
with,  the  watch  is  run  three,  six  or  twelve 
hours  with  just  strength  enough  to  keep  it 
going;  the  result  is  compared  with  a  regu¬ 
lator  and  set  down.  Next,  the  watch  is 
fully  wound  up,  and  after  a  space  of  time 
equal  to  the  first  trial,  the  result  is  set  down 
again. 

The  watch  will  generally  run  slower  in  the 
short  vibrations  than  in  the  long,  and  con¬ 
sequently  lose  time  in  the  pocket  in  the  last 
twelve  hours  of  its  running.  Having  set 
down  as  a  principle  that  every  coil  has  an 
isochronical  point,  we  have  now  to  deter¬ 
mine  that  point,  remembering  that  as  a  gen¬ 
eral  rule  every  increase  of  length  of  the 
spring  over  that  point  will  cause  the  watch 
to  gain  in  the  shortest  vibrations,  and  every 
decrease  back  of  that  point  will  cause  it  to 
gain  in  the  long  vibrations.  This  rule  is 
correct  only  for  certain  limits,  as  I  shall  ex¬ 
plain.  Supposing  that  a  balance  spring  of 
fifteen  coils  is  perfectly  isochronal,  with 
the  two  fastening  points  just  opposite  each 
other,  the  fourteenth  and  sixteenth  coil,  as 
well  as  the  fifteenth,  will  produce  the  iso¬ 
chronism  very  nearly  at  the  same  point. 
Suppose  that  we  increase  gradually  the 
length  of  that  balance  spring  of  fifteen  coils, 
pinned  up  so  that  the  two  points  of  fasten¬ 
ing  are  placed  opposite  each  other,  so  that 
its  length  will  now  be  fifteen  and  a  half 
coils  ;  the  two  points  of  fastening  are  now  in 
a  position  where  they  are  said  to  be  pinned 
to  the  half  coil.  The  result  will  be  that 


ISOCHRONISM  IN  FLAT  AND  BREGUET  SPRINGS. 


l99 


the  balance  spring  will  cause  the  watch 
to  gain  in  the  short  vibrations  in  the  very 
same  proportions  in  which  it  has  been 
gaining  by  the  increase  of  the  length  of  the 
first  half.  This  change  will  continue  until 
we  reach  the  same  point  on  the  sixteenth 
coil  that  we  started  from  on  the  fifteenth, 
and  the  two  pins  are  opposite  to  each  other, 
at  which  point  we  shall  again  have  isochron- 
ism.  The  same  method  is  applicable  to  the 
fourteenth  coil  with  the  same  result. 

Now  it  is  immaterial  whether  we  take  half 
the  coil  to  the  center  or  to  the  outside  of  the 
spring,  because  both  of  these  operations  will 
produce  the  same  result,  viz.,  the  change  of 
the  relative  places  of  the  points  of  fastening 
of  the  spring.  Therefore  the  workman  has 
his  choice  and  is  guided  by  the  size  of  the 
spring  and  the  weight  of  the  balance  ;  for 
taking  half  a  coil  to  the  center  of  the  spring 
will  not  much  affect  the  rate  of  the  watch, 
but  taken  outside  the  difference  will  be 
great.  On  the  other  hand,  a  very  shortcut 
to  the  center  will  greatly  affect  the  isochron- 
ism,  and  at  the  outside  a  full  half-coil  will 
generally  produce  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five 
seconds  difference  in  twenty-four  hours. 
Of  these  the  watchmaker  would  produce  the 
greatest  possible  changes  of  isochronism  in 
a  watch  ;  the  change  of  position  of  the  two 
points  of  fastening  of  the  spring  of  one  coil 
around  will  give  him  the  two  highest  degrees 
of  gaining  and  losing  in  the  short  vibrations. 

It  follows  from  the  foregoing  remarks  that 
if  a  watch  loses  in  the  last  running  (short 
vibrations)  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  increase 
the  length  of  the  balance  spring  from  the 
outside  ;  if  the  result  is  good,  but  not  yet 
sufficient,  give  still  more  length  ;  if  the  re¬ 
sult  is  worse,  it  shows  that  you  are  too  far 
on  the  coil.  Take  back  the  whole  length 
that  you  had  given  in  the  first  operation  and 
draw  more  length  so  as  to  affect  the  spring 
the  other  way  ;  or  if  your  spring  is  already 
small,  or  your  balance  pretty  heavy,  cut  to 
the  center  so  as  to  come  around  to  the  re¬ 
quired  positions. 

Some  springs  cannot  produce  isochron¬ 
ism  because  of  a  defect  in  their  make,  or  on 
account  of  a  want  of  homogeneity  in  the 
metal.  The  only  remedy  for  this  is  a  new 
spring.  In  the  Breguet  spring,  the  iso¬ 
chronism  is  produced  in  the  same  manner 
as  in  the  flat  springs  ;  but  great  care  is  to  be 
taken  in  making  the  curve,  for  if  it  is  not 
made  in  conformity  with  the  principles  of 
Philippe,  the  isochronism  will  be  disturbed. 

Few  watchmakers  understand  the  art  of 
adjustment  in  positions,  and  those  few  make 


it  a  regular  business.  It  requires  of  the 
operator  considerable  manual  skill  and  re¬ 
flective  powers.  The  great  principle  is  to 
equalize  the  frictions,  so  that  the  pivots  will 
offer  to  the  action  of  the  spring  the  same 
resistance  in  the  four  positions  generally 
required,  viz.,  dial  up,  XII.,  cock  up,  and 
III.  up. 

After  having  inspected  and  corrected  the 
train,  so  that  the  motive  power  is  trans¬ 
mitted  uniformly  to  the  balance,  the  pivot 
and  jewels  of  the  lever  should  be  polished 
and  shortened  so  as  to  have  very  little  fric¬ 
tion  ;  next,  the  base  should  be  poised  as 
perfectly  as  possible,  the  notch  in  the  fork 
where  the  ruby  pin  acts  should  be  polished, 
and  the  balance  jewels  made  short  enough 
to  have  the  holes  square,  rounded  inside 
and  perfectly  polished,  the  balance  pivots 
well  burnished,  their  ends  half  rounded,  and 
the  balance  poised  very  carefully.  The 
English  method  of  throwing  the  balance  out 
of  poise,  to  obtain  the  same  rate  in  different 
positions,  is  not  generally  accepted,  and  is 
considered  a  bad  practise  by  the  most  emi¬ 
nent  watchmakers.  The  balance  spring  is 
put  in  position  without  the  balance,  and 
bent  so  that  the  collet  of  the  cock  jewel  will 
have  the  same  centers. 

The  watch  being  now  in  good  running 
order,  is  put  on  trial  for  twelve  or  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  the  rate  in  each  position  care¬ 
fully  noted.  If  there  is  any  difference  in 
the  running  with  the  cock  up  or  dial  up,  this 
slight  defect  can  probably  be  remedied  by 
making  the  ends  of  the  pivots  even  and 
equally  polished.  If  the  watch  loses  with 
XII.  up,  which  is  generally  the  case  and  the 
friction  on  the  balance  jewels  is  reduced  as 
much  as  possible,  the  remedy  is  to  increase 
the  friction  when  the  watch  is  either  dial  up 
or  cock  up.  This  is  done  by  throwing  the 
balance  spring  a  little  out  of  the  center  of 
the  cock  jewel,  thereby  adding  to  the  fric¬ 
tion  on  the  pivot  end  a  lateral  pressure 
against  the  balance  jewels.  If  the  watch  is 
well  regulated  with  XII.  up  and  loses  with 
III.  up,  throw  the  spring  a  little  toward  the 
figure  III.  ;  this  operation  lifts  up  the  bal¬ 
ance  when  the  watch  is  in  losing  position, 
and  diminishes  the  friction  of  the  pivots  in 
the  particular  case.  Making  the  ends  of 
pivots  perfectly  flat  has  a  tendency  to  cause 
the  watch  to  gain  with  dial  up  or  cock  up. 
The  sound  of  the  watch  must  be  clear  in  all 
positions,  or  else  friction  is  indicated,  such 
as  is  due  to  rough  jewels  or  pivots  and 
the  rubbing  of  the  safety  pin  against  the 
roller. 


200 


HAIRSPRINGS  AN D  REGULATOR  PINS. 


CONCERNING  THE  BREGUET 
SPRING. 

As  to  the  application  of  Breguet  springs 
.  to  common  watches,  or  even  to  watches 
that  may  not  be  described  as  common,  they 
are  certainly  worse  than  flat  springs,  even 
if  they  were  not  shams,  which  most  of  them 
are,  as  it  is  much  easier  to  get  an  ordinary 
watch  to  time  in  position  with  a  flat  spring 
than  with  a  spring  that  has  an  overcoil.  In 
the  first  place,  these  springs  are  always  a 
great  deal  too  large,  the  overcoil  is  turned 
up  anywhere,  without  reference  to  where  it 
is  to  be  pinned  in.  They  are  generally  soft, 
and,  if  the  overcoil  is  bent,  as  it  so  often  is, 
the  difficulty  of  straightening  it  is  so  great 
that  it  is  no  wonder  watch  repairers  generally 
dislike  them. 

The  Swiss  make  their  overcoils  by  bend¬ 
ing  the  spring  up  at  a  sharp  angle  and  then 
bending  it  down  again  at  the  height  above 
the  spring  which  they  require  ;  therefore, 
it  is  impossible  to  do  anything  with  this 
kind  of  a  spring  but  break  it  off.  As  most, 
1  may  say  all  of  such  watches,  have  balances 
with  screws,  a  couple  of  screws  added  to 
the  balance  will  compensate  for  the  loss  of 
the  half  turn  of  the  spring,  and  turning  up 
a  new  overcoil  is  not  so  formidable  a  job 
as  it  appears  to  some.  If  a  piece  of  brass 
wire  is  driven  into  a  small  wooden  handle, 
and  the  end  of  the  wire  has  a  hole  drilled  in 
it,  and  is  filed  up  to  something  of  the  form  of 
the  spring  stud  of  a  full-plate  watch  ;  if  the 
end  of  the  spring  is  brought  through  the  hole 
in  this  little  spring-holder,  say  two-thirds 
of  a  turn,  and  made  fast  there  with  a  pin 
that  has  a  flat  side,  the  end  of  the  spring 
can  then  be  lifted  gradually  the  required 
height  over  the  body  of  the  spring,  and  the 
overcoil  can  be  bent  in  with  the  tweezers 
while  the  spring  is  held  in  the  left  hand 
by  the  spring-holder,  without  any  fear  of 
bending  or  disturbing  the  coils,  even  if  the 
spring  is  a  very  soft  one. 

A  workman  often  finds  difficulty  in  bend¬ 
ing  this  overcoil  in  consequence  of  the 
shape  of  his  tweezers,  the  points  of  which 
are  usually  tapered,  and  consequently,  as 
the  end  is  bent  inward,  it  keeps  bending 
downward.  This  must  be  watched,  and 
the  overcoil  should  be  the  right  height 
from  the  spring,  and  the  curve  the  proper 
diameter  before  the  spring  is  unpinned 
from  the  holder.  Although  this  looks  for¬ 
midable,  a  little  practise  will  make  it  simple 
and  easy  enough,  and  the  workman  will 
find  that  it  takes  far  less  time  than  it  will 


take  him  to  cobble  and  try  to  restore  the 
shape  of  a  spring  that  has  already  been  a 
trial  to  some  one. 


HAIRSPRINGS  AND  REGULATOR 
PINS. 

great  deal  has  been  written  and  said 
about  the  Breguet  hairsprings,  and 
almost  invariably  in  their  favor,  particu¬ 
larly  by  the  advertisements,  and  to-day 
nine  out  of  ten  retail  jewelers  will  speak  of 
a  watch  that  has  a  Bre'guet  spring  in  it 
as  something  superior,  when,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  other  things  being  equal,  it  has  no 
advantages.  The  most  popular  errors  seem 
to  be,  that  as  the  “  throw  out  ”  of  a  Brdguet 
is  so  nearly  equal  all  round,  and  as  that  of 
a  flat  spring  is  mostly  on  one  side,  there 
must  be  less  friction  on  the  pivots  with  a 
Bre'guet  spring  than  there  would  be  with 
a  flat  spring  ;  therefore  the  watch  must  be 
a  better  timekeeper  ;  also  that  a  Brdguet 
spring  is  less  liable  to  get  caught  in  the 
regulator  pins.  There  is  a  great  deal  of 
truth  in  the  latter  argument,  but  the  advan¬ 
tage  does  not  arise  entirely  from  the  shape 
of  the  spring.  In  regard  to  the  time¬ 
keeping  qualities  of  a  Bre'guet  spring,  they 
are  very  much  overrated. 

While  it  is  admitted  by  adjusters  that 
they  prefer  Breguet  springs  to  flat  ones, 
this  is  because  these  springs  are  easier  to 
handle,  and  in  bringing  a  watch  to  time  in 
positions,  a  Breguet  can  be  “juggled  ’’more 
and  will  show  less  than  a  flat  spring;  but 
no  adjuster  will  claim  that  he  can  get  bet¬ 
ter  results  from  a  Breguet  spring.  That 
he  cannot  has  been  proved  to  the  satisfac¬ 
tion  of  every  adjuster  in  the  business.  The 
explanation  of  the  “throw  out”  of  a  flat 
spring  not  affecting  the  timekeeping  qual¬ 
ities  is,  that  while  it  is  an  admitted  error, 
it  is  a  constant  error,  and  happens  nine 
thousand  times  every  hour,  and  is  a  sim¬ 
ple  matter  of  regulation.  If  it  happened 
only  once  or  twice  a  day,  or  only  in  cer¬ 
tain  positions,  then  there  would  be  some 
excuse  for  lauding  the  Breguet  in  compari¬ 
son.  Perhaps  the  strongest  argument  ad¬ 
vanced  in  favor  of  the  Breguet  springs  is 
that  they  are  less  liable  to  get  caught  in 
the  regulator  pins.  There  are  several  rea¬ 
sons  for  this.  One  is  that  the  Bre'guet 
springs  are  put  in  the  better  class  of 
watches,  and  more  attention  is  paid  to  the 
fitting  of  the  regulator  pins  ;  again,  the  regu¬ 
lator  pins  are  almost  always  nearer  the 


EAR  TESTS  FOR  ADJUSTMENTS. 


201 


hairspring  stud.  The  principal  reason 
why  a  flat  spring  gets  caught  is  that  the 
pins  are  not  tiled  properly,  and  this  fault 
is  aided  very  materially  by  the  fact  that 
the  pins  are  so  far  from  the  stud  that  the 
spring  has  considerable  action  between  the 
two.  "  This  should  be  prevented,  as  far  as 
possible,  by  changing  the  mean  time  screws 
in  the  balance,  so  that  the  regulator  can  be 
moved  over  to  “slow.”  An  improved  rate 
would  then  be  noticed. 

A  glance  at  the  diagrams  will  give  an 
idea  as  to  properly  and  improperly  fitted 
regulator  pins.  Usually,  they  are  left  too 
lon°\  In  No.  i  it  will  be  seen  that  the 


No.  2. 


pins  do  not  extend  below  the  spring;  in 
fact,  they  are  hardly  as  low,  and  are  closed 
so  that  there  is  not  space  between  them  for 
two  coils.  Should  the  watch  receive  a 
blow  hard  enough  to  throw  the  second  coil 
over  the  pins,  the  position  of  the  outside 
coil  and  the  shape  of  the  point  of  the  out¬ 
side  pin  would  prevent  its  catching,  and, 
should  it  catch  on  the  inside  pin,  it  would 
be  immediately  pushed  out  by  the  outer 
coil,  which  is,  of  course,  stiffer  than  the 
second  coil  on  account  of  its  being  fast¬ 
ened  to  the  stud.  But  in  the  case  shown 
by  diagram  No.  2,  things  would  be  differ¬ 
ent,  and  I  am  sorry  to  say  No.  2  is  better 
than  six  out  of  ten  watches  that  leave  the 
jeweler’s  hands  in  supposedly  correct  con¬ 
dition.  It  is  very  easy  to  see  how  the 
second  coil,  or  almost  any  coil,  could  get 
caught  in  pins  like  these,  and  stay  so, 
too. 

A  little  more  attention  to  details  like 
these  will  prevent  criticism,  at  least  of  the 
last  man  who  repaired  the  watch. 


TO  COII,  THE  BALANCE  SPRING 
ROUND  THE  COEEET. 


The  following  process  may  be  useful  to 
those  who  experience  difficulty  in 
coiling  a  balance  spring  after  it  is  pinned 


to  the  collet  :  Take  a  small  eyed  blue 
sewing  needle,  file  off  the  extremity  up  to 
the  eye  and  smooth  the  corners.  You 
have  then  a  kind  of  fork  by  which  you  can 
form  the  center  coils  without  fear  of  dam¬ 
aging  the  spring. 


TO  REPLACE  AN  ODD  BALANCE 
SPRING. 

To  substitute  a  new  balance  spring  for  an 
old  one  the  repairer  should  place  an¬ 
other  watch  going  to  time  on  the  work  board  ; 
having  selected  a  sprjhg,  bend  the  inner 
turn  and  place  it  so  that  it  bends  or  catches 
the  cylinder  ;  lift  it  up  with  the  tweezers 
and  cause  the  balance  to  vibrate,  letting 
the  bottom  pivot  touch  a  smooth  surface, 
such  as  the  top  of  the  glass  oil  cup.  By 
catching  hold  of  one  or  more  turns  and 
altering  the  position  of  the  tweezers,  the 
arms  of  the  balance  must  be  made  to  vi¬ 
brate  in  unison  with  those  of  the  watch 
going  to  time,  which  may  be  known  by  lis¬ 
tening  to  one  and  observing  if  the  ticks 
correspond  with  the  motions  of  the  loose 
balance,  or  by  looking  at  both  balances  to 
see  if  they  appear  to  trace  together.  The 
size  of  the  spring  is  reckoned  from  where  it  is 
held  by  the  tweezers  as  a  temporary  stud ; 
by  this  means  a  suitable  spring  can  always 
be  secured  without  the  trouble  of  putting 
on  the  collet  and  spoiling  a  number,  and 
wasting  time  by  mere  guesswork,  and 
watching  second  hands  for  a  time ;  the 
spring  being  suitable,  its  size  should  be 
half  the  balance  diameter,  which  is  con¬ 
sidered  as  most  correct  by  good  authori¬ 
ties. 


THE  EAR  TESTS  FOR  ADJUST¬ 
MENTS. 

The  ear  tests  for  adjustments  is  one  of 
the  most  thorough  and  complete.  It 
must  not  be  understood  that  any  and  all 
corrections  can  be  determined  by  the  ear  ; 
but  it  is  a  fact  known  to  most  adjusters  that 
many  irregularities  which  the  eye  will  fail 
to  detect  can  be  detected  by  the  ear.  We 
are  all  aware  that  the  sense  of  sound  is 
conveyed  to  us  by  vibrations  carried 
through  the  air  to  the  tympanum  of  the  ear. 
Now,  asks  the  reader,  what  has  this  to  do 
with  the  adjustment  of  a  watch  ?  Much,  if 
the  vibrations  of  the  parts  which  emit  the 


202 


EAR  TESTS  FOR  ADJUSTMENTS. 


noise  detected  by  the  ear  are  not  in 
harmony  ;  they  must  be  in  discord,  or  in 
other  words,  disagree,  and  become  antago¬ 
nistic.  To  analyze  the  effect,  let  us  make  a 
few  experiments  in  acoustics. 

As  a  primary  experiment  let  us  strain 
two  wires  upon  a  board  ;  we  first  set  up 
one  wire,  until  its  vibrations  emit  to  the  air 
waves  corresponding  to  the  middle  C  of  a 
pianoforte ;  in  this  condition  the  wire  will 
give  525  vibrations  to  the  second,  if  the 
piano  is  up  to  the  concert  pitch.  We  next 
set  up  the  tension  of  the  companion  wire  to 
yield  the  same  tone,  that  is  to  give  the  same 
number  of  vibrations  to  the  second.  When 
the  two  wires  are  on  the  same  board,  we 
can  allow  a  sensible  difference  of  tension  to 
exist,  and  still  the  two  wires  will  vibrate  in 
unison,  one  yielding  a  little  to  the  other,  in 
order  that  the  vibrations  of  both  shall  be 
synchronous.  If  we  separate  the  two  wires, 
or  put  each  wire  on  a  separate  board,  and 
place  one  on  one  side  of  the  room  and  the 
other  on  the  opposite  side,  and  one  wire  is 
caused  to  vibrate,  the  sound  waves  in  the 
air  will  immediately  cause  the  other  to  set 
up  synchronous  and  harmonious  vibrations 
in  response.  But  when  the  wires  are  sep¬ 
arated,  as  just  described,  the  tension  on 
each  wire  must  be  more  nearly  alike  thafi 
when  the  wires  are  attached  to  the  same 
board  ;  but,  even  when  so  separated,  a 
small  amount  of  license  is  admissible  in  the 
tension  of  the  two  strings. 

Perhaps  some  reader  will  ask,  how  are 
the  deviations  of  such  small  intervals  of 
time  determined  ?  The  reply  is  :  by  com¬ 
parison  with  light  waves  ;  but  the  methods 
by  which  the  tests  are  made  are  too  com¬ 
plicated  to  allow  of  explanation  in  the 
present  article.  To  profit  by  such  instruc¬ 
tion  in  adjusting,  one  should  accept  the 
assertion  that,  if  we  desire  to  arrive  at  fine 
and  close  results  in  watch  work,  we  must 
render  those  parts  which  constitute  the 
sound-emitting  portions  of  the  escapement 
harmonious — that  is,  they  must  vibrate  in 
unison ,  and  produce  a  clear ,  harmonious , 
musical  tone.  If  we  strike  one  hand  down 
on  the  key-board  of  a  piano  with  our  fingers 
extended  so  that  each  finger  will  strike  a 
white  key,  we  make  a  musical  noise ,  but  there 
will  be  no  harmony  in  it.  So  in  the  tick 
of  a  watch,  if  the  sound-emitting  parts  are 
synchronous  they  will  be  melodious,  not 
discordant.  This  should  be  looked  to  and 
studied  by  workmen.  Let  any  workman 
make  a  practise  of  noticing  the  sound  of  the 
tick  of  a  watch,  and  he  will,  in  a  very  brief 


period  of  time,  be  able  to  judge  of  the 
average  performance  of  a  fine  watch  by  the 
purity  of  tone.  Not  one  watch  in  ten  will 
have  the  same  tone  with  dial  up  and  dial 
down  ;  but  this  is  not  of  very  great  import¬ 
ance  so  long  as  the  tone  in  each  position  is 
clear  and  melodious. 

The  course  to  pursue  to  remedy  an  im¬ 
perfect  tone  in  the  tick  of  a  watch  is  not 
easy  to  point  out;  oftentimes  it  can  be 
effected  by  simply  repinning  the  balance 
spring  at  the  outer  end  of  the  coils.  Again, 
both  ends  will  need  to  be  repinned  ;  occa¬ 
sionally  it  will  require  an  entirely  new 
spring.  The  tick  is  given  at  the  time  of 
the  escape  of  the  tooth,  and  probably  most 
of  the  sound  comes  from  the  fork  striking 
the  jewel-pin  when  the  impulse  commences 
to  act.  At  this  time  the  balance  spring  is 
free  from  contact,  except  at  each  end,  where 
it  is  attached  to  the  collet  at  one  end  and 
the  stud  at  the  other.  In  this  position,  the 
balance  spring  is  free  to  receive  such  initial 
forces  as  to  establish  the  vibration  in  it 
which  embodies  in  it  the  tone  we  hear 
when  listening  to  the  tick,  and  a  cause 
which  will  in  any  way  affect  the  tension  of 
the  spring  will  affect  the  character  of  the 
vibrations,  and  consequently,  the  tone. 
All  these  tones  could  give  us  intelligence 
of  a  change  in  the  rate  of  our  watch,  if  we 
could  only  interpret  them. 

The  writer  is  led  to  speak  at  this  length, 
from  a  conviction  that  the  next  great  ad¬ 
vance  in  adjusting  will  be  governed  by 
attention  to  what  can  be  heard  as  well  as 
seen  in  this  matter.  We  cannot  instruct 
you  to  adj-ust  and  arrange  your  balance 
spring  so  that  it  will  emit  a  sound  of  any 
one  musical  note,  or  a  combination,  an  oc¬ 
tave,  or  fifth,  but  we  should  strive  to  avoid 
as  much  as  possible  a  tone  of  dissonance 
and  discord,  because  such  sounds  tell  be¬ 
yond  dispute  that  the  parts  are  each  acting 
at  variance  one  with  the  other.  Frequently 
by  taking  up  the  balance  spring  a  mere  frac¬ 
tion,  and  placing  a  pair  of  light  washers 
under  a  pair  of  screw-heads  at  the  op¬ 
posite  sides  of  the  balance,  it  will  entirely 
change  a  discordant  tick  to  a  clear  musi¬ 
cal  one.  A  slight  change  in  the  lock 
of  the  banking  screws  may  also  do  much 
in  this  way.  A  tension  force  in  the  bal¬ 
ance  spring  will  also  affect  the  tone— I 
mean  by  this  that  a  spring  which  is  not 
true  in  the  flat  and  the  round,  particularly 
in  the  flat.  To  explain  :  Suppose  we 
are  putting  on  a  new  balance  spring, 
we  true  it  in  the  calipers  until  it  runs 


ADJUSTING  THE  ESCAPEMENT  OF  AN  l8s  AMERICAN  WATCH. 


203 


true  in  the  flat  before  we  pin  it  into 
the  stud  ;  in  pinning  into  the  stud  we  dis¬ 
tort  the  spring  so  that  the  center  has  a 
tendency  to  rise  or  fall  ;  such  a  spring  will 
give  a  pronounced  difference  in  tone  in  the 
positions  dial  up  and  dial  down.  A  bal¬ 
ance  spring,  after  it  is  turned  in  the  flat, 
should  be  removed  from  the  balance  to  be 
pinned  into  the  stud,  and  the  fastening 
points  arranged  so  as  to  bring  the  point 
where  the  spring  is  pinned  into  the  collet 
opposite  the  curb  pins,  when  the  regulator 
stands  in  opposite  the  center  of  the  index 
plate.  The  spring  is  next  pinned  into  the 
stud,  so  that  it  lies  flat  with  the  cock  when 
held  vertical  ;  that  is,  the  flat  of  the  bal¬ 
ance  spring,  when  held  perpendicular,  is 
pirallel  with  the  under  side  of  the  cock. 
The  cock  should  then  be  laid  down,  and 
the  point  where  the  spring  enters  the  stud 
bent  so  as  to  bring  the  center  of  the  collet 
to  correspond  with  the  center  of  the  jewel 
hole.  This  will  probably  require  the  outer 
coil  of  the  spring  to  be  bent  away  from  the 
next  inner  one,  as  the  spaces  between  coils 
of  a  closely  dialed  spring  are  not  sufficient 
for  the  stud  or  the  curb  pins  to  act  freely. 
What  is  required  is  that  the  outer  coil  of 
the  spring  should  be  so  manipulated  that 
the  normal  coils  of  the  spring  shall  be  con¬ 
centric  to  the  hole  in  the  jewel  which  re¬ 
ceives  the  pivot  of  the  staff. 

These  precautions  taken,  usually  the  tones 
of  the  ticks,  if  one  may  be  allowed  the  ex¬ 
pression,  will  be  nearly  or  quite  alike  (if 
the  frictions  are  the  same),  with  the  dial 
up  or  dial  down.  The  same  precautions 
should  be  taken  if  the  balance  spring  is 
one  with  an  over-coil,  usually  called  a 
Breguet  spring ;  it  should  lie  flat,  and  the 
center  of  the  collet  correspond  to  the 
center  of  the  jewel.  A  very  little  practise, 
after  one  has  had  his  attention  called  to  it, 
will  enable  him  to  make  small  changes 
which  will  effect  the  desired  result — that  is, 
in  obtaining  a  clear  musical  tone  in  the  tick. 

Of  course,  all  scraping  and  rubbing 
noises  should  have  been  remedied  before 
any  attempts  of  the  kind  just  noted  are 
made.  A  tremulous  motion  of  the  balance 
spring  should  be  carefully  avoided,  watch¬ 
ing  that  such  a  condition  does  not  estab¬ 
lish  itself  in  certain  positions,  as  we  often 
see  a  watch  in  which  the  spring  coils  and 
uncoils  freely  in  all  but  perhaps  one  or  two 
positions,  while  in  the  sea  rapid  vibratory 
motion  is  established  which  gives  out  to  the 
ear  a  sizzing  sound  that  would  lead  an  in¬ 
experienced  workman  to  imagine  there  was 


an  undetected  friction  in  that  position. 
Such  vibrations  are  more  apt  to  be  detected 
in  close  than  in  open  coiled  springs.  Springs 
developing  such  vibrations  will  usually  be 
found  a  little  out  of  sound,  or  to  have  an 
unequal  space  between  the  coils,  from  being 
tampered  with  ;  if  restoring  the  spaces  to 
their  natural  order  and  toning  in  the  sound 
does  not  correct  the  trouble,  a  new  spring 
is  about  the  only  remedy. 


ADJUSTING  THE  ESCAPEMENT  OF 
AN  18s  AMERICAN  WATCH. 

First  we  will  suppose  the  scape  teeth 
are  all  right,  and  the  pallet  stones 
whole,  balance  in  and  dial  off;  then  we  will 
examine  the  lopk.  Use  a  double  glass  and 
look  througbthe  “  peep  holes  ”  in  the  pillar 
plate  ;  now  slowly  turn  the  balance  first  to 
one  side,  then  to  the  other.  Notice  partic¬ 
ularly  the  lock  on  both  pallet  stones.  You 
can  form  a  more  correct  opinion  if  you  stop 
the  balance  the  exact  instant  the  scape 
tooth  drops,  and  then  turn  the  other  way. 
The  lock  should  be  just  as  light  as  it  can 
safely  be — that  is,  to  have  all  the  teeth  stay 
on  the  locking  face  and  not  slip  down  on 
•the  impulse  face  of  the  pallet  stone.  A  deep 
lock  retards  the  motion.  Do  not  depend 
on  the  examination  of  two  or  three  teeth, 
but  try  every  one  ;  there  may  be  a  short 
one  or  the  wheel  may  be  out  of  round.  In 
the  latter  case  do  not  try  to  improve  it ;  get 
a  new  one  if  the  customer  will  stand  the 
cost,  if  not  let  it  alone  unless  you  have 
special  facilities  for  doing  that  kind  of 
work. 

After  correcting  the  lock  see  that  the 
guard  pin  is  not  bent  sideways,  then  close 
the  banking  pins  until  the  guard  pin  just 
rubs  on  the  roller— not  hard,  but  so  that 
there  is  no  shake.  Now  turn  the  balance  as 
before  and  see  if  the  teeth  of  the  scape  wheel 
will  “  let  off  ”  the  pallet  stones.  If  a  tooth 
sticks  on  one  stone,  open  that  banking  pin, 
and  see  if  the  tooth  on  the  other  pallet  stone 
sticks  on  it  ;  if  it  does  then  move  the  fork 
toward  the  roller  a  little,  then  close  the 
banking  pins  as  before  and  try  the  “  let 
off ;  ”  if  the  teeth  stick  on  one  side  and  do 
not  on  the  other,  move  the  pallet  on  the 
fork  until  the  teeth  will  “let  off”  both 
stones. 

Now  try  the  pin  action.  Move  the  bal- 
lance  so  that  the  jewel  pin  is  toward  one 
side  of  the  fork  ;  then  slowly  move  the  bal¬ 
ance  back  until  the  jewel  pin  touches  the 


204 


INFLUENCE  OF  MAGNETISM  ON  CHRONOMETERS  RATE. 


slot  in  the  fork  ;  then  move  the  balance 
back  enough  to  bring  the  flattened  face  of 
the  jewel  pin  opposite  the  corner  of  the  slot 
in  the  fork  it  has  just  passed.  Now,  while 
holding  the  balance  at  this  point,  use  the 
tweezers  and  try  the  shake  of  the  fork  on  the 
face  of  the  pin.  The  pin  should  just  clear 
on  entering  and'the  shake  should  be  almost 
imperceptible.  Then  try  the  entrance  with 
the  fork  on  the  other  banking  pin.  One 
side  or  “Torn”  may  be  longer  than  the 
other  ;  if  there  is  much  difference,  it  should 
be  corrected  with  a  very  fine,  round  file 
about  the  diameter  of  the  circle  in  the  end 
of  the  fork.  Remove  the  burr  and  try 
again.  It  may  be  that  before  this  the  jewel 
pin  has  refused  to  enter  the  slot.  In  that 
case  it  was  too  far  forward  and  should  have 
been  moved  back  a  little. 

If  these  directions  have  been  closely  fol¬ 
lowed,  the  watch  will  be  in  this  condition  : 
No  slide  of  scape  teeth  on  pallet  stones  after 
dropping;  no  shake  of  fork  on  banking  pins 
or  of  guard  pin  on  the  roller  ;  no  shake 
of  fork  slot  corner  on  the  face  of  the  jewel 
pin.  The  watch  is  now  “  banked  up  to  the 
drop.”  Now  open  the  banking  pins  just 
enough  to  alii?  Mthe  guard  pin  to  clear  the 
roller  all  round,  and  your  escapement  is  ad¬ 
justed  as  perfectly  as  it  is  possible  to  doit. 


INFLUENCE  OF  MAGNETISM  ON  A 
CHRONOMETER’S  RATE. 

An  issue  of  the  Annalen  der  Hydrogra- 
pliie,  etc.,  contains  an  interesting  arti¬ 
cle  on  this  subject. 

The  problem  whether  any,  and  if  so, 
which,  influence  is  exerted  upon  a  chro¬ 
nometer  by  magnetism,  has  not,  by  any 
means,  been  decided.  The  observations 
made  hitherto  only  showed  a  noticeable  in¬ 
fluence,  cases  of  which  were  mentioned  at 
proper  occasions.  Airy  found  among  hun¬ 
dreds  of  chronometers  examined  by  him 
only  one  that  showed  a  pronounced  devia¬ 
tion,  although  of  various  others  observed  in 
the  Kiel  Observatory,  a  few  exhibited  an 
influence  of  magnetism  upon  their  rate,  still 
the  change  produced  amounted  to  not  more 
than  a  second.  Nothing  was  said  specially 
about  the  metal  of  the  several  parts  of  the 
chronometers  examined.  More  weight  is 
attached  to  the  observations  established  by 
the  French  lieutenant  of  marines,  Le  Goa- 
rant  de  Trotnelin,  which  he  discussed  in  an 
article  published  in  the  Revue  Maritime  et 
Coloniale ,  and  in  which  he  arrives  at  the 


conclusion  that  the  influence  of  magnetism 
upon  the  rate  of  a  chronometer  depends 
simply  upon  the  metals  of  which  the  two 
parts  of  the  balance  are  composed,  and  to 
a  lesser  degree,  upon  the  metal  of  the  bal¬ 
ance  spring.  It  may  be  interesting  to  the 
reader  to  debate  upon  a  few  of  the  observa¬ 
tions  and  discussions,  and  to  mention  their 
most  salient  points. 

Isochronism,  amplitude,  and  duration  of 
vibrations,  and  consequently,  also  the  rate 
of  the  chronometer,  all  depend  essentially 
upon  the  balance  spring  and  balance,  and  it 
may,  therefore,  also  be  assumed  a  priori , 
that  when  an  influence  of  magnetism  upon 
the  rate  is  suspected,  it  must  first  be  looked 
for  in  the  last  mentioned  parts.  Observa¬ 
tions  confirm  this  in  such  a  manner  that  a 
stronger  influence  of  magnetism  could  be 
found  only  in  those  chronometers,  the  last 
mentioned  parts  of  which  consisted  of  met¬ 
als  with  a  tendency  to  be  influenced. 
Specially  interesting  in  this  regard  are  the 
observations  of  Arnold  and  Dent,  who  used 
chronometers,  the  balances  and  springs  of 
which  wrere  of  steel,  as  well  as  other  mate¬ 
rials,  and  the  following  observations  were 
made  : 

A  chronometer  with  balance  spring  of 
steel  only,  simply  showed  trifling  alterations 
of  a  few  seconds,  while  chronometers,  the 
balance  spring  and  balance,  or  the  balance 
only  of  which  was  of  steel,  showed  very 
great  deviations  up  to  thirty-seven  minutes. 
The  magnetic  influence  upon  a  chro¬ 
nometer,  the  balance  of  which  together  with 
its  spring  contained  no  iron,  was  nil. 

Mr.  Fischer,  who  also  experimented  in 
the  same  manner,  placed  a  strongly  mag¬ 
netic  rod  at  a  distance  of  two  inches  from 
his  timekeeper;  he  noticed  with  all  chro¬ 
nometers  an  acceleration  of  8  to  9  seconds. 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  nothing  regarding 
the  structure  of  the  balance  and  its  spring 
is  mentioned  in  the  dissertation  of  Mr. 
Tromelin. 

Messrs.  Delamarche  and  Ploix  instituted 
analogous  experiments  by  approximately 
placing  the  chronometers  on  land  under 
analogous  conditions  to  which  they  are  ex¬ 
posed  on  board  ship — that  is,  they  placed 
a  magnetic  rod  at  such  a  distance  from  the 
chronometers  in  which  it  is  able  to  deviate 
an  ordinary  magnetic  needle  from  150  to 
40°.  After  having  finished  this  experiment 
these  engineers  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  magnetic  condition  of  the  ship  exerts 
no  noticeable  influence  upon  the  rate  of  the 
chronometers,  and  that  the  rate  deviations 


INFLUENCE  OF  MAGNETISM  ON  CHRONOMETER’S  RATE. 


205 


generally  experienced  in  the  transport  from 
land  to  aboard  ship,  and  vice  versa ,  must 
be  ascribed  to  other  causes.  The  latter  re¬ 
mark  is  perhaps  made  because  sea  captains 
were  for  a  time  inclined  to  ascribe  these  de¬ 
viations  to  magnetic  influence  due  to  the 
transport  of  the  chronometers  from  land  to 
on  board  ;  this  erroneous  opinion,  however 
was  proved  to  be  fallacious  long  ago.  The 
experimenters,  Delamarche  and  Ploix,  for¬ 
got  to  state,  however,  of  what  materials  the 
balance  and  spring  were  composed,  and  for 
this  reason  the  results  found  are  of  a  limited 
value  onlyr  in  view  of  the  above  remarks 
concerning  the  composition  of  these  parts. 

Mr.  Tromelin  accidentally  experienced  an¬ 
other  occurrence  with  his  own  watch  which 
stopped  while  he  experimented  with  strong 
electro-magnets.  This  phenomenon  caused 
him  *to  institute  further  investigations  con¬ 
cerning  the  influence  of  magnetism  upon 
watches  and  chronometers.  The  balance 
arm  of  his  watch  was  of  steel,  as  is  gener¬ 
ally  the  case  in  a  good  watch  with  com¬ 
pensated  balance,  and,  as  he  expressed  it, 
changed  the  watch  into  a  compass,  which 
indicated  not  the  time,  but  the  magnetic 
meridian. 

In  order  to  explain  the  action  of  mag¬ 
netism  upon  the  balance  spring,  let  us  im¬ 
agine  a  circular  steel  hoop  that  vibrates 
near  a  magnet  lying  in  its  plane.  The  mag¬ 
net  will  exert  no  influence  upon  the  vibra¬ 
tions  as  long  as  it  is  in  the  plane  of  the 
hoop;  but  if  this  is  not  the  case,  then  the 
hoop  will  endeavor  to  vibrate  in  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  magnet.  This  explains  the 
phenomenon  why  the  experiments  instituted 
by  Arnold  and  Dent  produced  barely  notice¬ 
able  alterations  in  chronometers,  only  the 
balance  spring  of  which  consisted  of  steel, 
because  this  spring  may  be  regarded  as 
composed  of  a  number  of  such  hoops.  A 
deformation  of  the  spring  is  produced  only, 
and  it  is  known  that  such  a  one  has  almost 
no  influence  upon  the  rate  of  a  chronometer. 
But  it  is  otherwise  with  a  balance  contain¬ 
ing  steel  parts;  if  it  is  placed  to  one  side 
of  a  magnet  it  will  seek  to  accommodate  it¬ 
self  with  its  steel  arms  until  it  has  assumed 
an  equipoise.  During  its  vibrations  it  is 
constantly  subjected  to  a  magnetic  attrac¬ 
tion,  and  the  regular  motion  produced  by 
the  balance  spring  changes  into  a  pendulum 
motion,  due  to  the  attractive  force  of  the 
magnet.  When  the  arm  is  permanently 
charged  with  magnetism,  the  terrestrial 
magnetic  elements  also  influence  it,  and 
even  after  it  is  no  longer  exposed  to  further 


magnetic  influences,  the  motion  of  the  bal¬ 
ance  spring  must  then  combine  with  the 
terrestrial  magnetism.  The  magnetism 
acts  upon  the  arched  parts  of  the  balance 
in  about  the  same  manner  as  upon  the  bal¬ 
ance  spring. 

If  from  the  preceding  it  appears  estab¬ 
lished,  on  the  one  hand,  that  by  the  opera¬ 
tion  of  magnetic  forces  upon  the  balance 
and  balance  spring,  if  of  steel,  the  isochron- 
ism  of  their  vibrations  can  be  impaired,  they 
may  on  the  other  hand,  occur  also  of  such 
strength  as  to  cause  a  noticeable  alteration 
of  the  rate.  When  in  a  thunderstorm,  after 
strong  flashes  of  lightning,  a  sudden  simul¬ 
taneous  jump  is  observed  in  six  chronom¬ 
eters,  there  can  no  longer  exist  a  doubt  but 
that  the  cause  is  due  to  magnetic  influences. 
The  only  lesson  to  be  drawn  from  this  is, 
that  the  use^Ttron  or  steel  is  to  be  avoided 
as  much  as  possible  in  the  construction  of 
chronometers,  but  more  especially  in  the 
balance  and  its  spring.  Before  everything 
else,  the  captain  should  know  the  composi¬ 
tion  of  his  chronometer,  not  only  for  cor¬ 
rectly  judging  incidental  changes  observed 
in  the  timepiece,  but  also  for  employing 
precautions,  by  a  judiciot  placement,  to 
guard  against  all  disturbing  influences  if 
his  chronometer  contains  steel  parts. 

To  be  correctly  informed  about  the  faulty 
condition  of  the  location  where  the  chro¬ 
nometer  is  to  be  placed,  Lieutenant  Trome¬ 
lin  proposes  to  employ  a  small  quickly- 
moving  hanging  magnetic  needle.  To  show 
how  easily  alterations  in  the  magnetic  char¬ 
acter  are  produced  by  trifling  causes  he 
mentions  a  very  interesting  case  which 
happened  on  board  the  1'onnere.  The 
steering  compass,  enclosed  in  a  compass 
house  entirely  of  sheet  iron,  showed  notice¬ 
able  and  very  irregular  differences  of  from 
50  to  1 50  in  the  deviation  of  the  compass, 
both  day  and  night.  It  v'as  at  first  believed 
that  this  phenomenon  was  due  to  the  heat¬ 
ing  of  the  compass  house  and  ship  by  day 
and  the  subsequent  cooling  at  night  ;  but 
the  insufficiency  of  this  assumption  was 
quickly  seen,  because  this  thermic  difference 
could  not  produce  these  large  magnetic  de¬ 
viations.  The  compass  house  was  over¬ 
hauled  thoroughly  witli  the  small  magnetic 
needle,  and  it  was  found  that  there  were  in 
it  a  few  movable  parts  of  a  strongly  pro¬ 
nounced  magnetic  polarity,  to  wit,  the  doors 
and  windows,  which  were  opened  in  day 
time  on  account  of  the  heat,  and  closed  at 
night.  They  were  replaced  by  others  of 
brass,  after  which  the  occurrence  ceased. 


206 


FRICTION. 


In  order  to  protect  the  chronometershav¬ 
ing  steel  balance  arms  against  the  magnetic 
influences  induced  by  the  alterations  of  the 
course  of  the  ship,  Tromelin  proposes  to 
enclose  them  in  their  iron  receptacles. 
Other  propositions  made  for  the  placement 
of  a  chronometer  on  board  and  remote  from 
all  iron  parts,  especially  the  vertical,  are 
doubtless  known  and  do  not  require  eluci¬ 
dation. 


MAGNETISED  WATCHES. 

o  ascertain  if  any  part  of  a  watch  is  mag¬ 
netized,  take  a  small  piece  of  iron  wire 
(jewelers’  binding  wire),  attach  it  to  a  silk 
thread,  and  fasten  the  silk  thread  to  a  small 
brass  rod  or  a  peg-wood,  and  approach  the 
part  or  parts  suspended.  If  the  iron  is  at¬ 
tracted  or  set  in  motion,  magnetism  is  the 
cause,  and  the  suspected  piece  is  affected. 
Before  making  a  test  remove  the  watch 
movement  from  the  case,  if  this  contains 
case  springs,  and  try  these  separately,  as  in 
most  instances  case  springs  are  affected  by 
magnetism,  while  parts  of  the  movement  are 
not.  It  is  also  advisable  in  testing  a  watch 
movement  to  take  the  movement  apart  and 
test  the  pieces  separately.  The  parts  most 
likely  to  be  affected  are  the  balance,  Hhe  bal¬ 
ance  spring  and  the  fork.  In  some  instances, 
very  rare,  however,  every  part  of  the  move¬ 
ment  is  affected. 

To  divest  steel  of  magnetism,  a  strong 
horse-shoe  magnet,  or  several  of  them,  is 
attached  to  a  lathe,  pointing  outward. 
When  this  is  set  in  motion,  the  parts  to 
be  operated  upon  are  brought  close  to  the 
magnet,  and  are  likewise  rotated  by  means 
of  a  twisted  cord  or  any  other  appliance  and 
gradually  withdrawn  from  the  effects  of  the 
magnet.  More  than  one  application  may 
sometimes  be  necessary  to  remove  all  traces 
of  magnetism,  but  with  some  practise  suc¬ 
cess  is  assured  every  time.  The  springs  of 
a  watch  case  had  better  be  annealed,  re¬ 
hardened,  and  tempered,  or,  what  is  still 
better,  be  replaced  by  new  ones. 


FRICTION. 

ith  that  kind  of  dead-beat  escape¬ 
ment,  says  Robert  Immisch,  where 
the  friction  remains  active  throughout,  as 
in  duplex  and  horizontal  watches,  the  gyra¬ 
tion  is,  of  course,  much  less,  and  here  it  is 
imperative  that  attention  should  be  paid  to 
a  proper  proportion  of  weight  and  diameter 


of  the  balance.  In  the  case  of  a  cylinder 
watch,  no  amount  of  change  in  the  balance 
spring  will  make  long  and  short  vibrations 
equal,  if  these  proportions  are  incorrect. 
The  friction  on  the  sides  of  the  cylinder  is 
a  given  factor,  and  must  be  turned  to  a 
proper  account ;  the  gyrations  being  small 
in  themselves,  the  arc  of  escape  bears  a 
large  proportion  to  the  whole  extent  of  the 
vibration.  During  this  arc  of  escape  there 
is  no  side  pressure  against  the  cylinder,  and 
a  stronger  impulse  will  consequently  propel 
the  balance  forward  with  a  greater  velocity 
This  increase  during  the  arc  of  escape  in  a 
properly  constructed  watch  will  be  compen¬ 
sated  for  by  the  increased  friction  on  the 
cylinder. 

If  a  balance  is  too  small  and  too  heavy 
it  is  clear  that  its  greater  momentum  will 
overcome  this  friction  easier,  and  so  Yieu- 
tralize  the  equalizing  effect  it  would  other¬ 
wise  have  had.  It  follows,  if  a  cylinder 
watch  gains  with  increased  motive  force, 
the  balance  is  too  small  and  too  heavy.  By 
making  it  lighter  and  putting  in  a  weaker 
spring,  a  change  is  certainly  effected  in  the 
right  direction  ;  but  as  any  change  in  the 
motive  force  will  be  at  too  great  a  proportion 
to  the  absolute  power  of  percussion  in  a 
slight  balance  and  spring,  any  diminution 
will  cause  the  vibration  to  fall  off  consider¬ 
ably  ;  any  outward  influence,  such  as  thick¬ 
ening  of  the  oil,  and  imparted  motion,  will 
also  influence  the  going  of  the  watch  to  an 
undue  extent. 

There  is,  in  a  large  and  light  balance, 
not  that  alertness  which  we  find  in  small 
and  heavy  ones,  and  the  wear  on  the  edges 
of  the  cylinder  is  certainly  greater,  but  it 
has  the  important  advantage  of  greater 
steadiness.  In  a  watch  having  an  escape 
wheel  of  15  teeth,  making  18,000  vibrations 
per  hour,  the  extreme  edge  of  the  balance 
should  just  reach  up  to  the  tooth  of  the 
wheel,  and  the  weight  be  so  proportioned 
that,  being  clear  and  fully  wound  up,  it 
should  make  a  little  less  than  two-thirds  of 
a  turn.  With  slower  vibrations,  the  size 
must  be  increased  proportionally. 

In  a  duplex  watch  the  friction  is  much 
less  ;  but,  as  it  continues  throughout,  a 
change  of  the  momentum  of  the  balance 
would  also  considerably  affect  the  long  and 
short  vibrations.  This  escapement  affords 
a  facility  of  altering  the  proportions  of  the 
impulse  velocity  to  the  friction  in  the  re¬ 
mainder  of  the  vibration.  If  the  angle 
formed  by  the  pallets  and  the  notch  in  the 
roller  is  lessened,  the  drop  is  increased,  and 


ENGLISH,  LEVER  AND  ITS  REPAIRS. 


207 


the  impulse  power  so  lessened  causes  not 
only  the  vibrations  themselves  to  fall  off, 
but  also  the  smaller  ones  to  be  slower  than 
the  large. 

The  following  rule  will  be  a  guide  in  con¬ 
ducting  experiments.  All  alterations  which 
increase  the  arc  of  vibration  without  chang¬ 
ing  the  amount  of  friction,  will  make  the 
•long  vibrations  slower  than  the  short.  If 
the  impulse  power  remain  the  same  and  the 
friction  is  increased,  the  long  vibrations  will 
be  quicker  than  the  short,  inasmuch  as  to  a 
smaller  arc  of  vibration  the  same  increase 
of  friction'bears  a  greater  proportion  than 
to  a  larger. 

If  in  a  duplex  watch  the  balance  holes  are 
too  large  and  the  balance  is  brought  into 
such  a  position  as  to  bring  it  into  a  closer 
proximity  with  the  escape  wheel,  the  long 
vibrations  are  sure  to  be  quicker  than  the 
small,  for  two  reasons,  firstly,  on  account 
of  increased  friction  on  the  rollers  ;  and 
secondly,  in  consequence  of  the  greater 
droip  in  the  escapement.  The  difference 
caused  by  the  change  in  friction  on  the 
roller  will  be  considerably  influenced  by  the 
momentum  of  the  balance.  We  also  find 
that  if  the  balance  holes  are  large,  a  con¬ 
siderable  difference  arises  in  the  rate  of 
going  in  the  four  vertical  positions. 

The  pressure  of  the  wheel  against  the 
roller  is  never  directed  to  the  center  of  the 
latter,  but  acts  obliquely,  and  if,  according 
to  what  position  the  balance  is  in,  it  becomes 
more  or  less  so,  it  will  cause  a  variation  of 
friction  in  the  pivots  in  different  positions, 
though  it  is  less  an  amount  than  that  on  the 
roller,  it  is  extremely  inconvenient,  as  its 
variable  effect  can  never  be  compensated 
for.  It  is  therefore  of  great  importance  in 
a  duplex  watch  that  the  holes  should  fit 
exactly.  When  the  escapement  is  set  out 
of  beat,  the  point  where  the  vibrations  are 
quickest  does  not  correspond  with  the  cen¬ 
ter  of  the  arc  of  escape,  and  therefore  such 
change  will  have  an  influence  on  isochron- 
ism  ;  but  of  course  this  ought  not  to  be  done, 
as  it  would  make  the  escapement  imperfect. 

In  a  duplex  watch  the  friction  on  the 
roller  is  sufficient  to  exercise  a  proper  con¬ 
trol  over  the  momentum  of  the  balance,  and 
consequently  the  latter  becomes  liberated 
and  gets  more  free  in  its  action  when  the 
motive  power  relaxes.  The  balance  is,  on 
the  other  hand,  sufficiently  independent  of 
the  friction  to  allow  the  properties  of  the 
balance  spring  to  be  brought  into  play. 
Those  circumstances  combine  to  make  the 
general  performance  of  duplex  watches 


very  satisfactory.  In  lever  watches  and 
chronometers  the  motion  of  the  balance  is, 
except  during  the  arc  of  escape,  unfettered 
by  any  escapement  friction,  and  the  prop¬ 
erties  of  spring  on  balance  have  their  full 
sway. 


ENGLISH  I/EVER  AND  ITS 
REPAIRS. 

A  frequent  use  of  the  depthing  tool 
is  necessary  in  making  alterations 
and  repairs  to  an  English  lever  escape¬ 
ment,  as  many  errors  are  quickly  detected 
with  the  escapement  in  the  tool,  that  are 
troublesome  to  discover  in  the  plates. 
When  practicable,  alterations  of  the  pallet 
stones  are  best  confided  to  a  hand  who 
is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  subject 
of  resetting  stones  and  polishing  them, 
although  most  repairers  understand  how  to 
make  mills  for  cutting  corners  of  pallets  by 
charging  a  brass  of  soft  metal  ferrule  with 
diamond  dust  or  bort.  The  method  of 
charging  is  very  simple:  some  diamond 
dust  being  mixed  with  oil  is  placed  on  the 
flat  stake  of  the  vice,  and  the  ferrule  is 
placed  upon  it  and  hammered  ;  the  dia¬ 
mond  dust  is  imbedded  in  the  brass,  and 
when  mounted  on  an  arbor  may  be  used  as 
a  circular  file  or  grinder,  against  which  the 
pallet  may  be  held  and  cut. 

The  cutting  of  pallets  may  often  be 
avoided  by  shifting  the  positions  of  the 
jewels,  which,  being  fixed  with  shellac  or 
cement,  will,  if  warmed,  allow  the  pallets  to 
be  moved.  Many  repairers  use  spirits  of 
wine  for  cleaning;  this  dissolves  shellac 
and  most  cements,  and  escapements  should 
not  be  left  in  it  any  time,  or  the  jewels  will 
be  loosened. 

Alterations  of  wheels  and  pallet  depths 
generally  involve  alterations  of  the  angling 
or  position  of  the  pallet  on  the  lever,  to 
secure  equality  in  the  run  and  action  on 
each  pallet  as  moved  by  the  roller.  Unpin¬ 
ning  may  not  be  necessary,  but  the  lever 
being  held  edgewise  in  a  suitable  recess,  a 
brass  punch  applied  with  a  light  hammer 
to  the  pallets  will  make  great  alterations  of 
the  angles  with  little  trouble  or  disturbance 
of  existing  conditions.  Where  the  holes 
are  jeweled,  a  favorite  plan  of  altering 
depths  of  escapement  is  the  making  of  an 
eccentric  staff  to  the  pallets.  The  staff 
and  bottom  pivot  are  made  in  the  usual 
way,  that  is,  turned  and  polished  perfectly 
true  ;  but  before  making  the  top  pivot,  the 
center  on  which  it  has  been  turned  is  filed 


208 


TO  SET  AN  ENGLISH  WATCH  IN  BEAT. 


away,  and  a  new  point  for  it  to  be  run  on  is 
made,  so  that  when  in  the  turns,  the  pallet 
arbor  runs  out  of  truth  or  eccentric,  the  top 
pivot  being  now  turned  and  polished  in  the 
usual  manner.  With  the  staff  in  the  pallets 
we  can  make  alterations  of  the  escapement 
deeper  or  shallower,  or  one  deep  and  the 
other  shallow,  as  its  position  in  the  pallets 
may  be  altered  to  vary  both  roller  and  lever 
depths,  and  wheel  and  pallet  depths,  as  may 
be  desired. 

The  correct  depth  of  a  wheel  and  pallet 
is  ascertained  by  placing  them  in  a  depth- 
ing  tool  and  observing  three  of  the  wheel 
teeth  pass  freely  inside  the  pallets,  and 
holding  the  lever  tightly  with  the  fingers, 
see  that  the  tooth  falls  on  the  inside  locking 
plane  as  shallow  as  possible,  without  miss¬ 
ing  or  falling  on  the  second  impulse  plane, 
and  that  three  teeth  have  a  little  shake  be¬ 
tween  the  corners  of  the  pallet  it  has  just 
left  and  the  one  it  has  fallen  on.  Rather 
more  shake  will  be  required  on  the  outside 
of  the  pallets,  as  these  have  to  move  be¬ 
tween  four  teeth,  and  without  fair  shake 
between  the  four  teeth  and  the  outside 
corner  of  the  pallets,  the  pallet,  though  it 
may  escape,  is  liable  to  dig  into  the  back  of 
the  teeth  of  the  ordinary  ratchet  escape 
wheel.  The  club  tooth  wheel,  having  sub¬ 
stance  which  allows  of  the  back  being  hol¬ 
lowed,  the  inside  and  outside  shake  may  be 
equal ;  and  in  this  respect  it  is  preferable 
as  well  for  strength  and  the  greater  equality 
of  the  impulse  and  locking  frictions,  as  the 
whole  of  the  actions  are  more  concentric. 

If  wheel  and  pallets  are  the  right  size,  by 
making  the  pallet  deeper  increases  the 
freedom  on  the  inside  of  the  pallet,  but  de¬ 
creases  it  on  the  outside,  and  the  level 
escapement,  unlike  most  others,  is  most 
effective  in  being  made  as  shallow  and*light 
on  its  actions  as  consistent  with  safety. 

The  replacing  of  any  part  of  the  lever 
escapement,  if  lost,  should  not  involve  much 
difficulty  to  the  repairer,  the  mounting  of 
the  wheel  being  much  the  same  as  every 
other  wheel,  except  in  new  work,  when  it  is 
usual  to  rub  the  brass  rivet  down  with  a 
pointed  center  to  secure  the  wheel  to  the 
collet  ;  but  riveting  will  be  most  reliable  for 
the  repairer,  if  unpractised,  and  if  unskilled 
in  polishing  with  grain  tin  polisher  and 
rouge,  a  sufficient  polish  may  be  given  by 
rubbing  the  wheel  on  the  burnishing  glass, 
which  is  made  by  rubbing  two  pieces  of 
glass  together  with  fine  emery  and  water, 
and  keeping  them,  and  whatever  is  polished 
on  them,  perfectly  polished.  These  glasses 


serve  the  same  purpose  with  brass  that  the 
deal  burnishing  board,  charged  with  emery, 
does  with  steel  and  steel  burnishers,  and  a 
clean  fiat  gray  is,  even  in  new  work,  always 
preferred  to  unflat  high  polishing,  which, 
to  be  done  well,  requires  much  application 
and  practise.  This  latter  method  is  going 
out  of  fashion  in  good  work  of  all  nation¬ 
alities.  A  clean  piece  of  wash  leather  must 
be  used  to  hold  the  wheel  down  on  the 
glass,  and  a  light  circular  rub  is  given. 

Repairers  never  seem  to  understand  the 
importance  of  clean  linen  in  polishing. 
Rouge,  which  in  other  hands  polishes  beau¬ 
tifully,  is  with  them  no  better  than  oilstone 
dust.  Burnishing  with  a  clean  brush  is  no 
use  in  polishing.  Nothing  but  soft  bread, 
kneaded  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  to  a  dirty 
paste,  and  the  work  to  be  cleaned  imbedded 
in  it,  will  remove  dirt  properly  for  polishing 
purposes  ;  or  if  a  pivot  or  arbor,  polishing 
in  the  turns  for  burnishing,  a  clean  card 
scraped  on  the  edge  with  a  knife  and  ap¬ 
plied  to  the  polished  surface,  will  clean  and 
dry  sufficient  for  burnishing,  or  for  observ¬ 
ing  what  progress  has  been  made  in  bur¬ 
nishing. 


TO  SET  AN  ENGLISH  WATCH  IN 
BEAT. 

he  method  of  setting  an  old  English 
watch,  that  is,  a  lever  watch,  in  beat, 
does  not  differ  materially  from  setting  any 
lever  watch  in  beat  except  as  to  the  means 
employed  in  some  instances.  Whereas  most 
lever  watches  are  set  in  beat  by  shifting  the 
hairspring  collet  on  the  balance,  some  of 
the  old  English  watches  sprung  under  the 
balance  are  put  in  beat  by  unpinning  the 
spring  at  the  stationary  brass  balance 
spring-stud.  This  unpinning  and  thereby 
lengthening  or  shortening  the  balance 
spring  if  within  moderate  limits  may  be  in¬ 
dulged  in  if,  as  is  usually  the  case,  the  reg¬ 
ulator  has  a  long  range  from  “fast  ”  to 
“slow”  or  vice  versa ;  and  it  depends  on 
the  position  of  the  regulator  whether  or  not 
it  will  be  necessary  fo  move  the  hairspring 
collet  to  avoid  having  the  regulator  too  close 
to  “  slow  ”  or  to  “fast.” 

To  set  a  lever  watch  in  beat  as  a  general 
thing  is  not  and  ought  not  to  be  done  by 
simply  having  the  lever  in  the  center  be¬ 
tween  the  banking  pins,  but  depends  en¬ 
tirely  on  the  conditions  of  the  impulse 
faces  of  the  pallets  and  on  the  unlocking 
resistance  of  the  same.  The  balance,  or 
rather  the  jewel  pin,  ought  to  occupy  such  a 


POINTS  FOR  REPAIRERS. 


209 


position  in  the  slot  of  the  fork,  that  the  es¬ 
cape  wheel  by  its  action  on  the  pallets  im¬ 
pels  the  balance  on  both  sides  with  equal 
facility.  The  point  which  we  aim  to  make 
clear  is  brought  to  notice  more  distinctly 
by  calling  attention  to  the  fact,  that  the  en¬ 
gaging  pallet  in  its  contact  with  the  escape 
wheel  gradually  lifts  and  drives  the  balance 
with  more  difficulty,  while  the  disengaging 
pallet  performs  the  same  functions  gradu¬ 
ally  with  more  ease ;  the  former  acting 
progressively  on  a  shorter  lever  and  the 
latter  acting  progressively  on  a  longer 
level. 

The  effects  of  these  conditions  are  mod¬ 
ified  by  the  unlocking  resistances  which,  as 
a  rule,  act  in  the  opposite  direction.  As 
these  conditions  are  variable  factors  and 
different  in  almost  any  two  individual  es¬ 
capements,  the  spring  ought  to  be  set  on  the 
balance  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  driven 
to  both  sides  with  equal  facility. 

In  this  connection  the  fact  might  be  men¬ 
tioned,  that  theclub-tooth  escape-wheel  has 
an  advantage  over  the  English  or  ratchet- 
tooth  escape  wheel,  provided  the  former 
drives  the  pallets  with  the  points  of  the 
teeth  first,  and  finishes  driving  them  by  the 
incline  of  its  club  teeth  towards  the  end, 
which  obviates  the  lengthening  or  shorten- 
ing  of  the  arms  of  the  pallet  towards  the  end 
of  the  impulse  of  either. 


THE  BARREE  ARBOR. 

he  most  effective  form  of  barrel  arbor 
and  ratchet  is  the  old  form,  now  dis¬ 
used,  but  for  what  reason  it  is  difficult 
to  tell;  but  it  seems  that  the  law  of  con¬ 
stant  change  governs  watchmaking  also, 
even  if  there  is  no  improvement.  The 
only  ratchet  and  disk  not  liable  to  fail¬ 
ure  is  that  seen  in  old  Swiss  watches, 
with  the  ratchet  held  by  three  screws 
screwed  into  the  steel  barrel  arbor,  which 
gives  the  best  possible  hold  for  them,  and 
this  part  of  the  arbor  also  forms  the  pivot 
and  bearing  for  the  arbor’s  support  to  the 
bar.  Its  large  circumference  prevents 
wear,  and  the  effects  of  wear  do  not  cause 
so  much  motion  of  the  barrel  extremities, 
while  the  pressure  during  winding  is  not  on 
the  hole  and  its  thin  sink,  but  on  the 
large  circumference  embraced  by  the 
ratchet;  its  superiority  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  watches  with  this  form  of  ratchet 
with  fifty  years’  wear  are  often  seen  in 
sounder  condition  in  this  part  than  modern 


watches  and  barrel  arbors  with  only  a  few 
years’  wear ;  and  any  damage  to  modern 
ratchets  involves  a  new  entire  arbor,  the 
ancient  form  involving  only  the  replacing 
of  the  ratchet,  if  damaged  in  teeth,  by  a 
new  one,  which  the  repairer,  if  skilled  with 
the  file,  could  make  himself  from  a  piece 
of  round  steel  tightly  fitted  on  the  winding 
square  by  opening  with  a  broach  ;  the  screw- 
holes  are  then  marked  and  drilled  through 
the  holes  in  the  arbor;  then  opened  wider 
to  let  the  winding  key  through  the  ratchet; 
then  two  fine  circles  are  turned  for  size  top 
and  bottom  of  the  teeth,  and  a  three-square 
file  used  to  cut  the  teeth,  great  accuracy  in 
which  is  not  requisite  for  effectiveness,  as 
the  click  will  follow  any  sort  of  teeth  in 
this  arrangement  and  be  effective. 


POINTS  FOR  REPAIRERS. 

he  chief  fault  in  low  class  levers  is  that 
they  generate  too  much  friction,  and 
that  but  a  small  portion  of  the  motive  power 
is  left  for  expenditure  in  vibrating  the  bal¬ 
ance,  which  must  have  considerable  impetus 
to  unlock  the  pallets.  Hence  we  find  strong 
main-springs  a  necessity  in  this  class  of 
watches,  entailing  much  wear  and  damage  to 
the  immediate  connections.  Accuracy  in 
any  part  of  this  work  cannot  be  taken  for 
granted,  and  before  taking  the  movement 
out  of  the  case,  a  suspicious  vigilance  is 
desirable,  to  see  that  winding  (if  a  key 
winder)  and  hand  square  are  free  of  case 
and  glass,  and  that  the  balance,  end  stones 
and  screws  are  free  of  the  case.  Most  of 
the  watches  have  brass  edges  on  which  the 
joint  and  dial  are  screwed  (English  low 
class  lever  watches  are  taken  as  subjects 
of  these  remarks),  having  three  feet  to 
serve  it  to  the  plate.  If  the  watch  has 
been  going  any  time,  the  joint  and  three 
feet  are  usually  loosened,  not  having  suffi¬ 
cient  substance  in  the  brass  edge  to  endure 
the  strain  incidental  to  winding  and  open¬ 
ing  the  watch.  Soldering  the  feet  care¬ 
fully  is  sometimes  done,  but  a  better  plan 
is  to  put  a  hollow  punch  in  the  vise,  which 
will  hold  each  foot  loosely,  and  with  a 
sharp  pointed  three-square  punch  strike 
one  fair  blow  with  a  hammer  in  the  center 
of  the  rivet  end  of  each  foot.  The  joints 
may  be  tightened  with  an  ordinary  round 
punch.  Some  care  is  required  or  the  dial 
may  be  altered  in  position  on  the  watch  ; 
and  caution  in  repairing  the  dial  is  desir¬ 
able,  as  the  pins  often  project  and  come 


2  10 


STEADY  PINS. 


in  contact  with  parts  of  the  train  of 
wheels. 


REPAIRING  A  BATTERED  WATCH. 

correspondent  of  The  Circular  com¬ 
plains  that  he  repaired  a  battered 
watch.  It  ran  very  loose.  Since  repairing 
it,  the  best  performance  in  the  five  posi¬ 
tions  is  unsatisfactory  ;  he  is  answered  as 
follows  : 

It  would  have  been  cheaper  and  quicker 
to  have  sent  the  movement  to  the  factory, 
but  correspondent  would  have  missed  good 
practise.  If  customer  is  patient  the  watch 
can  be  made  to  perform  again  to  satis¬ 
faction.  The  slow  rate,  dial  down,  would 
indicate  some  trouble  in  the  potance  jewels; 
perhaps  there  is  too  much  space  between 
the  hole  jewel  and  end  stone,  allowing  the 
pivot  shoulder  to  touch  slightly,  or  practi¬ 
cally  the  same  thing  happening  by  reason 
of  the  hole  jewel  being  out  of  flat,  i.  e .,  not 
true  in  the  setting,  or  the  setting  not  true 
in  the  potance  ;  perhaps  the  potance  itself 
was  bent  in  the  accident.  See  also  that 
the  fork  clears  the  roller  in  all  positions, 
and  that  the  jewel  pin  is  of  the  right  size 
and  not  tapered,  and  stands  perfectly 
straight  with  the  staff.  The  rate  in  the 
fourth  position — pendant  right — may  be 
caused  by  one  or  more  of  several  things. 
First,  I  should  try  the  poise  of  the  balance. 
This  is  a  branch  of  watchmaking  which 
few  repairers  appreciate  the  necessity  of 
doing  well.  In  this  case  poise  it  as  fine  as 
possible  ;  if  it  is  found  in  poise,  look  to  the 
pin  action  and  listen  for  “  strikes.” 

If  there  is  considerable  difference  in  the 
sound  in  different  positions,  you  will  gener¬ 
ally  locate  the  trouble  in  the  pin  action. 
The  bankings  may  be  opened  too  wide,  or 
the  jewel  pin  be  too  far  back  (toward  the 
staff),  or  the  slot  in  the  fork  be  rough  or 
cut.  The  opening  in  the  collet  should  not 
be  wide  ;  if  it  is,  then  the  poising  of  the 
balance  may  be  offset  in  a  measure  by  it, 
and  counterpoising  be  resorted  to,  though 
it  is  not  considered  the  most  workmanlike 
method  by  some  adjusters,  and  has  the  dis¬ 
advantage  of  its  liability  of  being  undone 
by  some  other  repairer.  Counter-poising 
in  this  case  should  be  done  by  holding  the 
movement  pendant  right,  and  after  finding 
which  meantime  screw  came  to  the  bottom 
when  balance  is  at  rest,  turn  in  this  screw 
one-half  or  three-fourths  of  a  turn,  and 
turn  out  the  opposite  screw.  If  it  happens 
that  two  screws  are  equally  near  the  bot¬ 


tom,  turn  each  one-half  as  much;  the  top 
screws  should  also,  of  course,  be  so  turned. 
This  is  an  operation  that  is  often  carried 
to  excess,  even  by  adjusters  who  know,  or 
ought  to  know,  better.  However,  act  on 
the  above  suggestions. 


STEADY  PINS- 

T  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the 
steady  pins  of  the  balance  cock  should 
fit  closely.  In  saying  this  it  is  not  to  be 
understood  that  loosely  fitting  pins  in  any 
other  part  of  the  watch  should  be  tolerated, 
but  particular  attention  should  be  given  to 
those  in  the  balance  cock.  Sometimes  one 
pin  will  fit  closely  and  the  other  will  be 
loose.  This  is  just  as  bad  as  if  both  were 
loose  ;  it  may,  in  fact,  be  worse,  as  it  cer¬ 
tainly  is  more  deceptive  and  would  be 
passed  by  most  watchmakers.  The  cock 
screw  is  not  where  it  is  as  a  stead v  pin  ;  it 
is  only  to  hold  the  cock  down  to  the  plate. 
The  steady  pins  are  what  their  name  in¬ 
dicates,  and  both  should  fit  closely,  as  the 
slightest  variations  of  the  cock  will  throw 
the  balance  out  of  upright;  and  if  the 
watch  has  been  adjusted — then  good-by 
adjustment.  The  effect  is  increased  friction 
on  the  pivots,  and  change  of  depthing  of  the 
jewel  pin  in  the  fork. 

It  is  not  always  advisable  to  put  in  a  new 
steady  pin  ;  in  fact  it  seldom  is,  except 
where  the  old  one  has  been  so  badly  used 
that  it  is  past  repairing,  as  in  many  cases 
the  pins  extend  through  the  cock,  and.  of 
course,  a  new  pin  would  show  on  the  top 
side  of  the  cock.  Neither  is  it  a  workman¬ 
like  job  to  close  the  pin  holes  in  the  plate 
with  a  round-faced  punch,  as  is  often  done. 
The  metal  thrown  in  by  the  punch  is  simply 
a  thin  burr,  and  the  pin  will  be  loose  after 
it  has  been  tried  a  few  times.  Some  watch¬ 
makers  (?)  make  a  close  fit  by  flattening  the 
pin  with  pliers  ;  this  is  a  butcher’s  job  at 
best,  and  should  not  be  done  on  any  watch 
worth  more  than  50  cents. 

There  are  several  ways  of  making  a  close 
fit,  but  probably  the  neatest  is  to  “upset” 
the  pin.  Use  a  concave-faced  punch,  pref¬ 
erably  one  in  which  the  hollow  is  about  the 
shape  of  the  end  of  the  pin  ;  lay  a  piece  of 
tissue  paper  on  the  steel  bench  block  to 
protect  the  damaskeening  or  gilding,  and 
then  with  the  punch  make  the  pin  larger  in 
diameter  by  slightly  shortening  the  pin. 
This  process  leaves  no  visible  mark  on  the 
pin  and  the  “upset ’’pin  is  nearly  if  not 
quite  as  good  as  a  new  one.. 


HANDS  CATCHING  TOGETHER. 


21  I 


REPAIRING  A  DIAE  POST. 

hen  a  repairer  finds  the  post  of  an 
enamel  dial  broken  off  in  the  notch 
where  the  screw  takes  into  it,  it  is  most 
advisable  not  to  attempt  splicing  it,  but  to 
put  in  a  new  post.  First  remove  the  old 
stump  down  as  low  as  convenient,  with 
sharp  cutting  pliers,  being  careful  not  to 
exert  the  slightest  strain  or  twist  on  the 
post,  but  to  let  go  of  the  dial  while  cutting. 
The  posts  are  riveted  in  the  dial  plate  and 
twisting  will  loosen  them  and  scale  off  the 
enamel  on  the  face  of  the  dial. 

Next  file  it  down  to  the  enamel  with  a 
sharp  file  and  very  light  pressure,  support¬ 
ing  the  dial  underneath  on  the  tip  of  the 
finger.  Then  take  a  small  emery  grinder, 
made  in  either  wheel  or  ball  form  running 
in  the  lathe,  and  grind  out  a  little  hollow 
through  the  enamel,  having  the  post  at  a 
center,  and  say  1-8  or  3-16  inch  in  diameter 
cutting  away  both  the  enamel  and  stump, 
and  exposing  a  clean  copper  surface  upon 
which  to  solder  a  new  post. 

The  post  is  to  be  made  with  an  enlarge¬ 
ment  or  foot,  something  like  a  dial  screw. 
This  foot  may  be  a  copper  disk  riveted  upon 
the  end  of  a  wire  of  proper  size  for  the 
post,  but  preferably  by  taking  a  wire  large 
enough  for  the  foot,  and  turning  down  the 
body  of  the  post  to  size.  The  foot  is  to  be 
fitted  into  the  hollow  and  soldered  there. 
Its  thickness  should  be  such  as  to  rest 
upon  the  watch  plate  when  the  dial  is  down 
properly  in  its  place.  If  found  a  little  too 
thick  when  soldered  on,  the  excess  can  be 
dressed  off  with  a  “hollow  drill”  or  cutter 
fitting  around  the  post. 

All  being  finished  ready  for  soldering, 
tin  over  the  surfaces  which  are  to  be  joined 
on  both  the  dial  and  the  foot.  To  tin  the 
hollow,  heat  the  dial  very  evenly  and 
gradually  till  a  little  lump  of  soft  solder 
will  melt.  Keep  the  copper  from  tarnish¬ 
ing  by  rubbing  it  with  a  bit  of  wood,  like  a 
match,  wet  with  soldering  fluid.  When  the 
solder  melts,  rub  it  around  till  the  whole 
surface  is  thinly  covered  with  an  adhering- 
coat  of  solder.  Do  the  same  with  the  foot 
of  the  post,  which  is  easily  done  by  rubbing 
it  over  a  flat  piece  of  tin  plate  held  in  the 
lamp  flame  till  a  lump  of  solder  on  it  melts 
and  spreads,  then  rubbing  the  dial  post 
upon  it  and  shaking  off  any  surplus  of 
solder.  Such  a  plate  of  common  tin,  or 
several  of  different  sizes,  will  be  found  more 
handy  than  a  soldering  iron  or  a  naked 
flame  for  most  of  the  jewelry  repairing  jobs 
which  require  soft  soldering.  ITse  plenty 


of  the  soldering  fluid  ;  put  on  with  a  soft 
stick. 

In  soldering  the  post  to  the  dial,  different 
ways  are  followed.  Some  wrap  the  dial  in 
several  thicknesses  of  soft  paper  on  the  side 
more  distant  from  the  broken  post,  so  that 
they  can  hold  it  without  burning  their 
fingers.  They  then  wave  the  dial  over  the 
lamp  flame,  gradually  bringing  it  closer,  and 
finally  passing  it  through  the  flame  from, 
side  to  side,  to  avoid  heating  it  too  suddenly. 
The  dial-post  wire  is  held  in  a  pin  vise  in 
the  other  hand,  and  is  also  heated.  When, 
the  dial  is  hot  enough  to  melt  solder,  a 
small  piece  is  placed  in  the  hollow  with 
soldering  fluid,  the  foot  of  the  post  put  in 
position,  gently  pressed  down  with  a  twist 
or  two  to  insure  close  contact  and  held  so, 
upright  and  ^correct,  until  cold.  Some 
workinenTfioce  the  fingers  of  the  two  hands 
together,  to  facilitate  the  keeping  of  their 
relative  positions,  and  remove  the  dial  from 
the  flame  for  the  cooling.  Others  rest  the 
hands  against  some  support,  when  the  parts 
are  properly  together,  then  blow  out  the 
flame  while  the  hands  remain  where  they 
are,  till  the  solder  sets. 

Others  make  a  light  spring  or  wire  clip, 
which  fits  over  both  dial  and  post,  and 
clasps  and  presses  them  together.  This 
holds  the  post  in  place  during  the  heating 
and  cooling.  Still  others  lay  the  dial  face 
down  on  a  flat  metal  plate  which  is  slowly 
heated  up,  and  the  dial  post  applied,  either 
by  hand  or  by  spring  clips,  as  described. 
These  clips  are  something  like  a  safety  pin, 
one-half  resting  against  the  face  of  the  dial, 
while  the  other  presses  upon  the  end  of  the 
new  post.  Or  it  may  have  an  eye  or  ring 
on  the  end,  to  fit  around  the  post  and  press 
upon  the  foot  by  its  spring. 


HANDS  CATCHING  TOGETHER. 

Some  repairers  make  a  great  mistake  in 
trying  to  cure  this  trouble  without  doing 
much  to  the  watch.  They  probably  spend 
double  the  time  that  would  be  necessary  to 
do  a  thorough  job.  The  only  right  course 
is  to  first  upright  the  center  and  the  fourth 
wheels,  so  that  the  hands  will  all  stand 
level.  It  will  do  no  good  to  bend  the  pivot 
or  second  hand,  nor  the  center  staff.  The 
pinions  of  the  wheels  must  stand  vertically 
to  the  plate,  and  stay  so,  and  the  fourth 
wheel  pivot  and  center  staff  must  he 
straight.  Next  the  dial  must  be  secured  to  , 
the  plate — not  loosely,  shaking  up  and 
down,  but  tight.  The  hour  wheel  should 


2  I  2 


TAKING  DOWN  A  WATCH. 


have  just  shake  enough  to  be  free,  when 
the  center  wheel  is  pushed  up  ;  the  thick- 
mess  of  the  third  wheel  pivot  is  ample 
motion  for  any  watch,  and  half  of  that  is 
enough  for  a  good  one.  If  it  has  more 
play  than  that,  fit  a  foil  washer  over  it  to 
keep  it  in  place.  But,  before  leaving  it, 
push  the  center  wheel  to  its  highest  point 
to  see  if  that  pinches  the  hour  wheel 
against  the  dial — for  it  must  of  course  be 
free  at  all  times.  The  same  amount  of  end 
shake  is  enough  for  the  center  and  fourth 
wheels,  and  they  should  be  corrected  if 
they  have  more.  All  this  may  be  called 
putting  the  watch  in  order,  for  it  should  be 
fixed  that  way,  whether  the  hands  make 
trouble  or  not. 

Now  we  come  to  the  hands.  Usually,  it 
should  be  easy  enough  to  avoid  any  catching 
together.  But  sometimes  there  is  hardly 
room  enough  for  them  to  move  in.  First  put 
on  the  seconds  hand  as  low  as  it  can  be  with¬ 
out  touchingthe  dial  at  the  socket,  and  watch 
during  one  revolution  to  see  if  the  point 
touches  the  dial  anywhere — gently  pressing 
on  the  socket  to  keep  the  hand  down  to  its 
lowest  point.  Bend  the  hand  down,  at  both 
sides  of  the  socket,  to  run  close  to  the  dial 
but  not  touch  it.  If  it  tips,  then  it  must  clear 
the  dial  -where  it  tips  lowest.  Do  not  leave 
it  till  you  have  got  it  so.  In  very  trouble¬ 
some  cases  the  seconds  and  hour  hands  can 
be  shortened,  which  will  reduce  the  height 
that  they  can  stick  up.  The  rule  is  for  the 
seconds  hand  to  reach  just  over  but  not 
beyond  the  dots;  the  hour  hand  reaches 
nearly  to  the  middle  of  the  figures,  while 
the  minute  hand  reaches  beyond  the  figures 
to  the  dots.  In  bad  cases  the  seconds 
hand  can  be  shortened  yg-  inch,  or  even 
more,  with  an  hour  hand  which  barely 
reaches  to  the  figures. 

The  hour  hand  is  usually  put  on  point¬ 
ing  about  to  the  XL,  then  turn  the  hand 
forward  till  it  points  exactly  to  the  dot  of 
the  XII.,  and  put  on  the  minute  hand 
exactly  over  the  dot.  But  a  better  way, 
when  you  expect  interfering  hands,  is  to 
put  the  hour  hand  on  over  the  VI.,  press  it 
to  its  lowest  point  and  raise  the  seconds 
hand  to  its  highest,  watching  while  it 
passes  under  the  hour  hand  at  the  60,  to 
see  that  it  clears  safely.  Then  keep  the 
hour  hand  over  the  point  of  the  seconds 
hand  as  the  latter  revolves  through  an 
entire  turn,  to  be  sure  that  it  clears 
the  hour  hand  at  every  part  of  its  circle. 
Lift  the  seconds  hand  to  its  highest 
position  while  trying  this,  say  with  a  fine 


knife-point  at  its  socket,  not  prying  it  up, 
but  gently  lifting.  Adjust  the  hour  hand 
as  low  as  can  be  without  interfering 
with  the  seconds  hand.  When  you  have 
become  sure  that  they  will  not  catch, 
by  trying  them  turn  after  turn,  these 
two  hands  are  right.  Next  turn  till  the 
hour  hand  points  to  the  dot  of  the  XII., 
and  put  on  the  minute  hand.  The  hour 
hand  must  not  bi  disturbed,  but  the 
minute  hand  must  be  bent  and  made  to 
clear  it,  when  the  center  staff  is  pressed 
down  and  the  hour  wheel  lifted  up,  each  to 
its  extreme  position.  Then  put  the  move¬ 
ment  in  the  case,  with  the  crystal  on,  and 
see  if  the  point  of  the  minute  hand  touches 
the  glass.  If  so,  bend  it  down  till  it  clears, 
but  do  not  alter  the  part  over  the  hour 
hand.  If  it  touches  the  dial,  clip  off  a 
trifle  of  it.  Then  turn  till  it  stands  over 
the  VI.,  to  see  if  it  interferes  with  the 
seconds  hand  at  the  30,  also  if  it  touches 
anywhere.  Do  not  take  anything  for 
granted,  but  look  and  see,  at  five  or  six 
places  around  the  circle.  If  it  will  touch 
the  glass,  after  you  have  done  all  you 
can  to  avoid  it,  and  especially  if  the  part 
over  the  hour  hand  touches,  fit  a  higher 
crystal.  When  you  have  done  all  this 
thoroughly,  you  may  feel  secure  against  any 
catching  of  the  hands,  if  it  is  a  half-way 
decent  watch. 


TAKING  DOWN  A  WATCH. 

Any  one  working  largely  in  repairs  to 
foreign  watches,  will  have  been  struck 
at  times  by  the  inconsistent  and  ignorant 
manner  in  which  they  have  been  repaired, 
especially  in  the  country.  This  arises  in 
many  instances,  I  believe,  more  from  igno¬ 
rance  as  to  the  proper  method  to  pursue 
than  lack  of  will  on  the  part  of  the  work¬ 
man  ;  it  is  also,  in  many  instances,  due  to  a 
want  of  the  necessary  tools  with  which  to 
do  the  work  properly.  The  object  of  this 
article  is  to  show,  if  possible,  how  to  avoid 
these  inconsistencies  by  substituting  a 
proper  and  comprehensive  method  of  re¬ 
pair  ;  and  although  I  do  not  for  a  moment 
wish  to  insinuate  that  this  is  the  only 
method  that  will  produce  good  results,  at 
least  I  am  assured  that  any  one  exchang¬ 
ing  their  method  for  mine  will  not  lose  by 
the  exchange. 

By  far  the  greater  quantity  of  foreign 
watches  that  one  gets  to  repair  in  the  coun¬ 
try  are  of  common  quality,  and  in  these 
cases  it  is  very  difficult  to  do  all  that  is 


TAKING  DOWN  A  WATCH. 


necessary  to  put  the  watch  in  thorough  or¬ 
der,  receive  adequate  remuneration,  and 
give  satisfaction  to  the  customer.  As,  how- 
ever,  there  is  no  conjuring  in  the  matter, 
the  man  whose  work  gives  the  best  results 
will,  in  the  long  run,  get  the  most  patron¬ 
age,  and  this  will  be  the  one  who  spares 
neither  time  nor  trouble  to  make  his  work 
as  perfect  as  possible.  I  will  suppose  that 
you  have  a  Swiss  cylinder  watch  to  exam¬ 
ine  and  repair;  then  proceed  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  order : 

Preliminary  examination  before  remov¬ 
ing  the  movement  from  the  case. — Wind 
the  watch  a  little,  if  down,  and  try  it  by  the 
ear  in  the  following  positions,  viz. :  with 
the  6  up,  the  12  up,  dial  and  clock  up.  By 
this  method  you  can  usually  detect  the  fol¬ 
lowing  faults  :  Not  in  beat,  wheel  rubbing 
in  cylinder  passage,  cylinder  pivots  acting 
on  shoulders  instead  of  their  ends,  incorrect 
fourth  depth  with  scape  pinion,  balance 
spring  rubbing,  etc.  Next  ascertain  that  the 
center  pinion,  or  if  a  key-winder,  set  square 
is  free  of  glass,  also  of  the  bottom  of  case  ; 
see  that  teeth  of  barrel  are  well  free  of  band 
of  case  when  shut;  it  is  often  free  (in  thin 
gold  cases),  when  open,  but  shutting  the 
case  pinches  the  band  in  and  fouls  the  bar¬ 
rel  ;  to  try  it  put  a  piece  of  paper  between 
teeth  and  barrel  and  shut  the  case;  if  foul, 
it  will  mark  or  cut  the  paper. 

See  that  the  dirt  cups  on  winding  and  set 
squares  are  free  of  dome  ;  frequently  the 
dome  presses  on  the  center  lid  and  binds 
the  center  pinion,  causing,  if  not  instant 
stoppage,  the  oil  to  disappear  and  the  piv¬ 
ots  to  cut.  See  that  balance  is  free  of 
case;  if  it  is  much  out  of  flat  it  will  prob¬ 
ably  be  foul  of  the  case  or  center  wheel. 
See  the  fly  spring,  when  the  cover  is  shut, 
is  not  foul  of  the  balance. 

Put  a  key  on  set  square  and  turn  the 
hands  to  see  that  they  are  free  of  them¬ 
selves,  the  dial  and  glass  ;  if  they  do  not 
turn  truly  it  will  proceed  from  either  the 
center  hole  being  out  of  upright,  a  bent  set 
square,  or  a  badly  fitted  pinion.  Here  let 
me  impress  on  those  who  take  the  trouble 
to  read  this,  to  wit :  the  necessity  of  mak¬ 
ing  a  note  on  your  bench  paper  of  all  the 
corrections  as  you  come  to  them  ;  it  is  very 
little  trouble  and  saves  the  annoyance  of 
finding  when  your  watch  is,  perhaps, 
cleaned  and  together,  that  some  important 
item  has  been  forgotten. 

For  taking  the  movement  from  the  case 
use  paper — nothing  is  so  slovenly  as  work¬ 
ing  without — and  lock  the  train,  by  putting 


2  13 

a  bristle  through  either  fourth  or  scape 
wheel;  remove  cock  and  balance,  being 
particularly  careful  not  to  strain  the  balance 
spring ;  put  the  balance  and  cock  in  tray, 
and  remove  the  hands  by  means  of  two 
pieces  of  steel ;  take  one  under  each  side  of 
hour  hand  boss,  depress  the  ends,  and  both 
hands  are  off  at  once  without  danger  of 
marking  or  slipping ;  the  second  hand  can 
be  removed  in  the  same  manner  without 
danger  of  bending  the  pivot.  Remove  dial 
and  motion  work,  using  brass  pliers  to  take 
hold  of  the  canon  pinion  to  avoid  marking  it. 

At  this  stage,  if  1  have  reason  to  suspect 
that  the  escapement  is  faulty,  I  generally 
remove  the  balance  spring  from  the  bal¬ 
ance,  putting  cylinder  and  cock  in  their 
places,  and  Jry-the  escapement.  First,  see 
that  the  web  of  scape  wheel  is  free  of  cyl¬ 
inder  passage,  also  that  the  top  of  tooth  is 
free  of  upper  plug;  then  with  a  little  power 
on,  and  either  a  piece  of  paper  or  a  cork 
wedge  under  the  balance  to  check  its  mo¬ 
tion,  try  if  all  the  teeth  have  sufficient  cl rOp, 
both  out  and  inside.  If  only  one  or  two 
teeth  is  tight,  the  vibration  of  the  balance 
is  checked  each  time  they  are  in  motion  ;  if 
the  balance  is  watched  when  going  (with 
the  balance  spring  on),  it  will  be  seen  at 
once  how  the  vibrations  fall  off  when  these 
teetli  are  in  action.  If  the  drop  is  suffi¬ 
cient  inside,  but  none  out,  it  would  show  a 
wheel  too  small ;  if  the  reverse,  a  wheel  too 
large — if  the  depth  is  correct. 

The  method  of  correcting  the  wheel, 
where  only  some  of  the  teeth  are  without 
the  necessary  freedom,  is  to  mark  with  red 
stuff  a  tooth  which  has  the  proper  amount 
of  shake,  remove  the  wheel  and  open  a  hole 
in  a  piece  of  thin  sheet  brass  until  this 
tooth  will  just  enter  :  this  serves  as  a  gauge 
to  shorten  the  other  teeth  by,  being  careful 
to  operate  on  the  points  of  the  teeth,  either 
with  the  ruby  file  or  steel  and  oilstone  dust,, 
finishing  with  bell  metal  and  red  stuff 
lengthways  and  followed  by  a  burnisher. 
The  tooth  should  be  rounded  both  ways  so 
that  a  mere  point  is  in  contact  with  the 
cylinder. 

The  question  of  depth  is  a  vexed  one, 
some  workmen  setting  it  deep  and  some 
shallow,  each  having  some  supposed  advan¬ 
tage  to  urge  for  the  practise.  Saunier,  in 
his  work  says,  “To  insure  that  the  drop  is 
no  more  than  sufficient  to  secure  proper 
action  of  the  mechanism,  it  is  of  the  first 
importance  that  the  middle  of  a  straight 
incline  corresponds  to  the  center  of  the  cyl¬ 
inder.”  Or  suppose  a  line  drawn  from  top 


214 


TO  REPLACE  A  BROKEN  CYLINDER  PLUG. 


to  point  of  tooth  and  bisected,  that  point 
should  pass  the  center  of  cylinder  jewel 
holes. 

Further,  he  shows  why  this  rule  should 
not  be  departed  from  :  “  The  older  watch¬ 
makers  adjusted  the  escapement  so  that  the 
middle  of  a  straight  incline  came  rather 
beyond  the  center  of  the  cylinder,  in  order 
that  the  point  of  rest  might  be  tangential. 
Among  modern  makers  it  is  universally 
recognized  that  more  is  lost  by  making  the 
outside  drop  excessive  than  is  gained  by  a 
slight  diminution  of  the  friction  during  rest.” 

Some  watchmakers  of  the  present  day 
who,  from  insufficient  knowledge  are  not 
in  a  position  to  judge  correctly  as  to  the 
cause  of  the  circumstances  which  they  ob¬ 
serve,  have  asserted  that  they  obtained  “a 
greater  regularity  by  making  the  middle  of 
the  plane  fall  a  little  short  of  the  center  of 
the  cylinder.”  Before  making  any  altera¬ 
tion  to  the  escapement,  it  is  necessary  to  be 
certain  that  the  scape  wheel  is  perfectly 
upright,  as  a  simple  alteration  to  this  may 
correct  one  or  all  of  these  faults. 

After  examining  the  escapement,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  look  over  all  jewel  holes, 
noting  cracked  ones,  and,  in  brass,  those 
that  are  too  wide,  trying  end  shakes, 
<etc.  ;  also  tp  see  that  the  passage  in  the 
•scape  cock  for  the  wheel  teeth  is  not  too 
(dose,  so  as  to  draw  off  the  oil,  as  when  this 
is  the  case  it  is  impossible  to  get  the  piece 
to  go  for  any  length  of  time. 

You  will  now  take  the  movement  com¬ 
pletely-  down — foreign  workmen  use  a  brass 
block  with  a  series  of  holes  drilled  in,  to 
place  the  screws  in  ;  it  is  a  good  plan,  as 
if  left  in  their  respective  bars  or  cocks  they 
are  apt  to  get  lost.  Having  the  piece 
down,  you  will  examine  all  pivots  to  see 
that  none  is  cut  or  bent.  The  barrel  and 
its  arbor  and  stopwork  should  receive  at¬ 
tention  ;  it  should  turn  with  freedom  and 
perfectly  true,  any  want  of  truth  in  these 
particulars  being  fatal  to  good  going. 

1  have  now,  1  think,  touched  on  most  of 
those  points  that  should  receive  attention 
in  examining  a  watch  previous  to  repair  : 
not  all,  because  to  do  that  would  require 
much  space  to  enumerate,  but  sufficient,  and 
the  repairer  may  proceed  to  correct  them. 

Beats  Per  Hour. —  The  first  thing  to 
do  is  to  find  how  many  beats  per  hour  the 
watch  was  intended  to  make.  This  is  done 
by  “counting  the  train,”  i.  e.,  finding  how 
many  revolutions  the  scape  wheel  will  make 
to  each  revolution  of  the  center  wheel,  and 
then  multiplying  that  number  by  30,  or 


double  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  scape 
wheel,  as  each  tooth  makes  two  beats — one 
on  each  pallet  stone.  Probably  the  quickest 
and  most  satisfactory  way  is  to  count  the 
number  of  teeth  in  the  center  wheel  and  the 
leaves  of  the  pinions  and  teeth  of  the  third 
and  fourth  wheels  and  the  scape  pinion. 
For  example  :  If  the  center  wheel  has  80 
teeth,  the  third  60  teeth  and  10  leaves,  the 
fourth  64  and  8,  scape  15  and  8,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  third  wheel  will  make  eight 
revolutions  to  every  one  made  by  the  cen¬ 
ter  (10  into  80)  ;  the  fourth  will  make  seven 
and  one-half  revolutions  to  each  one  of  the 
third  wheel’s.  Multiply  the  eight  revolu¬ 
tions  by  the  seven  and  one-half,  and  we 
have  60,  the  difference  in  speed  of  the  cen¬ 
ter  and  fourth.  The  scape  wheel  with 
eight  leaves  will  go  eight  times  faster  than 
the  fourth  wheel ;  so  we  multiply  the  60  by  8 
and  get  480,  namely,  the  revolutions  of  the 
scape  wheel.  Now,  every  revolution  of  the 
15-toothed  scape  wheel  gives  us  30  beats; 
so  we  multiply  the  480  by  30,  and  find  that 
the  watch  was  intended  to  beat  14,400  per 
hour.  For  convenience  in  vibrating,  divide 
the  14,400  by  the  60  minutes  in  an  hour, 
which  makes  240,  and  this  by  the  seconds 
in  a  minute,  and  we  find  that  the  watch  beats 
quarter  seconds — four  beats  per  second. 

Now  select  a  spring  of  the  right  diameter 
to  touch  the  regulator  pins  and  stud  ;  pin 
it  in  the  collet  and  put  in  the  balance. 
Then  vibrate  the  usual  way  by  taking  the 
outer  coil  in  the  tweezers  and  lifting  so  that 
the  lower  pivot  just  touches  some  hard, 
smooth  surface  ;  now  give  the  tweezers  a 
“  pin  vise  motion,”  to  get  the  balance 
going.  Then  holding  the  tweezers  as 
steadily  as  possible,  count  the  number  of 
vibrations  in  10  seconds.  In  this  watch 
there  should  be  40 ;  if  more  than  40,  the 
spring  is  too  strong  :  if  less  than  that  num¬ 
ber,  it  is  not  strong  enough.  If  it  cannot 
be  brought  to  time  by  either  lengthening 
or  shortening  the  spring  in  the  tweezers, 
try  another  spring.  With  a  little  practise  one 
can  count  the  vibrations  of  a  balance  and 
the  tick  of  the  regulator  at  the  same  time, 
but  the  second  hand  of  a  watch  running  on 
time  will  do  for  all  practical  purposes  and 
rather  more  convenient. 


TO  REPLACE  A  BROKEN  CYLINDER 
PLUG-. 

TO  replace  an  old,  worn,  or  broken  cylin¬ 
der  plug  do  as  follows  :  First  take  out 
the  old  plug  ;  for  this  use  a  punch,  the  hook 


TO  REPLACE  A  BROKEN  CYLINDER  PLUG. 


215 


of  which  is  as  short  as  possible,  and  has  no 
sharp  but  round  corners.  Beside  the  shape 
of  such  a  punch,  also  the  care  expended  in 
hardeningand  annealing  contributes  greatly 
to  its  usefulness.  For  hammering  out  the 
broken  plug,  prepare  also  a  piece  of  soft 
steel  sheet,  about  three  millimeters  [o.n  of 
one  inch]  thick,  in  which  the  holes,  No.  54 
to  70,  English  gauge,  are  drilled  and  num¬ 
bered.  These  holes  are  almost  impercepti¬ 
bly  countersunk:  and  from  underneath  en¬ 
larged,  funnel-shaped,  to  about  one-half  the 
thickness  of  the  plate. 

Next  try  through  which  hole  the  cylinder 
will  pass  closely,  and  then  place  it  upon  the 
next  following  smaller  hole,  so  that  only 
the  cylinder  shell  will  stand  upright,  and 
the  plug  to  be  driven  out  cannot  lodge  in  it. 
If,  in  doing  this,  the  gauged  plate  is  laid 
upon  a  large  anvil  or  other  block  of  iron  of 
considerable  weight,  it  will  be  possible  to 
drive  out  very  obstinately  fixed  plugs,  which 
cannot  be  moved  in  the  ordinary  manner, 
with  a  slight  tap  of  the  hammer.  The  job 
is  made  still  more  easy  if  the  plug  was  pre¬ 
viously  rubbed  with  a  little  oil,  both  outside 
and  within.  The  plug  having  been  driven 
out  in  this  manner,  immerse  the  cylinder  in 
benzine  for  a  few  minutes,  to  clean  it  from 
the  adhering  grease  and  filth.  Then  com¬ 
mence  with  the  making  of  a  new  steel  plug. 
It  is  generally  turned ;  this  is  a  very  deli¬ 
cate  and  tedious  job,  however,  as  many  a 
watchmaker  will  have  found  out  to  his  cost. 
It  is  far  better  if  a  piece  of  round  steel,  No. 
54,  English  gauge,  or  correspondingly  thin¬ 
ner,  from  0.79  to  1. 18  inches  long,  is  hard¬ 
ened,  annealed  grayish  blue,  and  fastened 
in  a  small  hand  vise,  fitted  in  by  filing  it 
thinner  upon  the  filing  peg,  taking  pains  to 
make  it  imperceptibly  tapering.  It  is  evi¬ 
dent  that  this  work  requires  a  file  of  the 
finest  cut.  If  the  steel  was  taken  one  or 
two  numbers  thicker,  the  job  will  not  be  in¬ 
ferior  to  a  turned  pivot.  Special  care  must 
be  had  in  the  hardening  of  the  steel,  not  to 
heat  it  beyond  red,  as  it  becomes  brittle  and 
cracked  thereby,  and  generally  breaks,  when 
the  pivot  is  turned  on  or  polished. 

When  the  plug  fits  with  tight  friction  into 
the  shell,  shorten  it  so  much  that  when 
driven  in  it  fits  firmly,  and  is  neither  too 
short  nor  projects  inside.  A  little  practise 
and  experience  are  necessary  to  hit  this 
point.  It  will  seldom  fail,  however,  if  the 
shape  of  the  plug  has  been  made  very 
slightly  tapering.  The  lower  the  cylinder  is, 
the  greater  the  attention  to  be  paid  to  this 
matter.  Now  measure,  to  ascertain  what 


height  the  cylinder  must  have  from  one 
pivot  end  to  the  other,  and  according  to 
this  determine  the  approximate  length  of 
the  plug.  Then  cut  it  off  at  the  proper 
length,  fasten  it  in  a  true-running  chuck  of 
the  screwhead  polishing  tool,  grind  fiat  and 
polish  first  its  lower  end,  and  then  file  a  cen¬ 
ter  for  the  upper  end,  after  having  previously 
flattened  it,  constantly  revolving  the  chucks 
upon  the  screwhead  polishing  tool.  Then 
hammer  the  plug  in  the  known  manner  fast 
into  the  cylinder.  A  heavy  support  will 
here  again  offer  excellent  service.  In  order 
not  to  damage  the  center  in  hammering,  use 
a  brass  hammer. 

Then  begin  with  the  turning  of  the  pivot. 
The  cylinder  shell,  to  keep  it  from  break¬ 
ing,  is  to  be  strengthened  with  shellac. 
This  is  ckmeTy  quickly  moving  it  to  and 
fro  through  a  small  alcohol  frame,  paying 
attention  that  beside  the  piece  of  shellac 
laid  upon,  also  the  cylinder  will  become 
sufficiently  warm,  whereby  a  more  intimate 
connection  is  effected,  and  it  becomes  more 
capable  of  resistance.  With  a  little  care, 
no  annealing  of  the  cylinder  need  be  antici¬ 
pated,  a  fairly  high  degree  of  heat  being 
necessary  for  this.  Small  cement  chucks 
are  generally  used  for  turning  a  short  cylin¬ 
der.  They  are  mounted  by  heating ;  for 
large  cylinders,  small  screw  chucks  can  also 
be  used.  They  must  be  lined  with  brass  so 
as  not  to  injure  the  polish.  Turn  the  plug 
about  two-thirds  thinner,  then  let  the  cylin¬ 
der  revolve  in  a  hole  of  the  round  truing- 
tool,  and  take  off  the  center  point  by  gently 
holding  a  fine  file  against  it.  The  height 
of  the  cylinder  must  be  considered  hereby, 
which  still  must  be  one-half  line  more  than 
the  actual  measure. 

It  is  important  when  doing  this  job,  that 
the  shoulder  of  the  cylinder  shell  runs  with 
easy  friction  in  the  lathe,  in  order  that  the 
arbor  projects  through  the  hole  of  the 
round  truing-tool,  so  that  the  fastened  end 
can  be  turned  pointed  again  with  a  sharply 
ground  graver.  It  is  clear  that  the  cylinder 
must  hereby  run  true.  After  the  round 
truing-tool  has  been  taken  off,  and  the 
undercutting,  as  well  as  the  arbor,  shoulder, 
and  pivot,  has  between  two  ordinary  cen¬ 
ters  been  turned  as  smooth  and  thin  as 
possible,  correct  the  length  and  thickness 
of  the  latter  according  to  the  jewel  hole,  by 
polishing  and  rounding  upon  the  polishing 
tool. 

All  cylinder  pivots  should  be  of  conical 
shape,  as  they  are  then  much  stronger,  and 
their  making  does  not  require  more  time 


2l6 


THE  REPAIRS  OF  THE  BARREL. 


and  skill  than  ordinary  cylindrical  pivots. 
They  are  made  with  a  three-cornered  pivot 
polishing  file,  the  edges  of  which  are  corre¬ 
spondingly  ground  off.  The  file  must  be 
well  sharpened,  to  be  done  with  medium  fine 
emery  upon  a  flat  piece  of  lead. 

It  depends  generally  upon  the  number  of 
the  emery,  to  give  to  the  burnishing  steel 
a  gently  cutting  sharpness,  and  this  is  of 
great  importance.  Workmen  who  attach  no 
importance  to  the  frequent  sharpening  of 
their  polishing  files  must  dearly  pay  for  this 
by  long  continued  work  and  frequent  break¬ 
ages,  because  a  dull  polishing  file  generates 
a  glass-hard  film  upon  the  pivot,  and  re¬ 
quires  an  inordinate  pressure.  It  must  not 
be  neglected  that  the  polishing  file,  during 
its  use,  must  be  repeatedly  moistened  with 
oil,  and  that  the  bearings  of  the  polishing 
tool  must  often  be  cleaned  from  the  collect¬ 
ing  steel  dirt.  For  taking  off  the  cylinder, 
heat  the  cylinder  a  little,  and  place  it  in 
alcohol,  which  is  to  be  warmed  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  cleaning,  so  as  to  accelerate  the 
dissolving  of  the  shellac.  The  remaining 
thin  resinous  film  upon  it  is  removed  by 
careful  rubbing  with  a  pegwood  saturated 
with  alcohol. 

If  above  directions  are  attended  to  the 
repairer  will,  with  a  little  skill,  only  in  rare 
instances,  fail  to  turn  out  a  faultless  pivot. 


THE  REPAIRS  OP  THE  BARREE. 

he  click  spring  must  not  be  too  strong; 
beside  the  screw,  its  foot  must  also 
have  a  footpin,  so  that  it  can  neither  rise 
up,  nor  come  out  of  depthing,  nor  yet  pass 
downward  and  drag  upon  the  barrel ;  the 
point  must  enter  securely  down  to  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  the  ratchet  teeth,  and  be  of  a  good 
and  sufficient  shape  to  prevent  the  return 
of  the  clickwork.  The  screws  of  the  dust- 
cap  must  be  rounded  off  below.  “  The 
screws  of  the  clickspring  are  the  only  ones 
of  the  whole  watch  which  I  do  not  temper,” 
says  Herman  Grosch,  in  his  Manual  for 
Watchmakers,  “because  very  disagreeable 
consequences  would  ensue  if  one  of  these 
screws  were  to  break  off  in  the  barrel 
bridge;  all  the  other  screws,  especially 
those  for  the  stopwork  and  other  parts, 
must  be  tempered,  the  heads  and  slits 
cleaned,  and  the  points  polished.” 

It  is  necessary  occasionally  to  make  the 
barrel  holes  smaller  and  to  bush  them. 
The  barrel  must  run  flat  and  true  and  the 
holes  fit  well ;  if  the  latter  are  too  large 


even  by  a  trifle,  and  the  metal  only  barely 
thick  enough,  they  may  in  exceptional  cases 
be  made  smaller  with  a  center  punch  and 
then  be  smoothed  within  with  a  round 
broach  or  a  polished  turning  arbor. 

If  the  barrel  holes  are  too  large  and  un¬ 
true,  they  are  bushed  with  drilled  bou- 
chons,  suitably  turned  in  turning  arbor.  In 
bushing,  especially  in  riveting,  great  care 
is  necessary,  because  by  too  strong  a  ham¬ 
mering  the  part  may  easily  draw  out  of 
shape — become  untrue.  Sometimes  it  is 
necessary  to  bush  the  holes  full  and  then 
center  again,  which  can  be  done  in  the 
lathe. 

The  Uprighting  of  the  Barrel. — If 
the  holes  are  not  too  large,  and  the  barrel 
does  not  run  true,  try  first  what  can  be 
done  by  moving  the  cover  in  the  groove  to 
different  places;  if  in  this  manner  a  place 
is  found  where  the  barrel  runs  true,  make  a 
mark  on  the  cover  and  side,  or  you  may 
also  drill  in  a  pin  passing  partly  through 
the  cover  into  the  bezel  of  the  barrel. 

If  nothing  can  be  done  by  shifting  the 
cover,  find  a  place  which  runs  closest,  mark 
it,  and  give  a  few  light  taps  with  the  ham¬ 
mer  upon  the  edge  of  the  cover,  by  laying 
it  upon  a  small  anvil  and  an  underlay  of 
silk  paper;  hit  it  at  the  place  of  the  cover 
at  which  the  tooth  rim  runs  farthest  from 
the  card  held  against  it.  Do  not  hammer 
too  much  at  once;  it  is  occasionally  neces¬ 
sary  to  take  off  a  little  with  a  file  from  the 
opposite  side  of  the  cover;  when  doing 
this,  of  course,  the  repairer  must  keep  in 
view'  the  contour  of  the  edge.  It  is  self- 
evident  that  a  barrel  with  the  cover  oppo¬ 
site  to  the  tooth  rim  is  meant  here  ;  one 
with  the  cover  on  the  same  side  with  the 
teeth,  requires  the  opposite  treatment. 

A  barrel,  which  otherwise  runs  true  and 
even,  stands  obliquely  sometimes,  when  it 
is  screwed  fast  to  the  bridge;  this  may  be 
due  to  too  great  shake  of  the  ratchpt  or  too 
large  a  hole  in  the  bridge,  or  else  to  a  bad 
recess  in  the  bridge  ;  this  may  be  remedied 
occasionally  by  screwing  the  bridge  upon 
the  plate,  centering  from  below',  and  mak¬ 
ing  the  recess  parallel  to  the  plate,  but  at 
the  same  time  making  the  recess  for  the 
cap  deeper.  If  it  is  a  one-bar  spring-arbor 
with  mounted  ratchet,  either  one  hole  or 
both  holes  of  the  outer  arbor  pivot  would 
have  to  be  bushed. 

The  Stopwork. — The  end  of  the  screw 
of  the  star  must  not  project;  it  is  to  be 
rounded  off  well  and  polished.  If  the 
screws  are  so  short  that,  as  frequently  hap- 


TO  CORRECT  THE  END  SHAKE  OF  A  BARREL  ARBOR. 


217 


pens,  they  can  no  longer  be  shortened  in 
the  lantern  of  the  screw-polishing  machine, 
this  may  be  done  by  using  a  strip  of  very 
thin  brass,  about  twenty-five  millimeters 
long,  and  from  three  to  four  millimeters 
broad,  furnished  with  suitable  small  holes 
for  this  purpose,  in  which  the  screws  may 
be  inserted,  and  which  are  then  laid  upon 
cork  or  the  filing  wood. 

The  screwhead  of  the  star  must  not 
scrape  on  the  dial ;  the  stopwork  must 
work  with  entire  security,  especially  at  the 
end  of  the  winding,  when  the  full  tooth 
turns  up.  It  is  very  advisable  to  round  off 
both  parts,  star  and  snail-stop,  a  trifle  on 
the  lower  side  with  a  slip  of  oilstone  or  a 
piece  of  wood  covered  with  emery  paper  in 
a  turning  arbor.  The  snail-stop  must, 
under  no  condition,  touch  its  recess. 

In  order  to  satisfy  one’s  self  of  the 
security  of  the  stopwork,  fasten  the  arbor 
by  its  winding  square  in  the  clamps  which 
you  press  with  the  last  three  fingers  against 
the  thumb  hole  of  the  left  hand,  while 
thumb  and  forefinger  catch  around  the 
tooth  rim  of  the  barrel  and  rotate  it  from 
left  to  right.  During  this  performance  try 
with  a  pegwood,  held  in  the  right  hand,  to 
move  the  star  in  a  direction  opposed  to  the 
rotations,  so  that  its  points  offer  themselves 
to  the  snail-stop  under  the  most'  unfavor¬ 
able  circumstances.  If  under  these  cir¬ 
cumstances  the  stopwork  works  all  right,  it 
will  also  perforin  securely  in  the  future. 

To  Fit  Bouchons. — It  was  said  above 
that  it  was  sometimes  necessary  to  bush  a 
hole.  For  this  purpose  a  bouchon  is 
selected  as  small  as  the  pivot  will  admit, 
for  the  smaller  the  bouchon  is,  the  neater 
will  be  the  job.  Open  the  hole  of  the  plate 
or  cock,  so  that  the  bouchon  which  should 
be  previously  lightly  draw-filed  at  the  end, 
will  stand,  with  a  slight  pressure,  upright 
in  the  opened  hole  of  the  plate  or  cock. 
Then  with  a  knife  cut  it  across  at  the  part 
where  it  is  to  be  broken  off,  so  that  it  may 
break  very  readily  when  required  fo  do  so. 
Press  it  in  the  plate  on  the  side  the  pivot 
works,  break  off,  and  then  drive  it  home 
with  a  small  center  punch.  In  every  repair 
of  this  nature,  notice  should  be  taken  of 
the  amount  of  end  shake  of  the  pinion,  and 
allowance  made  by  leaving  the  bouchon  so 
that  any  excess  may  be  corrected.  To 
finish  off  the  shoulder  end,  a  small  cham¬ 
fering  tool  should  be  used  with  a  hole 
smaller  than  the  pivot  one  to  receive  a  fine 
brass  wire  serving  as  a  center  to  prevent 
the  tool  changing  its  position  while  being 


used  ;  or  the  wire  may  be  put  through  the 
bouchon  hole,  and  then  the  hole  of  the  tool 
may  be  left  open.  This  method  is  a  far 
more  expeditious  way  than  using  the  man¬ 
drel. 


TO  CORRECT  THE  END  SHAKE  OF 
A  BARRED  ARBOR. 

The  beveling  of  the  barrel  teeth  will 
sometimes  not  free  the  center  wheel ; 
when  this  is  the  case,  we  must  look  for  other 
cures,  or  perhaps,  I  should  rather  say,  we 
should  look  for  other  causes.  In  most  cases, 
the  cause  is  in  the  end  shake  of  the  barrel 
arbor.  There  is  more  than  one  way  to  cor¬ 
rect  this.  WejadlT" suppose  the  excessive 
end  shaTe-wiU  allow  the  barrel  to  get  too 
high  and  foul  with  the  center  wheel  when 
the  inside  shoulder  is  in  contact  with  the 
top  shoulder  of  the  barrel  arbor  ;  yet  we 
find  that  if  we  press  the  barrel  down  so  that 
the  shoulder  on  the  barrel  lid  is  in  contact 
with  the  bottom  shoulder  on  the  arbor,  there 
is  then  sufficient  freedom  for  the  center 
wheel.  Some  would  cure  this  by  simply 
striking  the  center  of  the  barrel  a  sharp 
blow  on  a  large  round-headed  punch,  which 
would  lessen  the  end  shake  of  the  barrel 
arbor  and  most  likely  correct  the  fault. 
But  suppose  this  blow  also  puts  the  barrel 
out  of  true,  so  that  the  workman  will  very 
likely  have  produced  a  greater  evil  than  be¬ 
fore,  and  one  which  is  corrected  with  much 
greater  difficulty.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to 
try  some  other  method  than  to  run  the  risk 
of  ruining  the  barrel. 

Suppose  we  plant  a  small  collet  upon  the 
barrel  arbor.  In  this  case  at  the  top 
shoulder  this  will  have  the  required  effect. 
Of  course  we  must  have  the  collet  a  little 
smaller  in  diameter  than  the  barrel  arbor, 
while  the  hole  in  the  collet  must  be  only 
just  large  enough  to  fit  on  the  shoulder  ; 
the  thickness  will  vary  according  to  the  ac¬ 
quired  amount  in  order  to  correct  the  end 
shake.  I  may  say  here  that  a  barrel  end 
shake  should  never  be  more  than  just  free. 
Just  notice  the  detrimental  effects  in  some 
cases  of  even  the  least  amount  of  end  shake, 
where  the  fusee  and  chain  are  used.  I 
have  no  doubt  that  most  watchmakers  have 
at  some  time  or  other  had  a  little  trouble 
in  this  particular.  With  a  very  flat  fusee 
watch,  the  least  thing  in  end  shake,  either 
in  the  barrel  or  fusee,  and  cause  the  chain 
to  run  out  of  the  fusee  grooves.  We  then 
know  what  follows. 


218 


HOW  TO  DRILL  A  STAFF. 


Now,  there  are  many  who  try  to  remedy 
this  defect  by  closing  the  holes  in  the  plate, 
which  is  in  many  cases  done  with  a  punch; 
this  simply  means  that  the  next  man  who 
sees  the  job  will  be  liable  to  ask  if  there 
was  a  blacksmith  at  work.  Yes,  there  are 
times  when  it  is  a  shame  to  see  it.  Why 
hammer  and  bruise  the  plate,  when  the  job 
can  be  done  without  any  such  methods  ? 
There  is  nothing  that  looks  so  bad  to  a 
practical  man  as  a  plate  smashed  about 
with  a  punch.  It  may  be  excusable  to  use 
a  punch  for  closing  a  hole  in  an  old  thirty- 
hour  clock,  but  even  in  this  case  it  is  doubt¬ 
ful  in  these  days  of  bouchons.  It  is  not 
only  the  appearance  of  the  botchery,  but 
just  see  what  kind  of  a  surface  the  hole  has 
for  the  pivot  to  work  in.  Take,  for  in¬ 
stance,  the  fusee  :  it  will  alwa'ys  be  neat  to¬ 
ward  the  barrel  ;  hence,  if  the  hole  is  closed, 
it  has  to  be  done  on  the  side  nearest  to  the 
barrel,  in  order  to  bring  the  fusee  upright 
to  its  original  position.  But  when  it  is 
punched  on  this  side,  in  all  probability, 
there  is  only  just  one  part  of  the  hole  in 
contact  with  the  fusee  top  pivot,  and, 
most  likely  this  prominent  part  will  very 
soon  become  worn  down  again. 


BROKEN  PIVOTS. 

Pivots  are  broken  from  many  causes. 

It’s  “  the  nature  of  the  critter.”  When 
a  new  pinion  is  not  practicable,  says  a  Euro¬ 
pean  authority,  a  pivot  can  be  put  in  and 
with  the  exercise  of  care  be  made  a  good 
job.  Supposing  the  bottom  pivot  of  the 
third  pinion  is  broken  ;  the  best  way  to  put 
in  another  pivot  is  first  to  cement  the  wheel 
into  a  chuck  of  the  lathe.  The  chuck 
should  be  true  and  fiat  on  the  face.  A  ce¬ 
ment  strong  enough  to  hold  may  be  made 
of  equal  parts  of  resin  and  shellac,  and  can 
be  easily  removed  from  the  work  after¬ 
ward. 

The  flame  of  a  jet  of  gas  or  spirit  lamp 
applied  to  the  back  of  the  chuck  will  keep 
the  cement  soft  long  enough,  for  the  work 
being  brought  concentric  by  holding  a  blunt 
peg  against  the  projecting  pinion  arbor,  the 
center  can  then  be  made,  not  with  a  graver, 
but  with  a  sharp  auger  pointed  tool.  The 
drilling  is  the  principal  difficulty.  If  the 
pinion  is  hard,  the  drill  should  have  a 
rounded  point  and  be  quite  hard  at  the 
point;  it  should  be  left  as  strong  as  pos¬ 
sible,  as  some  pressure  is  required  to  make 
it  bite.  The  hole  need  not  be  deep.  When 


the  drilling  is  done  the  hole  should  be 
broached  and  the  pivot  turned  and  smoothed 
so  that  it  fits  the  hole  accurately.  Fitting 
it  to  go  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole  and  after¬ 
ward  taking  a  piece  from  its  length  is  the 
surest  way  of  making  a  good  fit.  The  hole 
and  pinion  should  be  cleaned  and  the  oil 
removed  in  benzine.  A  few  taps  with  the 
hammer  will  make  the  pivot  as  fast  as  if 
the  pinion  were  solid.  If  the  pinion  head 
is  not  quite  true,  the  center  must  be 
filed  to  get  the  pinion  true,  and  then  the 
pinion  can  be  made  in  the  usual  way. 

The  top  pivot  cannot  easily  be  made  in 
this  way.  The  hole  for  the  pivot  is  better 
drilled  in  the  turns,  and  it  is  much  easier  to 
drill  the  hole  in  the  top  of  the  arbor  than 
the  one  in  the  pinion  or  lower  part  of  it,  as, 
if  the  arbor  is  hard,  it  can  be  softened 
without  injuring  the  pinion  or  wheel.  A 
brass  runner  is  fitted  to  the  turns,  and  a 
hole  is  drilled  in  the  end  of  the  runner,  near 
the  outside,  a  little  smaller  than  the  pinion 
arbor  to  run  in  ;  the  runner  should  then  be 
filed  away  at  the  back  of  this  hole,  leaving 
the  sixteenth  of  an  inch  of  the  runner  its 
full  diameter  at  the  end.  If  a  piece  of 
round  steel  is  made  to  fit  the  hole  in  the 
runner  with  a  triangular  (not  a  drill)  point, 
hardened  of  course,  and  is  inserted  in  the 
hole  in  the  runner  to  meet  the  end  of  the 
arbor,  and  the  pinion  made  to  rotate  by  a 
ferrule  and  bow,  then  the  center  will  at 
once  be  found  and  the  hole  may  be  drilled 
in  the  same  manner  as  that  in  which  the 
center  has  been  marked ;  but  both  the 
centering  tool  and  drill  will  require  bend¬ 
ing  to  enable  the  operator  to  use  them  in 
this  position. 

It  is  not  often  that  a  fourth  wdreel  can 
be  made  a  good  job  of,  if  the  pivot  carries 
a  second  hand,  as  the  undercutting  of  the 
pinion  at  the  back  leaves  the  arbor  too 
weak.  The  only  way  to  make  good  job  is 
to  make  -a  larger  and  longer  hole  in  the 
pinion,  cutting  away  the  projecting  piece  of 
the  pinion  arbor  and  making  new  both  the 
pivot  and  shoulder. 


HOW  TO  BRIBE  A  STAFF. 

Correspondent  desired  to  know  how 
to  drill  a  staff  for  a  new  pivot. 
He  had  hitherto  used  the  old  verge  lathe, 
but  recently  he  bought  an  American  lathe. 
He  has  not  yet  been  able  to  drill  the  hole 
of  a  sufficient  depth  without  taking  all  the 
temper  out  of  the  staff  ;  he  uses  the  Amer- 


watchmakers’  drills. 


ican  finished  pivot  drill  and  has  tried  every 
shape  of  point,  etc.  An  expert  returns  the 
following  answer : 

After  removing  the  table  roller  and  bal¬ 
ance  spring,  take  a  circular  copper  wire, 
about  the  same  size  as  a  large  silver  case 
bow,  except  that  the  ends  come  together 
instead  of  being  open  as  in  the  watch-bow  ; 
spring  the  ends  far  enough  apart  to  insert 
the  broken  end  of  the  staff  between,  then 
heat  the  copper  wire  ring  in  the  alcohol 
flame,  holding  the  ring  in  a  pair  of  pliers, 
the  ring  will  communicate  the  heat  to  the 
staff,  and  the  temper  will  be  drawn  from 
the  part  to  be  drilled  without  discoloring 
the  balance  or  the  opposite  end  of  the  staff. 
The  temper  had  better  be  drawn  lower  than 
blue  ;  at  any  rate,  draw  it  to  a  very  light 
blue,  or  even  soften — that  part  of  the  staff 
has  no  function  to  perform,  and,  therefore, 
the  temper  is  of  little  consequence. 

The  average  staff  as  it  comes  from  the 
factory  is  not  harder  than  a  dark  blue 
shade  will  indicate.  I  do  not  mean  to  say 
that  when  fitting  a  new  staff  the  temper  of 
any  part  of  it  is  of  little  consequence,  be¬ 
cause,  if  the  temper  is  properly  drawn,  it 
will  be  even  throughout,  and  if  drawn  lower 
than  a  dark  blue  it  would  be  too  soft,  as  the 
pivots  could  not  be  turned  down  compara¬ 
tively  small  without  bending,  and,  even  if 
they  were,  a  high  polish  could  not  be  ob¬ 
tained,  and  the  result  would  be  that  after 
running  in  the  watch  for  a  short  time  they 
would  show  signs  of  wear  and  thereby 
increase  the  friction.  But  in  pivoting  a 
staff,  as  was  said  before,  it  will  do  no  harm 
to  thoroughly  soften  that  part  of  the  staff 
where  the  pivot  is  to  be  inserted,  always 
bearing  in  mind  that  the  heat  must  not  be 
allowed  to  reach  the  balance,  or  the  oppo¬ 
site  end  of  the  staff,  which  is  not  broken. 

After  drawing  the  temper  place  the  staff 
in  the  lathe  and  smooth  off  the  broken  end 
with  stone  slip  sufficiently  to  get  your  cen¬ 
ter  by  ;  strike  your  center  by  means  of  the 
graver,  holding  it  in  your  hand.  At  first 
you  will  be  almost  sure  to  leave  a  little  con¬ 
ical  “tit”  at  the  center  instead  of  striking 
the  center  correctly,  so  therefore  it  will  be 
better  to  practise  a  few  times  on  a  piece  of 
brass  wire  in  place  of  the  staff,  and  after  a 
few  times  you  will  be  able  to  do  it  at  once 
and  well. 

'The  reason  why  you  cannot  drill  the  staff 
deep  enough  is  because  the  drill  is  not 
properly  shaped  or  is  allowed  to  get  dull, 
and  instead  of  cutting,  it  burnishes  the 
metal  and  hardens  it,  thereby  making  it 


219 

difficult  for  a  sharp  drill  to  attack  it  suc¬ 
cessfully. 

Now,  if  the  staff  is  softened  as  directed, 
and  the  drill  made  to  suit  the  purposes, 
there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  drilling  even 
deeper  than  necessary,  but  you  must  of 
course  draw  the  drill  occasionally  across 
the  slip  to  renew  the  edge  which  may  dull 
before  a  sufficient  depth  is  reached,  but 
after  you  get  into  the  “  hang  ”  of  it  you  can 
drill  a  staff  in  half  a  minute.  The  wire  for 
the  pivot  should  be  a  piece  of  a  needle  with 
temper  drawn  to  a  dark  blue.  Almost  any 
graver  that  you  can  buy  will  cut  any  staff 
if  sharpened  properly,  which  means  a  flat 
face,  a  sharp  edge  and  point. 


WATCHMAKERS’  DRII/ES. 

he  drills  used  by  watchmakers  are 
generally  made  by  filing  the  cylindri¬ 
cal  steel  wire  slightly  tapering  and  then 
spreading  the  point  with  a  single  blow  from 
a  tolerably  heavy  hammer.  Using  a  light 
hammer  and  effecting  the  spreading  by  a 
series  of  gentle  taps  will  effectually  spoil 
the  steel.  There  is  not  the  slightest  occa¬ 
sion  to  anneal  the  steel  for  hammering,  pro¬ 
viding  it  is  moderately  soft.  For  all  drills 
up  to  one-eighth  of  one  inch  in  diameter,  the 
steel  should  not  be  forged,  as  the  bulk  of 
the  metal  is  too  small  to  heat  to  any  pre¬ 
determined  temperature  with  any  degree  of 
certainty. 

Pivot  drills  can  be  made  from  good  sew¬ 
ing  needles,  which  are  of  a  convenient  form 
to  be  readily  converted  into  a  drill.  Firstly, 
the  needle  must  be  made  sufficiently  soft 
for  working  by  heating  until  it  assumes  a 
deep  blue  color  The  extreme  end  may  be 
made  quite  soft  and  filed  slightly  tapering 
to  a  trifle  less  than  the  size  of  the  hole  to  be 
drilled.  The  point  is  now  spread  out  by  a 
sharp  blow  of  a  hammer — not  by  a  series  of 
gentle  taps  which  would  cause  the  metal  to 
crack — and  filed  up  to  shape,  the  point 
being  made  more  blunt  than  would  be  used 
for  drilling  ordinary  metal.  For  drilling 
tempered  steel  the  cutting  angles  must  also 
be  much  less  than  usual.  The  thickness  of 
the  drill  across  the  flattened  part  should  be 
about  one-third  of  the  diametrical  measure¬ 
ment.  Finish  up  the  end  on  a  strip  of 
Arkansas  stone,  a  file  being  too  coarse  for 
such  small  work. 

It  is  the  great  difficulty  of  getting  such  a 
very  small  piece  of  steel  to  an  exact  pre¬ 
determined  degree  of  temperature- — hot 
enough  to  harden,  but  not  so  hard  that  it  is 


220 


DIAMOND  LAPS. 


burned — which  makes  the  manufacture  of 
these  small  tools  uncertain,  and  this  is 
abundantly  proved  by  the  fact  that  of  half 
a  dozen  of  drills  made  from  the  same  wire, 
thereby  assuring  uniformity  of  quality  in 
the  material  it  often  happens  that  some  are 
exceedingly  good,  and  others  of  no  use 
whatever,  the  difference  being  caused  by 
the  manipulation  during  hardening.  This 
does  not  apply  to  drills  or  other  steel  things 
which  are  of  sufficient  size  to  show,  by  the 
color  of  their  surface,  how  hot  they  are, 
but  it  is  the  tiny  pieces  which,  by  the  con¬ 
tact  with  the  flame,  are  immediately  ren¬ 
dered  white  hot  that  are  difficult  to  manage. 
By  heating  the  drill  and  plunging  it  into 
the  body  of  a  tallow  candle  the  hardening 
will  be  effected,  but  the  steel  will  not  be 
rendered  so  hard  that  it  crumbles  away 
under  the  pressure  in  use.  Thus,  in  one 
operation  the  drill  will  be  hardened  and 
tempered.  In  place  of  tallow,  white  wax, 
sealing  wax,  and  such  like  materials  are 
adapted  to  the  purpose. 

There  is  another  method  which  finds 
much  favor  with  some  workmen.  It  is  to 
envelop  the  thin  point  of  the  drill  in  a 
metal  casing,  and  so  get  a  bulk  of  metal 
which  can  be  heated  to  a  nicety,  the  drill 
inside  being,  of  course,  raised  to  the  same 
temperature  as  the  surrounding  metal;  the 
whole  is  then  plunged  into  oil  or  water. 
Still,  there  is  the  difficulty  of  tempering  to 
overcome,  though  the  danger  of  burning  is 
avoided  ;  burnt  steel  is  of  no  use  for  tools. 

The  best  plan  is  to  exercise  the  greatest 
possible  care  not  to  overheat  the  drill, 
and  harden  and  temper  in  one  operation  by 
plunging  into  tallow.  The  following  method 
dispenses  with  the  hardening  process: 

Select  a  round  pivot  broach  ;  as  sold,  they 
will  be  found  to  be  tempered  to  the  correct 
degree  of  hardness.  By  means  of  the  split 
gauge,  measure  the  part  of  the  broach 
which  is  the  exact  diameter  required  for 
the  intended  hole,  and  break  off  the  steel 
at  that  point;  the  small  piece  is  used;  it 
must  be  broken  off,  if  too  long;  and 
cemented  with  shellac  into  a  drill  stock  ;  an 
ordinary  drill  stock  will  do,  or  a  piece  of 
brass  pivot  wire  serves  the  purpose.  Soft 
solder  may  be  used  instead  of  shellac,  and 
if  carefully  heated,  the  temper  will  not  be 
drawn.  The  piece  of  tapering  steel  is  now 
formed  into  a  drill  by  grinding  down  the 
sides  with  a  piece  of  Arkansas  stone,  and 
the  end  shaped  up  to  a  cutting  angle.  The 
thick  end  of  the  broach  forms  the  cutting 
end,  and  the  ordinary  taper  of  a  broach 


will  be  quite  sufficient  to  give  clearance  to 
the  drill,  which  may  be  sharpened  by  grind¬ 
ing  until  the  whole  is  used. 


TH®  DIJPTHING  TOOD. 

A  Depthing  tool  is  an  indispensable 
auxiliary  to  the  repairer,  and  it  should 
be  the  best  that  can  be  made.  There  are 
many  of  these  tools  made  and  sold  that  are 
worse  than  useless,  as  if  the  distance  be¬ 
tween  the  centers  do  not  coincide  at  each 
successive  point,  at  which  they  may  be 
moved  outward,  it  will  be  impossible  to 
pitch  a  depth  correctly  with  them  ;  in  other 
words,  the  centers  as  runners  should  be 
parallel  to  each  other,  whatever  the  size  of 
the  wheel  and  pinion  may  be  that  is  being 
adjusted  in  them.  When  purchasing  a  new 
depthing  tool,  great  care  is  necessary. 
The  centers  should  be  turned  end  for  end 
and  transposed,  asceiiaining  after  each 
change  if  there  is  any  deviation  in  a  circle 
described  by  the  points  ;  also  if  the  points 
when  they  meet  coincide  exactly.  If  pos¬ 
sible,  a  comparison  should  be  made  with 
an  approved  tool  by  trying  in  both  p.  large 
and  also  a  small  wheel  and  pinion.  The 
adjusting  screw  had  better  be  removed  so 
as  to  see  that  the  joints  work  smoothly  and 
that  the  spring  has  perfect  control  over  it. 
If  the  joint  is  stiff  and  appears  to  be  dirty, 
the  joint  pin  may  be  taken  out  and  the 
joint  thoroughly  cleaned. 

But  however  correct  the  tool  may  be,  it 
requires  practise  and  skill  to  use  it  properly, 
as,  when  the  wheel  and  pinion  are  removed 
from  the  tool,  and  the  depth  has  to  be 
transferred  to  the  plate,  if  the  depthing 
tool  is  not  held  at  right  angle  to  the  plate, 
but  is  inclined  either  to  the  right  or  left, 
the  depth  will  be  either  deeper  or  shallower 
than  it  was  seen  while  in  the  tool.  Care 
should  also  be  taken  not  to  screw  the  nuts 
up  too  tight,  as  it  is  quite  possible  to  spring 
the  runner  a  little  from  the  way  in  which  it 
is  gripped  ;  in  fact,  a  watchmaker  should 
not  be  a  strong  man,  otherwise  he  will 
make  many  difficulties  for  himself  by  exer¬ 
cising  his  muscular  strength. 


DIAMOND  DAPS. 

In  putting  a  pivot  in  a  staff  or  pinion  one 
of  the  handiest  tools  the  workman  can 
have  is  a  diamond  lap  with  which  to  flatten 
and  sharpen  the  drills.  Every  workman 
knows  that  many  times  he  has  made  what 
he  thought  was  a  nice  drill  and  on  examina- 


k 

USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  THE  MAGNIFYING  GLASS.  22  1 


tion  found  the  sides  rounded  and  the  end 
"cross-eyed,”  and  had  the  work  to  do  over 
again.  With  a  diamond  lap  it  is  very  easy 
to  do  these  drills  right,  in  fact  so  easy  that 
the  workman  is  liable  to  makeup  a  number 
of  drills  before  they  are  needed,  a  proceed¬ 
ing  few  watchmakers  are  guilty  of  when 
they  are  obliged  to  flatten  and  point  the 
drills  on  an  oilstone.  Most  watchmakers 
have  an  idea  that  these  laps  are  too  expen¬ 
sive.  Such  is  not  the  case,  when  you  con¬ 
sider  the  time  and  material  saved  by  the 
use  of  them.  If  the  watchmaker  has  dia¬ 
mond  powder  he  has  no  excuse  for  not  mak¬ 
ing  one,  unless  he  doesn’t  know  how.  If 
he  does  not  have  the  powder  he  can  easily 
make  the  lap  and  any  of  the  smaller  watch 
factories  would  charge  it  with  the  grade  of 
diamond  needed  at  small  expense.  Prob¬ 
ably  this  is  the  cheapest  way  to  go  to  work, 
as  it  is  an  everyday  job  in  a  watch  factory, 
where  there  are  all  the  facilities  for  doing 
rapid  and  economical  work  of  this  kind. 

Soft  steel  is  probably  the  best  metal  to 
use.  Copper  was  the  favorite  for  many 
years,  and  there  seemed  to  be  a  prejudice 
against  anything  else  for  a  long  time,  but 
this  prejudice  has  worn  away,  and  soft  steel 
is  now  generally  used  in  factories  for  every¬ 
thing  except  polishing.  It  holds  its  shape 
better  than  copper.  Cast  iron  is  used  to 
some  extent,  and  does  very  nicely  for  the 
larger  surfaces,  but  it  is  hardly  adapted  to 
such  small  surfaces  as  pivot  drills.  A  lap 
one  and  one-half  to  two  and  one-half  inches 
in  diameter  and  -Ag-  or  Ag-  in  thickness 
is  a  very  convenient  size.  It  should  be 
mounted  on  a  hardened  steel  arbor  that  fits 
a  large  chuck  or  taper  and  trued.  Do  not 
have  the  full  face  of  the  lap  charged.  You 
cannot  use  the  middle  of  it,  and  it  is  not 
only  difficult  to  charge  it  there,  but  it  is  a 
waste  of  material.  After  facing  the  lap, 
take  another  chip  out  of  the  center— about 
^2 — leaving  about  two-thirds  of  the  face 
to  be  charged.  No.  4  diamond  should  be 
used  for  very  small  drills,  if  it  is  to  be  used 
for  that  work  exclusively  ;  No.  2  for  rapid 
cutting  of  larger  surfaces.  If  the  watch¬ 
maker  feels  that  he  cannot  afford  more  than 
one  lap,  perhaps  No.  3  diamond  would  be 
the  best  for  all-around  work. 


USB  AND  ABUSB  OF  THB  MAGNI¬ 
FYING  GBASS. 

lthough  it  is  the  opinion  of  eminent 
ophthalmists  that  the  judicious  use  of 
the  magnifying  glass  is  by  no  means  inju¬ 


rious  to  the  eye,  it  is  well  to  point  out  that 
this  opinion  is  but  conditional,  and  does 
not  apply  to  its  abuse.  On  this  subject  a 
correspondent  of  the  Deutsche  Uhrmacher 
Zeitung  says  that  a  watchmaker  very  often 
does  not  think  to  make  use  of  his  ordinary 
sight.  It  is,  then,  the  duty  of  the  master 
to  make  the  pupil  appreciate  from  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  his  apprenticeship  the  advantage 
he  will  find  in  the  employment  of  the  naked 
eye,  and  how  much  time  and  pain  he  will 
by  that  means  avoid  ;  especially  in  measur¬ 
ings  and  rough  work.  Want  of  habit  in  the 
estimation  of  sizes,  or  rather  in  their  exact 
comparison  ;  inexperience,  variety,  or  con¬ 
venience  ;  perhaps  also  the  idea  of  giving 
more  rapidly  to  the  eye  the  necessary  dex¬ 
terity — all  are  apt  to  induce  beginners  to 
use  the  e ye gl a s s  which  they  see  employed 
by  the  more  advanced  apprentices.  They 
do  as  the  clown  who,  not  knowing  his 
alphabet,  thinks  that  by  putting  on  spec¬ 
tacles  he  will  be  able  to  read  immediately. 
The  responsible  master  should  absolutely 
forbid  the  eyeglass  to  the  beginner,  and 
not  permit  its  use  until  actually  necessary. 
The  habit  which  at  first  was  only  due  to 
vanity  or  inexperience,  becomes  in  time 
fixed. 

But  what  a  grotesque  and  at  the  same 
time  deplorable  effect  !  Only  certain  pieces 
are  produced,  the  thick  pieces  hardly 
roughed  out,  when  made  by  the  aid  of  the 
glass.  It  is  no  excuse  to  say  that  the  work 
has  been  badly  done  because  the  workman 
has  bad  eyes.  If  he  has  not  good  sight  let 
him  put  on  suitable  spectacles.  There  are 
many  watchmakers  who  rarely  use  the  eye¬ 
glass  and  when  they  do  it  is  only  for  fine 
work. 

What  can  be  done  by  one  can  be  done  by 
others.  Nothing  is  requisite  but  a  firm  will. 

Those  who  are  not  able  to  dispense  with 
the  eyeglass,  commit  also  from  habit  the 
unpardonable  fault  of  using  glasses  too 
strong,  which  leave  an  interval  of  only  two 
or  three  centimeters  between  the  work  and 
the  glass.  This  is  pernicious  to  the  eyes, 
because  in  using  short  focus  glasses  the 
eyes  become  pained,  and  if  they  are  con¬ 
tinued  an  enfeeblement  of  the  sight  is  pro¬ 
duced.  And  in  consequence  of  the  ex¬ 
citation  of  the  optical  nerves  headaches 
result,  which  in  some  circumstances  may 
become  chronic.  The  eyeglass  for  ordinary 
use  should  be  weak  and  allow  of  an  inter¬ 
val  of  from  six  to  eight  centimeters  between 
it  and  the  work.  It  is  quickly  got  used  to 
and  will  not  produce  tiredness  of  the  eyes. 


222 


THE  CORD  AND  TENSION  PULLEY. 


Besides  the  weak  glass,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  strong  pebble  eyeglass,  but  the 
latter  is  required  very  seldom. 

With  use  it  sometimes  happens  that  when 
the  eyeglass  is  held  a  long  time  near  the 
eye  the  glass  becomes  blurred.  This  is 
very  disagreeable,  and  proceeds  from  the 
vapors  which  emanate  from  the  eye  and 
become  condensed  on  the  eyeglass.  It  is 
easy  to  prevent  this  by  making  two  holes 
opposite  one  another,  so  that  the  interval 
between  the  eye  and  the  glass  may  have 
communication  with  the  exterior  air. 
These  holes  are  made  just  above  the  glass, 
so  that  the  current  of  air  circulating  touches 
it  lightly  and  prevents  the  condensation. 
The  lenses  of  eyeglasses  are  wiped  ordi¬ 
narily  with  an  old  piece  of  linen  or  with  the 
leather.  Both  are  bad,  because  in  proceed¬ 
ing  thus  the  glass  is  covered  with  imper¬ 
ceptible  rays.  It  is  preferable  to  make  use 
of  silk,  or  still  better,  of  unglazed  porous 
paper  that  is  not  frayed,  or  filtering  paper. 
Breathe  lightly  on  the  glass  before  wiping  it. 

PICTURES  ON  WATCH  DXAES. 

OR  the  production  of  photographic  pic¬ 
tures  on  watch  dials  the  Photograph- 
ische  Chronik  recommends  the  following 
method  of  procedure  :  Beat  the  white  of 
an  egg,  with  addition  of  a  little  ammonia, 
to  a  white  foam,  add  300  cubic  centimeters 
of  water,  and  beat  again.  After  the  egg 
has  settled,  filter  and  let  the  liquid  run 
once  over  the  dial,  which  has  previously 
been  thoroughly  cleaned  with  ammonia. 
After  the  surplus  has  run  off  coat  once 
more  and  allow  to  dry.  The  sensitive  col¬ 
lodion  is  now  produced  as  follows  :  Dis¬ 
solve  0.6  gram  chloride  of  zinc  in  20 
cubic  centimeters  of  alcohol,  add  o.  5 
gram  collodion  cotton  and  26  cubic  cen¬ 
timeters  of  ether,  and  shake  the  whole 
forcibly.  Then  dissolve  1.5  grams  of 
nitrate  of  silver  in  hot  water,  add  6  cubic 
centimeters  of  alcohol,  and  keep  the  whole 
in  solution  by  heating.  The  silver  solution 
is  now  added  in  small  quantities  at  a  time 
to  the  collodion,  which  must  have  well  set¬ 
tled.  This,  of  course,  is  done  in  the  dark 
room.  After  24  hours  the  emulsion  is  fil¬ 
tered  by  passing  it  through  cotton  mois¬ 
tened  with  alcohol.  This  durable  collodion 
emulsion  is  now  flowed  in  the  usual  way 
thinly  upon  the  prepared  watch  dial,  which, 
after  tire  collodion  has  coagulated,  is  moved 
up  and  down  in  distilled  water  until  the 
fatty  stripes  have  disappeared.  The  water 


is  then  changed  once,  and  the  dial  is,  after 
a  short  immersion,  left  to  dry  upon  blotting 
paper.  It  is  now  ready  for  exposure.  Ex¬ 
pose  under  the  original  in  magnesium  light 
and  develop  with  a  nitrate  oxalate  developer 
or  in  the  following  hydroquinone  developer: 


Hydroquinone .  4  grams 

Bromide  of  potassium . 25  grams 

Sulphite  of  soda . 48  grams 

Soda .  10  grams 

Water  (cubic  centimeters) . 450 


After  fixing  and  drying  coat  with  a  trans¬ 
parent  positive  varnish. 

In  place  of  the  developing  process,  the 
printing-out  process  with  chloride  of  silver 
collodion  can  be  applied,  with  the  advan¬ 
tage  that  the  picture  can  be  toned.  The 
collodion  for  this  purpose  is  made  as  fol¬ 
lows  :  Dissolve  8  grams  of  collodion  cot¬ 
ton  in  100  cubic  centimeters  of  ether  and 
100  cubic  centimeters  of  alcohol  ;  add  0.3 
gram  chloride  of  strontia  and  then  0.2  gram 
chloride  of  lithium,  which  has  previously 
been  dissolved  in  alcohol  slightly  heated. 
The  solution  is  left  standing  for  24  hours, 
and  then  is  filtered  through  cotton. 


THE  CORD  AND  TENSION  PUEEEY. 

he  cord  which  transmits  motion  from 
the  fly-wheel  to  the  pulley  of  the  dis¬ 
tributor  is  always  at  the  same  tension.  But 
the  cord  that  passes  from  the  pulley  to  the 
lathe  must  be  tight  or  slack,  according  to 
the  dimensions  and  weight,  etc.,  of  the 
work  in  hand.  Moreover,  if  the  ferrule  be 
not  fixed  concentric  with  the  object  that  is 
being  turned,  or  if  the  pulley  be  not  true 
on  its  axis,  the  cord  will  be  liable  to  hold 
and  to  slip  alternately.  This  inconven¬ 
ience  can  be  avoided,  and  the  tension  of 
the  cord  maintained  constant  and  sufficient 
by  using  the  tension  pulley. 

Another  inconvenience  is  often  occa¬ 
sioned  by  the  unskilful  joining  of  the  cat¬ 
gut  band.  In  delicate  turning  with  the 
hand  or  footwheel  it  is  important  that  no 
jerk  should  be  communicated  to  the  work 
when  the  joint  in  the  band  passes  over  the 
ferrule  or  the  pulley  of  the  mandril.  Such 
a  jerk  can  only  be  avoided,  moreover,  by  a 
carefully-made  joint.  Several  methods  are 
adopted  ;  for  bands  of  large  and  medium 
size  it  is  best  to  use  the  steel  hook  and  eye 
screwed  on  to  the  ends  of  the  band,  these 
ends  being  first  tapered  with  a  knife  and 
their  ends  burnt  with  a  hot  wire  to  cause 
an  expansion  that  will  prevent  their  draw- 


PENDULUM  FOR  DETERMINING  SHAPE  OF  THE  GLOBE. 


223 


ing  away  from  the  screw.  But  such  at¬ 
tachments  cannot  be  used  with  bands  under 
one-sixteenth  of  one  inch  in  diameter,  and 
one  of  the  following  must  therefore  be  re¬ 
sorted  to. 

1.  The  most  expeditious  is  a  simple  knot, 
and  the  weaver’s  knot  is  by  far  the  best,  as 
it  permits  of  the  ends  being  cut  off  close, 
and  stands  out  to  nearly  the  same  distance 
ail  around  the  cord.  The  watchmaker  in 
making  this  knot  need  only  observe  that 
the  lower  portion,  representing  the  length 
of  lathe  band,  must  be  somewhat  shorter 
than  is  ultimately  required,  and  the  knot  is 
to  be  tightened  by  drawing  the  two  free 
ends,  while  the  first  point  at  which  the 
cord  crosses  is  held  between  the  thumb  and 
first  finger.  The  ends  must  be  cut  off 
nearly  to  the  knot,  and  slightly  singed,  to 
cause  their  expansion,  and  the  knot  rolled 
between  the  finger  and  thumb  with  a  little 
beeswax. 

2.  The  ends  may  often  be  spliced  to¬ 
gether,  and  although  this  occupies  more 
time,  it  has  the  advantage  of  producing  a 
gradual  increase  and  decrease  of  thickness, 
so  that  all  jerk  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
The  following  method  is  given  by  Holtz- 
apffel.  Having  stretched  the  band,  meas¬ 
ure  off  a  length  greater  than  is  required 
for  the  lathe  and  make  transverse  holes 
through  the  catgut  at  two  points  rather 
nearer  together  than  the  measure  of  the 
lathe  (to  allow  for  further  stretching).  Pass 
each  end  through  the  hole  in  the  other  and 
draw  tight ;  pierce  two  more  holes  at  right 
angles  to  the  first  and  just  above  them,  again 
passing  the  ends  through  from  opposite 
sides  of  the  band.  Unravel  the  full  ends, 
cut  away  about  one-fourth  of  their  sud- 
stance  by  a  sloping  cut  from  the  inner 
side  next  the  splice.  Re-twist  and  again 
pass  the  ends  through  holes  transverse  to 
the  last  and  pull  tight.  If  these  instruc¬ 
tions  are  followed,  no  trouble  will  be  given 
by  the  band. 


THE  PENDULUM  FOR  DETERMIN¬ 
ING  THE  SHAPE  OF  THE  GEOBE- 

LL  engaged  in  horological  pursuits, 
know  that  the  velocity  of  the  pendu¬ 
lum  oscillations  depends  upon  the  length 
of  the  pendulum  as  well  as  upon  gravity, 
which  varies  at  different  points  of  the 
globe.  It  is  strongest  at  the  poles  and  fee¬ 
blest  at  the  equator,  for  two  reasons  :  first, 


it  is  influenced  by  the  centrifugal  force  of 
the  revolution  of  the  globe,  which  opposes 
it,  and  next  by  the  greater  or  smaller  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  center  of  the  globe,  or  per¬ 
haps  better  said,  center  of  gravity. 

When,  now,  pendulums  of  equal  length 
are  caused  to  oscillate  at  different  localities 
upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  the  largqr  or 
smaller  velocities  tell  us,  first,  the  distance 
of  the  corresponding  locality  from  the  ro¬ 
tary  axis,  and,  second,  the  distance  from 
the  center  of  gravity.  The  established 
formulae  for  calculation  are  generally  for 
the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  length  which 
the  pendulum  must  have  at  different  locali¬ 
ties  of  the  earth  to  produce  a  unit  velocity 
— one  oscillation  per  second. 

A  noteworthy  number  of  scientists,  of  all 
countries— Sabjne^UFoster,  Schmidt,  Airy, 
Bowditch,  BaTTyj  Borenius,  Pouillet,  Fischer, 
and  others. — have  to  ascertain  the  length  of 
the  seconds  pendulum  instituted  probability 
calculations,  each  of  which  is  based  on  a 
certain  number  of  pendulum  measurements 
(from  13  to  79)  which  have  taken  place  at 
different  points  of  the  earth.  The  results 
of  the  calculations  vary  between  990.987 
millimeters  and  991.277  mm.  length  for  a 
seconds  pendulum  at  the  equator  and  996.- 
123  mm.  and  996.419  mm.  at  the  poles ; 
consequently  they  vary  nearly  0.3  mm. 
But  since  the  entire  increase  of  the  pendu¬ 
lum  length  for  the  90°  of  latitude,  from  the 
equator  to  the  pole,  amounts  to  only  5.14 
mm.,  the  seemingly  trifling  difference  of 
0.3  mm.  corresponds  to  a  latitude  difference 
of  about  5°. 

The  following  table  is  a  summary  of  these 
deviations  : 


Length  of  seconds 
pendulum. 

Localities.  Latitude.  Millimeters. 

St.  Thomas .  o°  24'  41'  990.84 

Mararhan .  2°  31'  43"  990.84 

Ascension .  70  55'  48"  991.15 

Sierra  Leone .  8°  29'  28"  N.  i 

Trinidad .  io°  38'  56"  N.  (  991 '°2 

Bahia .  120  59 '  21"  S.  991.15 

Jamaica .  170  56'  7”  N.  991.42 

New  York .  40°  42'  43"  N.  993.15 

London .  510  31'  8"  N.  994-07 

Drontheim .  63°  25'  54"  N.  995-21 

Hammerfest .  70°  40'  5"  N.  995-4-9 

Greenland .  740  32'  19"  N.  995.69 

Spitzbeigen .  79 0  49'  58"  N.  995-99 


To  reiterate,  the  preceding  table  shows 
that  the  second  pendulum  is  shorter  near 
the  equator  than  in  the  higher  degrees  of 
latitude,  from  which  scientists  deducted 


224 


TO  ADJUST  BALANCE  SPRING. 


that  the  earth  is  no  true  ball,  but  a  spheroid, 
that  is  flatter  near  the  poles  and  arched 
toward  the  equator.  The  shorter  the  di¬ 
ameter  of  the  earth  is  at  a  given  locality 
the  stronger  will  an  object  upon  its  surface 


be  attracted  by  gravitation  ;  for  which  rea¬ 
son,  also,  a  pendulum  will  there  oscillate 
somewhat  faster  than  in  higher  regions,  and 
must  consequently  be  made  longer  to  ob¬ 
tain  the  same  unit  of  time. 


NOTES  ON  THE  BALANCE  SPRING. 


Alteration  Caused  by  Balance  Spring. 

— Assuming  that  the  balance  is  in 
perfect  poise,  then  the  moment  the  spring 
is  placed  on  it  and  the  outer  end  pinned  to 
the  steel,  the  spring  at  once  forms  a  part  of 
the  mass  of  the  balance  when  both  are  rotat-  • 
ing,  and  its  effect  upon  the  balance  when 
in  action  is  most  peculiar.  The  first  coil 
near  the  collet  passes  through  nearly  as 
many  degrees  of  arc  as  does  the  balance. 
The  second  coil  describes  a  little  less  extent 
of  arc;  the  third  still  less,  the  fourth  still 
less,  and  so  on,  until  at  last  we  arrive  at 
the  outer  extremity — the  end  of  the  last 
coil — which  is  stationary  and  rigidly  fixed. 
Now  all  of  these  different  coils,  while  vi¬ 
brating,  have  established  in  themselves  a 
certain  momentum,  each  differing  from  the 
other  in  their  effects  upon  the  balance,' ac¬ 
cording  to  the  mass  of  each,  the  velocity  of 
each,  the  position  each  occupies  as  regards 
distance  from  their  centers  of  motion,  and 
the  degrees  of  arcs  described  by  each. 
Any  portion,  then,  of  this  system  of  coils 
which  may  be  out  of  exact  poise,  is  a  dis¬ 
turbing  factor.  If,  however,  after  careful 
trials,  the  proper  distance  is  located  at  a 
certain  point,  and  the  balance  quarter 
screws  be  changed  so  as  to  counterbalance 
it,  an  improved  condition  would  result  so 
long  as  the  balance  maintained  arcs  of 
about  360° ;  but  when  the  watch  (going 
barrel)  is  full  wound  and  the  balance  de¬ 
scribing  arcs  of  not  far  from  540°,  the  error 
would  be  more  marked  than  it  was  before 
the  change  in  the  poise  of  balance  was 
made. 

Duplex  Balance  Spring. — The  whole 
secret  of  obtaining  isochronous  vibrations 
of  the  balance  of  the  duplex  escapement 
lies  in  the  spring  ;  the  fewer  obstructions 
placed  upon  the  free  vibrations  of  the 
escapement,  in  the  way  of  friction,  etc.,  the 
better  will  be  the  performance  of  the  watch  ; 
and  this  is  also  the  secret  of  the  good  going 
not  only  of  the  well-made  duplex,  but  also 
of  the  chronometer  and  lever  watches. 

Fit  in  New  Balance  Spring. — Put  the 
collet  on  a  round  rat-tail  file  when  you  go 


to  put  in  the  spring;  the  file  will  hold  it 
steady.  File  a  pin  so  that  it  will  fit  the 
hole  in  the  collet  loosely  and  cut  it  nearly 
off;  now  put  the  end  of  the  spring  in  its 
place,  put  in  the  pin,  and  give  the  wire  a 
slight  bend  and  you  will  break  it  off  where 
you  cut  it.  Bring  the  spring  to  its  position, 
stake  it  on  balance,  pin  with  the  other  end 
in  the  stud,  where  you  held  it  with  the 
tweezers  when  you  tried  it,  and  you  have 
the  spring  fitted  and  trued. 

Pinning  in  a  Trial  Balance  Spring. — 
When  picking  out  a  balance  spring  for  trial, 
the  usual  plan  of  pinning  in  is  to  put  the 
collet  on  a  broach  held  between  the  thumb 
and  finger  of  the  left  hand,  while  the  pin  is 
fitted  and  the  spring  pinned  in,  taking  the 
precaution  to  push  a  piece  of  paper  on  the 
broach  before  the  collet  or  the  spring  may 
touch  the  fingers,  as  in  the  case  of  a  damp 
hand  the  spring  would  be  likely  to  be  injured 
by  rusting. 

Another  Mode  of  Pinning  in  Spring. 
— Another  mode  of  pinning  in  is  to  place 
the  collet  on  the  board  paper,  and  put  the 
spring  over  the  collet.  With  a  short  piece 
of  boxwood  sloped  away  at  the  end  press 
the  collet  on  the  board  ;  the  pin  can  then 
be  fitted  with  comfort  and  without  danger 
of  shifting  the  collet.  The  pin  should  be 
flattened  where  it  presses  against  the  spring, 
and  when  fitted  and  made  can  be  pressed 
in  with  a  small  joint  pusher.  The  spring 
should  start  away  from  the  collet  hole 
with  an  easy  curve,  and  must  not  hug  the 
collet,  or  isochronism  will  be  out  of  the 
question. 

To  Adjust  Balance  Spring. — I  hardly 
know  how  to  give  directions  for  the  adjust¬ 
ment  of  the  balance  spring,  when  it  is  dis¬ 
arranged,  and  the  procedure  is  more  readily 
shown  by  practical  demonstration  than  by 
description.  To  commence  :  a  balance 
spring,  when  there  is  no  power  applied  to 
the  balance  from  the  jewel  pin,  should  be, 
when  pinned,  just  as  free  from  any  twist  or 
cramping  as  it  would  be  if  lying  flat  and 
free  on  a  smooth  piece  of  glass,  before  it 
has  been  pinned  at  either  end.  and  when  it 


ACCELERATION. 


is  pinned  in  the  watch  (at  stud  and  collet) 
it  should  be  thus  free.  To  bring  it  thus, 
requires  demonstration  that  cannot  be  made 
on  paper,  unless  diagrams  are  made.  What 
I  have  said,  however,  gives  an  idea  of  how 
a  balance  spring  should  be  pinned.  Com¬ 
mon  sense  is  demanded  here  as  elsewhere. 

Balance  Spring. — When  taking  down  a 
watch  for  cleaning,  unpin  and  straighten 
the  balance  spring  by  placing  it  on  a  white 
paper  and  pinching  the  bent  places  with 
pliers,  making  it  flat,  and  all  the  coils  true, 
and  see  that  they  do  not  rub  together  ;  if 
they  do,  no"  good  time  need  be  expected 
from  the  watch.  If  the  spring  is  not  a 
good  one,  replace  it ;  have  it  large  enough 
to  pass  through  the  regulator  without 
bending. 

Fastening  the  Balance  Spring. — The 
style  of  fastening  is  not  by  any  means  un¬ 
important.  If  it  were  possible  to  make  the 
fastening  upon  the  collet  vertical  to  the 
center  it  would  be  the  best,  according  to 
my  opinion.  This,  however,  cannot  be 
well  done,  and  we  are  forced  to  follow  the 
old  custom,  but  try  to  make  the  bend  of 
this  inner  curve  not  round,  but  as  sharp  an 
angle  as  possible.  This  is  to  be  done  with 
pliers,  and  at  once  lay  the  first  coil  at  the 
proper  distance  from  the  collet.  The  end 
of  the  balance  spring  must  be  fastened 
with  pins  of  hardened  steel,  and  the  sides 
turned  toward  the  spring  are  to  be  fur¬ 
nished  with  flat  face  ;  they  possess  the  ad¬ 
vantage  that  they  can  be  taken  out  or  in¬ 
serted  conveniently. 

Balance  Spring. — When  adjusting  a 
watch,  see  that  the  balance  spring  is  flat 
and  true,  and  that  it  has  a  fly  between  the 
regulator  pins  of  about  one-half  the  thick¬ 
ness  of  the  spring.  Then  if  you  will 
shorten  the  pins  until  they  do  not  project 
below  the  edge  of  the  balance  spring,  and 
file  the  end  of  the  outside  pin  at  an  angle 
of  45  degrees,  there  can  never  be  an  extra 
coil  of  spring  caught  up.  This  too  frequent 
trouble  can  be  entirely  prevented  by  the 
adjusting  just  now  described. 

Advantage  of  Overcoil  Spring. — The 
great  advantage  of  an  overcoil  spring  is 
that  it  distends  in  action  on  both  sides, 
and  the  balance  pivots  are  thereby  relieved 
of  the  side  pressure  given  with  the  ordinary 
flat  spring.  The  Breguet  spring  in  common 
with  the  helical  and  all  other  forms  in 
which  the  outer  coil  returns  towards  the 
center,  offers  opportunities  of  obtaining 
isochronism  by  slightly  varying  the  char¬ 
acter  of  the  curve  described  by  the  outer 
15 


coil,  and  thereby  altering  its  power  of  re¬ 
sistance. 

Manipulating  a  Spring. — There  is  no 
doubt  that  the  less  a  spring  is  “  manipu¬ 
lated,”  the  better.  Mr.  Glasgow  contends 
that  the  whole  question  of  isochronism  re¬ 
solves  itself  in  the  adoption  of  a  spring  of 
the  correct  length,  and  recommends  for  a 
lever  watch  14  turns,  if  a  flat,  and  20  turns, 
if  a  Breguet  spring  is  used.  He  argues 
that  if  a  spring  is  too  short,  the  short  vibra¬ 
tions  will  be  fast  and  the  long  vibrations 
slow,  and  that  all  bending  and  manipulat¬ 
ing  of  the  spring,  with  a  view  to  obtain 
isochronism,  are  really  only  attempts  to 
alter  the  effective  length  of  the  spring. 

Flat  Springs. — The  length  of  a  balance 
spring,  especiallytbe  flat  without  overcoil, 
is  impoTttrrrtr^Tly  varying  the  strength  of 
the  wire,  two  flat  springs  may.be  produced, 
each  of  half  the  diameter  of  the  balance, 
but  of  very  unequal  lengths,  either  of 
which  would  yield  the  same  number  of 
vibrations  as  long  as  the  extent  of  the 
vibration  remained  constant,  yet  if  the 
spring  is  of  an  improper  length,  although  it 
may  bring  the  watch  to  time  in  one  position, 
it  will  fail  to  keep  the  long  and  short  vibra¬ 
tions  isochronous.  Then  again,  a  good 
length  of  spring  for  a  watch  with  a  cylinder 
escapement  vibrating  barely  a  full  turn 
would  clearly  be  insufficient  for  a  lever 
vibrating  a  turn  and  a  half. 

Overcoil  of  Balance  Spring. — When 
the  overcoil  of  a  balance  spring  has  been 
much  bent  or  “manipulated”  in  timing, 
its  acceleration  is  almost  sure  to  be  exces¬ 
sive.  This  is  just  what  might  be  expected, 
for  a  spring  unduly  bent,  so  as  to  be  weak¬ 
ened  but  not  absolutely  crippled,  recovers 
in  time  some  of  its  lost  elasticity.  But 
however  carefully  a  spring  is  bent,  the  ac¬ 
celeration  is  not  entirely  gotten  rid  of,  even 
though  the  spring  is  heated  to  redness  and 
again  hardened  after  its  form  is  complete. 
'There  is  little  doubt  that  the  tendency  of 
springs  is  to  increase  slightly  in  strength 
for  some  time  after  they  have  been  sub¬ 
jected  to  continuous  action,  just  as  bells 
are  found  to  alter  a  little  in  tone  after  use. 

Acceleration. — It  is  pretty  generally 
agreed  among  chronometer  makers  that 
the  cause  of  acceleration  is  seated  in  the 
balance  spring,  although  sotne  assert  that 
centrifugal  action  slightly  enlarges  the 
balance,  if  the  arc  of  vibration  is  large,  as 
it  would  be  when  the  oil  is  fresh,  and  that 
as  the  vibration  falls  off  centrifugal  action 
is  lessened  and  acceleration  ensues  from 


226 


TO  FLATTEN  BALANCE  SPRING. 


the  smaller  diameter  of  the  balance. 
Though  the  balances  do  undoubtedly  in¬ 
crease  slightly  in  size  in  the  long  vibrations 
from  centrifugal  action,  this  theory  is  dis¬ 
posed  of  by  the  circumstance  that  old 
chronometers  do  not  accelerate  after  re-oil¬ 
ing.  Others  aver  that  the  unnatural  con¬ 
nection  of  the  metals  composing  the  com¬ 
pensation  balance  is  responsible  for  the 
mischief,  and  that  after  being  subjected  to 
heat,  the  balance  hardly  returns  to  its  origi¬ 
nal  position  again.  If  true,  this  may  be  a 
reason  for  exposing  new  chronometers,  be¬ 
fore  they  are  rated,  to  a  somewhat  higher 
temperature  than  they  are  likely  to  meet 
with  in  use,  as  is  the  practise  of  some 
makers,  but  then  chronometers  accelerate 
on  their  rates  when  they  are  kept  in  a  con¬ 
stant  temperature,  and  also  if  a  new  spring 
is  put  to  an  old  balance,  or  even  if  a  plain, 
uncut  balance  is  used. 

To  Harden  and  Anneal  Springs. — To 
give  push  and  fly  springs  a  good  temper, 
the  following  method  may  be  employed  : 
The  ready  spring  is  first  heated  and  well 
rubbed  with  soap  in  a  hot  state.  Next 
heat  it  to  a  cherry  red  (not  a  white)  heat, 
and  temper  it  in  petroleum  which  does  not 
ignite  from  the  heated  steel.  The  black 
•crust  formed  in  the  steel  is  readily  brushed 
off,  and  needs  not  be  ground  off,  as  is  the 
case  with  other  methods  of  tempering. 
The  spring  is  then  annealed  to  a  light  blue 
upon  the  annealing  plate,  say  a  broad 
clock  spring,  and  at  once  rubbed  in  with 
tallow,  after  which  it  is  left  to  slowly  cool 
upon  the  annealing  plate.  A  spring  treated 
in  this  fashion  will  render  good  service 
and  be  durable. 

Isochronism  in  Flat  Springs. — Flat 
springs  which  are  to  be  adjusted  to  isoch¬ 
ronism  should  have  from  14  to  15  coils. 
A  still  higher  number  of  coils  would  be  de¬ 
sirable  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  iso¬ 
chronism,  but  springs  with  such  a  large 
number  are  objectionable  for  position  ad¬ 
justments.  The  usual  method  for  adjust¬ 
ing  a  flat  spring  to  isochronism  is  by  pin¬ 
ning  the  spring  into  the  hairspring  stud,  so 
that  the  pivot  where  it  is  pinned  into  the 
collet  comes  opposite  to  the  regulator 
pins  when  the  regulator  stands  in  the 
middle  of  its.  arc  ;  and  then  bringing  the 
watch  to  time  by  changing  the  balance 
screws  ;  of  course,  a  spring  should  be 
selected  which  is  very  nearly  correct. 
Consequently  the  taking  out  or  putting  in 
of  a  pair  of  screws  would  bring  the  watch 
nearly  right.  By  cutting  out  a  little  from  a 


screw  underneath  the  head,  we  can  increase 
the  rate  a  minute  or  two  a  day ;  or  by 
punching  out  some  small  washers  of  the 
size  of  a  balance  screw-head  from  thin 
sheet  silver,  or  even  the  same  kind  of 
tinsel  used  for  dial  washers,  and  placing 
them  under  the  screw-head,  we  can  cause 
the  watch  to  run  as  much  slower. 

Choosing  a  Spring. — When  choosing 
and  timing  a  new  spring  some  practise  is 
required  to  accurately  count  the  vibrations 
in  a  second,  and  many,  after  picking  up 
the  balance  by  means  of  the  bit  of  wax  on 
the  pivot,  give  it  half  a  turn,  so  that  it  will 
vibrate  for  over  a  minute,  and  then  count 
every  alternate  vibration  till  a  spring  is 
obtained  that  gives  about  150  double  vibra¬ 
tions  if  it  is  for  an  18,000  and  about  135  if 
for  a  16,200  train.  When  a  spring  of  the 
right  strength  has  been  found,  it  may  be 
pinned  in. 

Making  the  Overcoil. — Two  pairs  of 
pliers  with  curved  noses  lined  with  brass 
are  generally  used  for  forming  the  overcoil 
of  marine  chronometer  springs.  The  coil 
of  the  spring  where  the  overcoil  is  to  start 
is  grasped  by  one  pair  curved  exactly  to 
correspond  with  the  spring,  and  the  other 
pair  is  used  to  bend  the  overcoil.  The  op¬ 
eration  looks  easy  enough,  but  it  really 
requires  great  skill  to  get  at  once  an  over¬ 
coil  of  the  desired  shape.  The  overcoils 
of  watch  springs  are  turned  with  steel 
tweezers  having  carefully  polished  curves. 
In  forming  the  Phillips  curves  some  watch¬ 
makers  use  hot  pliers  of  the  required  shape 
to  set  the  curve  to  the  required  form. 

Pinning  in  Short  Springs. — A  short 
spring  as  4  rule  requires  to  be  pinned  in 
short  of  complete  turns,  and  a  long  one 
beyond  the  complete  turns.  In  duplex 
and  other  watches  with  frictional  escape¬ 
ments,  small  arcs  of  vibration  and  short 
springs,  it  will  be  found  that  the  spring  re¬ 
quires  to  be  pinned  in  nearly  half  a  turn 
short  of  complete  turns.  The  marine  chro¬ 
nometer  springs  are  found  to  isochronize 
better  and  act  more  true  when  pinned  in 
about  a  quarter  of  a  turn  short  of  complete 
turns. 

Cockling  Springs. — Watch  springs  of 
thick  and  narrow  wire  are  apt  to  cockle 
with  large  vibrations,  while  springs  of  wide 
and  thin  wire  keep  their  shape  and  are 
more  rigid.  It  is  of  even  greater  impor¬ 
tance  that  the  springs  of  marine  chronome¬ 
ters,  subjected  to  the  tremor  of  steamships, 
should  be  of  wide  and  thin  wire. 

To  Flatten  Balance  Spring. — To 


HOW  TO  TEST  A  BALANCE  SPRING. 


227 


flatten  an  ordinary  balance  spring,  remove 
the  collet  and  stud,  and  clamp  the  spring 
by  a  central  screw  between  two  plates, 
which  are  then  placed  on  a  bluing  tray  and 
gently  heated.  A  small  piece  of  whitened 
steel  is  laid  on  the  plate,  in  order  to  see 
that  the  heat  does  not  exceed  what  is 
needed  to  give  a  blue  temper.  Allow  the 
plates  to  cool  and  separate  them. 

Pinning  in  the  Spring. — The  end  of 
the  overcoil  of  a  Breguet  spring  should  run 
into  the  hole  of  the  stud  before  being 
pinned  in,  and  if  the  stud  is  screwed  into 
the  cock  without  the  balance  it  will  easily 
be  seen  if  the  jewel  hole  is  in  the  center  of 
the  hole  in  the  spring  collet,  as  it  should 
be.  This  spring  should  also  be  pinned  in 
at  equal  turns. 

Features  of  the  Balance  Spring. — 
Sir  G.  B.  Airy,  of  England,  has  demon¬ 
strated  that  the  loss  in  heat  from  the  weak¬ 
ening  of  the  balance  spring  is  uniformly  in 
proportion  to  the  increase  of  temperature. 

Choosing  a  Balance  Spring. — A  very 
common  and  at  the  same  time  very  uncer¬ 
tain  method  of  ascertaining  the  strength  of 
a  spring  is  by  lifting  the  balance  itself. 
The  almost  uselessness  of  this  method  is 
seen  when  we  know  that  the  diameter  of 
the  balance  has  very  much  to  do  with  the 
timing  of  a  watch,  and  the  diameter,  when 
the  weight  of  the  balance  is  considered 
principally,  counts  for  nothing.  A  spring 
should  be  chosen  that  is  smaller  than  the 
circle  of  the  steel  hole  and  index  pins. 
That  is,  the  spring  should  look  small  when 
the  balance  is  at  rest,  as  a  spring  of  this 
size  has  more  freedom  at  the  coils  and 
assists  in  quickening  the  short  arcs  of  the 
balance. 

Slow  Action  of  Spring. — A  spring  too 
large  in  relation  to  the  position  of  the  in¬ 
dex  pins  and  stud  is  pretty  sure  to  be  slow 
in  its  short  arcs. 

Correcting  the  Spring. — I  have  seen 
directions  by  experienced  men  for  timing 
in  positions  by  the  curb  pins.  This  should 
never  be  attempted.  The  curb  pins 
(always  an  evil)  should  be  wide  enough 
apart  to  let  the  spring  just  move  between 
them  and  no  more,  and  should  never  be 
far  from  the  stud.  As  “  manipulating  ”  the 
curb  pins,  as  it  is  termed,  is  done  only 
with  the  object  of  lengthening  or  shorten¬ 
ing  the  acting  length  of  the  spring,  this 
should  be  accomplished  in  the  proper  way 
at  once  by  adding  to  or  taking  away 
weight  from  the  balance. 

ISOCHRONISM  OF  BALANCE  SPRING. - A 


balance  spring  of  whatever  form,  to  be 
isochronous,  must  satisfy  with  the  follow¬ 
ing  conditions  :  Its  center  of  gravity  must 
always  be  on  the  axis  of  the  balance,  and 
it  must  expand  and  contract  in  the  vibra¬ 
tions  concentrically  with  that  axis.  When 
these  conditions  are  secured  in  a  properly 
made  spring,  it  will  possess  the  quality  of 
isochronism — that  is,  its  force  will  increase 
in  proportion  to  the  tension,  and  it  will  not 
exert  any  lateral  pressure  on  the  pivots. 
Mr.  Phillips,  in  his  memoir,  demonstrates 
these  conditions,  and  proves  theoretically 
that  the  terminal  curves  deduced  with  the 
view  of  satisfying  the  one  condition  and 
verify  at  the  same  time  the  other. 

Breguet  Spring. — A  Breguet  spring 

s h o u  1  d  n e  v er-be . ap p  1  i e d  to  a  watch  with  an 

index.  It  is  perhaps  the  best  form  of  spring 
for  a  pocket  watch,  having  all  the  prop¬ 
erties  in  action  of  the  cylindrical  spring, 
and  the  great  advantage  of  flatness  in  form, 
but  any  attempt  at  producing  a  good  time¬ 
keeper  with  this  spring  and  index  pins  will 
end  in  failure.  And  any  attempt  at  getting 
time  in  positions  by  pressing  the  outer 
coil  of  the  flat  spring  against  the  outer  or 
inner  pin  is  mere  botchwork,  and,  even  if 
successful,  would  require  to  be  repeated 
every  time  the  balance  had  to  be  taken  out. 

Flat  Spring. — For  flat  springs  with  index 
I  w'ould  strongly  recommend  the  plan  of 
pinning  a  spring  into  the  collet  in  order 
to  get  the  stud  hole  and  index  pins  to 
correspond. 

Attachment  of  Springs. — The  position 
of  the  points  of  attachment  of  the  inner 
and  outer  turns  of  a  balance  spring  in  re¬ 
lation  to  each  other  has  an  effect  on  the 
long  and  short  vibrations  quite  apart  from 
its  length.  For  instance,  a  very  different 
performance  may  be  obtained  with  tw'o 
springs  of  precisely  the  same  length  and 
character  in  other  respects,  but  pinned  in 
so  that  one  has  exactly  complete  turns  and 
the  other  a  little  under  or  a  little  over 
complete  turns. 

Balance  Spring. — The  dimension  of 
the  spring,  its  form  at  the  attachments,  the 
position  of  the  attachments  with  relation  to 
each  other,  are  all  factors  affecting  its  con¬ 
trolling  power. 

How  to  Test  a  Balance  Spring. — Pick 
out  a  balance  spring  which  in  size  and 
thickness  appears  to  be  suitable  ;  pin  it  in 
the  collet,  which  place  on  the  balance. 
Then  enter  the  balance  in  the  calipers 
and  straighten  the  spring  to  an  exact  flat¬ 
ness  and  height.  Now  take  a  well  regu- 


228 


SPRINGING. 


lated  watch  with  seconds  hand,  seize  the 
outer  end  of  the  balance  spring  with  the 
tweezers  and  let  the  balance  vibrate  upon 
the  watch  crystal,  thereby  counting  the 
double  vibrations  made  by  the  balance  in 
one  minute.  Mark  the  place  where  you 
commenced  counting,  and  when  the  seconds 
hand  has  arrived  again  at  this  place  you 
must  be  about  to  count  the  150th  double 
vibration.  If  the  balance  makes  fewer 
vibrations  catch  the  spring  more  to  the  in¬ 
side  with  the  tweezers  and  commence 
counting  again;  repeat  this  until  you  have 
found  the  correct  place  where  the  vibrations 
coincide.  At  this  place  the  spring  must  be 
pinned  in  the  stud.  If  the  curb  pins  areas 
open  as  they  should  be  and  the  watch  in 
good  order  a  difference  of  at  most  one 
minute  to  two  minutes  in  twenty-four  hours 
may  be  found,  which  can  then  be  easily 
corrected  with  the  index.  The  counting 
requires  some  practise,  and  the  repairer 
who  is  sufficiently  skilled  can  regulate  a 
watch  quicker  in  this  way  than  by  the  ear. 
If  the  balance  with  the  new  spring  makes 
in  the  first  trial  more  than  150  double 
vibrations  in  one  minute  the  spring  is  too 
strong,  and  a  weaker  is  to  be  put  in. 

Momentum. —  Momentum  overcomes 
some  of  the  elastic  force  of  the  balance 
spring  and  friction.  It  is  the  force  of  a 
body  in  motion,  and  is  equal  to  the  weight 
of  the  body  multiplied  by  its  velocity. 
Velocity  in  a  balance  is  represented  by  its 
circumference,  a  given  point  in  which  it 
travels  a  given  distance  in  a  given  time. 
Weight  is  that  contained  in  its  rim.  A 
balance  may  be  said  to  have  more  or  less 
momentum  in  proportion  as  it  retains  force 
imparted  to  it  by  impulsion.  If  a  watch 
has  a  balance  with  which  it  has  been 
brought  to  time  and  this  is  changed  for  one 
of  one-half  its  size  it  requires  to  be  four 
times  as  heavy,  because  its  weight  is  then 
only  half  the  distance  from  the  center,  and 
any  given  point  in  its  circumference  has 
only  half  the  distance  to  travel.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  balance  twice  the  size  would 
have  one-fourth  the  weight.  In  the  first 
case  the  balance  would  have  twice  as  much 
momentum  as  the  original  one,  because  if 
we  multiply  the  weight  by  the  velocity  we 
have  a  product  twice  as  great. 

The  Action  of  Br£guet  Spring. — The 
Breguet  spring,  although  differing  very  little 
in  form  from  the  simple  volute,  is  essentially 
different  in  action  and  principle  ;  the  over¬ 
coil,  being  fixed  above  the  spring,  and 
nearer  the  center,  gives  it  perfect  freedom 


to  expand  in  a  circle  all  around.  'This 
spring  must  be  longer  than  the  fiat  spring, 
as  the  force  of  the  outer  curve  inward 
gives  it  more  power  of  resistance,  and  also 
an  easy  and  perfect  means  of  obtaining 
isochronism.  I  find  about  20,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  watch,  the  best  length  for 
this  spring,  and  curb  pins  should  never  be 
used  with  it,  if  perfect  timekeeping  be 
aimed  at. 

Isochronism. —  It  may  be  taken  as  a 
very  good  rule  that  a  balance  spring  should 
be  half  the  diameter  of  the  balance  and 
have  14  turns  if  it  is  a  flat  spring  for  a 
lever  watch,  or  20  turns  if  a  Breguet.  These 
lengths,  it  will  be  understood,  only  apply 
where  the  work  is  good  ;  with  coarse  work 
a  shorter  spring  is  required  in  order  to  get 
the  short  arcs  fast  enough.  Springs  for 
cylinder  watches  should  have  from  eight  to 
twelve  turns. 

Short  Arcs. — It  is  remarkable  that  while 
in  watches  the  difficulty  is  generally  to  get 
the  short  arcs  sufficiently  fast,  precisely  the 
reverse  is  the  case  with  the  marine  chro¬ 
nometer,  in  which  the  trouble  is  usually  to 
get  the  short  arcs  slow  enough.  The  es¬ 
capement  is  not  responsible  for  the  differ¬ 
ence,  because  pocket  chronometers  follow 
the  same  rule  as  watches  with  lever  escape¬ 
ments.  The  size  of  the  pivots  in  propor¬ 
tion  to  the  size  of  the  balance  is  partially 
the  cause,  for  in  very  small  watches  where, 
of  course,  the  pivots  are  relatively  large, 
the  slowness  of  the  hanging  position  is 
proverbial,  and  a  shorter  spring  by  a  turn 
or  two  has  often  to  be  substituted.  Very 
quick  trains  should  be  avoided  on  this 
account. 

Isochronism. — Some  are  under  the  im¬ 
pression  that  an  isochronal  spring  will  cor¬ 
rect  vertical  position  errors,  but  this  is  a 
mistake  ;  still,  it  has  much  to  do  with  the 
horizontal  positions  as  compared  with  the 
vertical.  There  are  many  factors  which 
play  important  parts  in  the  rate  of  any 
watch  to  run  in  all  the  positions.  Some¬ 
times  two  of  these  will  compromise  favor¬ 
ably  with  each  other,  while  others  will  tend 
to  aggravate  and  augment  the  errors.  Of 
these  factors,  we  mention  a  few,  such  as 
want  of  isochronism,  unequal  friction  in 
the  different  positions  ;  side  shake  of  balance 
pivots  ;  slight  errors  in  poise  of  balance  ; 
various  escapement  errors,  etc.,  together 
with  the  errors  in  the  poise  of  the  balance 
spring. 

Springing. — In  all  springing  great  care 
is  necessary  in  pinning  the  spring  on  the 


CHRONOGRAPH. 


229 


collet.  Always  broach  the  collet  before 
pinning  in,  and  see  that,  in  the  case  of  a 
flat  spring,  the  hole  is  parallel  with  the 
collet  and  properly  chamfered  at  both 
ends,  that  the  spring  has  a  flat  side,  and 
that  the  spring  is  not  permanently  pinned 
in  till  it  is  nearly  true,  for  when  once  on 


the  collet,  much  difficulty  is  experienced 
in  bending  the  center  inward.  Put  the 
collet  on  an  arbor,  and  in  the  calipers 
you  will  see  if  the  spiral  is  quite  true  ;  if 
not,  bend  it  gradually  until  it  is  so.  By 
putting  the  arbor  in  the  turns  the  spring 
can  be  gotten  flat. 


NOTES  ON  THE  ESCAPEMENT  AND  DIAL. 


The  Action  of  the  Escapement. — The 
force  of  the  balance  mass  in  revolving 
winds  up  the'  reciprocating  spring,  and  as 
soon  as  this  spring  has  secreted  all  the  force 
of  the  balance  the  motion  is  reciprocated  by 
the  uncoiling  of  the  spring.  Arrived  at  the 
place  of  the  escapement  arc  (where  the 
lever  is  lying  at  the  proper  angle  against 
one  of  the  banking  pins),  the  roller  pin 
jewel  enters  the  lever  notch,  and  the  recip¬ 
rocated  force  of  the  balance,  by  the  aid  of 
the  roller  pin,  now  moves  around  the  lever 
and  pallets  sufficiently  to  draw  the  locking 
out  from  under  the  escape  wheel  tooth,  and 
all  the  mechanism  being  then  set  free  the 
escape  wheel  moves  forward  again  over  the 
impulse  plane  of  the  opposite  pallet,  giving 
another  impulse  to  the  pieces  and  again 
another  tooth  of  the  wheel  drops  on  to  the 
opposite  locking,  the  wheel  resting  there  and 
stopping  all  the  machinery,  while  the  roller 
and  balance  vibrate  freely  as  before. 

Escapement  in  Beat. — When  the  bal¬ 
ance  spring  is  at  rest  the  balance  should 
have  to  be  moved  an  equal  amount  each  way 
before  a  tooth  escapes.  By  gently  pressing 
against  the  fourth  wheel  with  a  peg  this 
may  be  tried.  There  is  a  dot  on  the 
balance  and  three  dots  on  the  plate  to  as¬ 
sist  in  estimating  the  amount  of  lift. 
When  the  balance  spring  is  at  rest  the  dot 
on  the  balance  should  be  opposite  to  the 
center  dot  on  the  plates.  The  escapement 
will  then  be  in  beat,  that  is,  provided  the 
dots  are  properly  placed,  which  should  be 
tested.  Turn  the  balance  from  its  point 
of  rest  till  a  tooth  just  drops,  and  note  the 
position  of  the  dot  on  the  balance  with 
reference  to  one  of  the  outer  dots  on  the 
plate.  Turn  the  balance  in  the  opposite 
direction  till  a  tooth  drops  again,  and  if  the 
dot  on  the  balance  is  then  in  the  same  posi¬ 
tion  with  reference  to  the  other  outer  dot,  the 
escapement  will  be  in  beat.  The  two  outer 
dots  should  mark  the  extent  of  the  lifting, 
and  the  dot  on  the  balance  would  then  be 
coincident  with  them,  as  the  teeth  dropped 
■when  tried  in  this  way,  but  the  dots  maybe 


a  little  too  wide  or  too  close,  and  it  will, 
therefore,  be  sufficient  if  the  dot  on  balance 
bears  the  same  relative  position  to  them  as 
just  explained  ;  but  if  it  is  found  that  the  lift 
is  unequal  from  the  point  of  rest  the  balance 
spring  collet  must  be  shifted  in  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  leastjrftr'till  the  lift  is  equal.  A 
new  mark  should  then  be  made  on  the 
balance  opposite  to  the  central  dot  on  the 
plate. 

Recoil  Escapement. — The  recoil  escape¬ 
ment  is  used  mostly  for  clocks  with  short 
pendulums,  for  which  it  is  well  adapted 
where  no  very  great  accuracy  is  required  ; 
it  is  easily  made  and  performs  regularly. 
But  although  variations  in  the  impulse  pro¬ 
duce  less  alteration  in  the  arc  of  vibration 
than  similar  variations  would  in  the  arc  of 
the  Graham  escapement,  which  for  some 
time  led  clockmakers  to  think  that  it  was 
the  more  reliable  escapement  of  the  two, 
they  affect  the  time  of  the  vibrations  very 
considerably  (the  clock  going  faster  for  an 
increase  of  the  motive  force  and  slower  for 
a  decrease),  as  should  be  patent  to  any  one 
without  further  demonstration,  after  a  little 
consideration  of  the  form  of  the  pallets  and 
the  direction  of  the  forces.  Yet  after  the 
many  years  during  which  the  two  escape¬ 
ments  have  been  tried,  and  the  experience 
which  has  proved  undeniably  the  superior¬ 
ity  of  the  dead-beat,  people  may  still  be 
heard  to  assert  that  the  recoil  is  the  better 
escapement  of  the  two. 

Remontoire.' — Those  who  read  German 
and  French  will  in  their  horological  litera¬ 
ture  often  come  across  the  word  “  remon¬ 
toire.”  Originally  it  meant  a  spring  or 
other  device  which  is  wound  by  a  clock  and 
discharged  at  regular  intervals.  The  func¬ 
tion  of  a  remontoire  is  generally  either  to 
impart  impulse  to  the  pendulum  or  to  cause 
the  hands  of  the  clock  to  jump  through  cer¬ 
tain  spaces.  Though  this  word  comes  from 
the  French  it  is  not  now  used  in  that  lan¬ 
guage,  except  in  the  sense  of  a  stem-winder. 

Chronograph. — Although  the  chrono¬ 
graph,  on  account  of  its  ability  to  measure 


230 


ACTION  OF  CYLINDER  ESCAPEMENT. 


fractions  of  a  second,  has  almost  displaced 
the  independent  center  seconds  watch,  it  is 
by  no  means  a  perfect  construction.  The 
serrated  wheels  are  not  calculated  to  with¬ 
stand  continuous  wear,  and  it  is  evident 
that,  however  fine  the  serrations,  they 
would  cause  the  chronograph  hand  to  jump 
backward  or  forward  when  brought  into 
contact  unless  a  projection  and  groove  hap¬ 
pen  to  exactly  coincide.  This  is  often  ag¬ 
gravated  by  minute  portions  of  a  broken 
glass  or  other  grit  getting  into  the  serrations. 

Isochronism. — The  eye  of  the  balance 
spring  is  occasionally  operated  on  to  obtain 
isochronism,  and  is  left  more  open  for 
that  purpose.  It  is  found  that  alterations 
of  the  eye  are  most  effective  when  the  ends 
are  attached  about  one-eighth  short  of  half 
a  turn  or  one-eighth  short  of  a  whole  turn. 
Great  experience,  which  is  only  acquired 
after  many  failures,  is  required  to  effect  the 
desired  purpose,  as  in  setting  the  spring 
true  again  after  the  alteration,  the  effect  is 
easily  destroyed. 

Recoil  Escapement  v.  Anchor. — There 
are  watchmakers  who  believe  that  the  recoil 
is  a  better  escapement  than  the  dead  beat 
—mainly  because  the  former  requires  a 
greater  vibration  of  the  driving  power  to 
affect  the  extent  of  the  vibration  of  the 
pendulum  than  the  latter  does.  But  the 
matter  is  beyond  argument;  the  recoil  can 
be  cheaply  made  and  is  a  useful  escape¬ 
ment,  but  beyond  question  it  is  inferior  to 
the  dead-beat  in  its  time-keeping  qualities. 

Uniting  Escapement  Parts. — The  mode 
of  connecting  the  balance  and  roller  with 
the  lever  and  pallets  is  by  planting  the 
pieces  sufficiently  close  together,  so  that  the 
jewel  pin  of  the  roller  is  linked  into  the 
lever  notch,  by  which  contrivance  the  lever 
and  roller  can  turn  each  other  alternately. 
It  is  well  to  remark,  however,  that  the  vibra¬ 
tion  of  a  watch  balance  is  a  reciprocating 
circular  motion,  the  motion  being  recipro¬ 
cated  by  a  spiral  spring,  usually  called  the 
balance  spring,  one  end  of  which  is  fast¬ 
ened  to  the  collet  placed  on  the  balance 
axis,  and  the  other  end  to  a  stud. 

Testing  Escapement. — When  you  have 
mounted  the  watch  after  cleaning,  wind  a 
little  and  test  the  escapement.  Hold  a  fine 
broach  so  that  the  end  of  the  lever  will 
strike  it ;  this  will  throw  the  guard  point  or 
pin  against  the  roller  ;  if  this  will  catch  and 
hold  the  roller  after  the  broach  is  removed, 
the  roller  is  probably  rough  and  must  be  re- 
polished  ;  if  the  lever  will  throw  over  so 
far  that  the  roller  jewel  will  not  enter  the 


fork  without  striking,  then  the  lever  is  too 
short  and  must  be  corrected  by  bending  the 
guard  pin,  or  filing  back  the  guard  point, 
drilling  and  putting  in  a  pin  American 
style.  In  adjusting  the  guard  pin,  bend  it 
in  such  a  shape  that  the  end  shake  of  the 
part  cannot  change  the  action.  If  the  roller 
and  guard  action  is  all  right,  but  the' roller 
jewel  strikes  the  corner  of  the  fork  when 
the  lever  is  thrown  against  the  roller,  then 
the  jewel  must  be  changed  for  one  more 
flattened,  or  be  set  a  little  nearer  to  the 
staff. 

Pin  Pallet  Escapement.— This  excellent 
escapement,  invented  by  Mr.  Brocot,  is 
rarely  seen  except  in  small  French  clocks, 
but  appears  to  be  worthy  of  more  extended 
use.  The  fronts  of  the  teeth  of  the  escape 
wheel  are  sometimes  made  radial,  some¬ 
times  cut  back  so  as  to  bear  on  the  point 
only,  like  the  “Graham”;  and  sometimes 
set  forward  so  as  to  give  recoil  to  the  wheel 
during  the  motion  of  the  pendulum  beyond 
the  escaping  arc.  The  pallets,  generally 
of  ruby,  are  of  semicircular  form.  The 
diameter  of  each  is  a  trifle  less  than  the  dis¬ 
tance  between  two  teeth  of  the  large  wheel. 
The  angle  of  impulse  in  this  escapement 
bears  direct  reference  to  the  number  of 
teeth  embraced  by  the  pallets.  Ten  is  the 
usual  number.  The  distance  between  the 
escape  wheel  and  pallet  staff  centers  should 
not  be  less  than  the  radius  of  the  wheel 
multiplied  by  1.7.  This  gives  about  4  de¬ 
grees  of  impulse  measured  from  the  pallet 
staff  center. 

Value  of  Cylinder  Escapement. — The 
cylinder  escapement  is  essentially  a  fric¬ 
tional,  as  distinguished  from  a  detached, 
escapement.  It  performs  fairly  well  and  is- 
just  suited  for  the  lower  grades  of  watches. 
The  vibrations  of  the  balance  are  not  so 
much  affected  by  inequality  in  the  force 
transmitted  and  by  other  faults,  if  the  escape¬ 
ment  is  a  frictional  one,  and  the  work  com¬ 
paratively  coarse,  as  when  a  highly  de¬ 
tached  escapement  and  very  fine  pivots  are 
used. 

Action  of  Cylinder  Escapement. — In 
order  to  describe  the  action  of  the  cylinder 
escapement,  let  the  watchmaker  imagine 
that  the  pivot  of  a  tooth  of  the  escape  wheel 
is  pressing  against  the  outside  of  the  shell 
of  the  cylinder.  As  the  cylinder  on  which 
the  balance  is  mounted,  moves  around  in 
its  proper  direction  the  wedge-shaped  tooth 
of  the  escape  wheel  pushes  into  the  cylinder 
thereby  giving  it  impulse.  The  tooth  can¬ 
not  escape  at  the  other  side  of  the  cylinder 


EXAMINING  CYLINDER  ESCAPEMENT. 


23  I 


for  the  shell  of  the  cylinder  at  this  point  is 
rather  more  than  half  a  circle,  but  its  point 
rests  against  the  inner  side  of  the  shell  till 
the  balance  completes  its  vibration  and 
returns,  when  the  tooth  which  was  inside 
the  cylinder  escapes,  and  the  point  of  the 
succeeding  tooth  is  caught  on  the  outside 
of  the  shell. 

Drop  in  the  Cylinder  Escapement. — 
Though  excellent  for  ordinary  pocket 
watches,  the  cylinder  escapement  cannot  be 
said  to  be  equal  to  the  lever  and  some 
others,  where  great  accuracy  is  required. 
The  drop  of  the  escapement  is  the  cause  of 
much  trouble  to  watchmakers,  but  the  fol¬ 
lowing  method  will  enable  them  to  ascertain 
how  far  the  drops  are  equal  and  correct. 
The  movement  being  slightly  wound,  turn 
the  balance  with  a  fine  wire  or  slip  of  paper 
till  a  tooth  falls  ;  now  try  how  much  shake 
the  escape  wheel  has  and  allow  the  tooth  to 
escape;  then  try  again  and  go  all  round  the 
wheel  to  see  how  all  the  teeth  and  spaces 
agree  in  size.  To  correct  any  inequality  is 
certainly  a  job  for  an  expert  hand  ;  direc¬ 
tions  will  not  avail  much  unless  to  an  ex¬ 
pert.  When  the  tooth  contained  within 
the  cylinder  has  no  freedom  and  rubs  at 
the  point  and  heel,  there  is  no  internal 
drop;  when  the  tooth  has  escaped  and  the 
cylinder  rubs  on  the  point  of  one  tooth  and 
the  heel  of  the  next,  then  there  is  no  out¬ 
ward  drop.  The  internal  drop  is  increased 
by  reducing  the  length  of  the  teeth  ;  the 
external  drop  is  increased  by  increasing 
the  space  between  the  teeth.  When  the 
drop  is  very  slight,  the  watch  is  quite  liable 
to  stop  through  excessive  friction  ;  in  the 
case  of  unequal  drop,  the  rate  of  a  watch 
cannot  be  maintained,  and  occasional  stop¬ 
pages  will  occur.  This  fault  is  found  by 
dotting  the  balance  with  spots  of  rouge,  and 
carefully  noting  the  vibrations,  which,  if 
unequal,  indicate  unequal  drops.  Though 
this  is  the  usual  course,  the  same  effect  may 
be  the  result  if  some  teeth  lift  more  than 
others.  A  noisy  drop  is  caused  by  badly 
polished  surfaces,  and  in  such  a  case  the 
wheel  of  the  cylinder  should  be  carefully 
noticed. 

Cylinder  Escapement. — One  property 
which  the  cylinder  escapement  possesses, 
and  which  renders  it  peculiarly  well  adapted 
for  going-barrel  watches  is  that  it  is  not  so 
much  affected  by  any  change  in  the  motive 
power  of  the  watch  as  any  other  escape¬ 
ment,  the  friction  rest  of  the  tooth  on  the 
cylinder  exercising  a  compensating  power 
over  the  extent  of  the  vibrations,  so  that 


any  addition  to  the  motive  force  is  attended 
with  additional  friction  on  the  cylinder, 
while  the  balance  is  performing  the  supple¬ 
mentary  arcs  of  vibration,  and  so  retarding 
it  and  compensating  for  the  additional  force 
of  the  impulses.  This  isochronizing  power 
was  what  recommended  it  especially  to  the 
Swiss,  who  saw  the  possibility  of  suppress¬ 
ing  the  fusee,  of  which  they  never  had 
been  in  favor,  and  which,  in  fact,  they 
never  understood  thoroughly. 

Dead-beat  or  “  Graham  ”  Escapement. 
— This  escapement  is  considered  to  be  the 
best  for  regulators  and  other  clocks  with 
seconds  pendulum.  The  oTily  defect  in¬ 
herent  in  its  construction  is  that  the  thick¬ 
ening  of  the  oil  on  tfie  pallets  will  affect  the 
rate  of  the^jdoekaf ter  it  has  been  going 
some  time.  Notwithstanding  this,  it  has 
held  its  own  against  all  other  escapements 
on  account  of  its  simplicity  and  certainty  of 
action.  The  pallets  of  the  Graham  escape¬ 
ment  were  formerly  made  to  escape  over 
fifteen  teeth  of  the  wheel,  and  until  recently 
ten,  but  now  many  escapements  are  made 
with  pallets  escaping  over  but  eight  teeth. 
This  reduces  the  length  of  the  impulse  plane, 
and  the  length  of  the  run  on  the  dead  face 
for  a  given  arc  of  vibration,  and  conse¬ 
quently  the  relative  effect  of  the  thickening 
of  the  oil.  The  angle  of  impulse  is  kept 
small  for  the  same  reason.  There  is  not 
much  gained  by  making  the  pallets  embrace 
a  less  number  of  teeth  thin  eight,  for  the 
shake  in  the  pivot  holes  and  inaccuracies 
of  work  cannot  be  reduced  in  the  same  ratio, 
and  are  therefore  greater  in  proportion. 
This  involves  larger  angles  and  more  drop. 
It  is  purely  a  practical  question,  and  has 
been  decided  by  the  adoption  of  eight  teeth, 
as  a  good  mean. 

Detached  Levfr  Watch. — The  charac¬ 
teristic  of  the  detached  lever  is  its  fork, 
which  is  solidly  united  with  the  pallets. 
At  the  other  end  of  the  fork  it  is  furnished 
with  a  prolongation  for  establishing  a  cen¬ 
tral  poise,  nevertheless,  it  may  be  observed 
in  many  watches,  that  in  spite  of  this  pro¬ 
vision  attached  to  the  fork,  this  body  is  far 
from  being  perfectly  and  evenly  balanced 
upon  its  axis.  As  may  be  supposed,  this 
absence  of  equipoise  prevents  the  adjust¬ 
ment  in  the  horizontal  and  vertical  posi¬ 
tions,  and  before  the  adjuster  expends  any 
work,  it  is  necessary  to  place  pallets  and 
fork  into  the  poising  tool,  and  to  establish 
the  equipoise  in  a  suitable  way. 

Examining  Gylinder  Escapement. — 
See  that  cylinder  and  wheel  are  perfectly 


DUPLEX  SLAP  E- W 1 1 E  K I .. 


upright.  Remove  the  balance  spring  and 
put  the  cylinder  and  cock  in  their  places. 
Then  with  a  little  power  on  and  a  wedge 
of  cork  under  the  balance  to  check  its  mo¬ 
tion,  try  if  all  the  escape  wheel  teeth  have 
sufficient  drop,  both  inside  and  out.  If  the 
drop  is  sufficient  inside,  with  none  outside, 
the  wheel  is  too  small;  if  the  reverse,  the 
wheel  is  too  large — that  is,  provided  the 
cylinder  is  planted  the  correct  depth.  If 
some  of  the  teeth  only  are  without  neces¬ 
sary  freedom,  make  a  hole  in  thin  sheet 
brass  of  such  a  size  that  one  of  the  teeth 
that  has  proper  ghape  will  just  enter.  Use 
this  as  a  gauge  to  shorten  the  full  teeth  by. 
For  this  purpose  use  either  steel  and  oil¬ 
stone  dust  or  a  sapphire  file,  polish  well 
with  metal  and  rouge,  and  finish  with  a 
burnisher.  Be  careful  to  operate  on  the 
noses  of  the  teeth  only,  and  round  them 
.both  ways,  so  that  a  mere  point  is  in  con¬ 
tact  with  the  cylinder.  If  the  inside  drop 
is  right  and  there  is  no  outside  drop  with 
any  of  the  teeth,  although  this  would  in¬ 
dicate  a  wheel  too  small  it  may  be  prudent 
to  change  the  cylinder  for  one  of  the  same 
inside  diameter,  but  thinner,  rather  than 
remove  the  wheel,  for  it  often  happens  that 
a  larger  wheel  would  not  clear  the  fourth 
pinion. 

Restoring  the  Color  of  a  Nickel 
Movement. — The  following  method  for 
restoring  the  color  of  a  nickel  movement  is 
recommended  by  a  correspondent.  Take 
fifty  parts  rectified  spirits  of  wine,  one  part 
sulphuric  acid,  and  one  part  nitric  acid. 
Dip  the  pieces  for  about  ten  or  fifteen 
seconds  into  this  bath,  then  rinse  them  in 
cold  water,  and  throw  into  rectified  spirits 
of  wine.  Dry  them  with  a  piece  of  fine 
linen  or  in  sawdust.  Nickel  and  the  ma¬ 
jority  of  other  metals  which  are  liable  to 
tarnish,  may  also  be  restored  to  their  orig¬ 
inal  color  by  dipping  into  the  following 
bath  :  Dissolve  in  half  a  glass  of  water,  six 
or  seven  grains  of  cyanide  of  potassium  ; 
plunge  the  pieces  into  the  solution,  and 
withdraw  them  immediately.  As  the  cya¬ 
nide  mixes  well  with  the  water,  it  is  suffi¬ 
cient  to  rinse  them  at  once  in  the  latter  to 
destroy  any  traces  of  the  acid.  After  this, 
dip  the  pieces  in  spirits  of  wine,  and  dry 
in  boxwood  dust  to  keep  them  from  rusting. 
The  balance  spring  even  may  be  subject¬ 
ed  to  this  operation  without  any  danger. 
If  the  pieces  to  be  restored  are  greasy,  they 
must  be  cleaned  in  benzine  before  being 
dipped  in  the  cyanide  because  it  will  not 
touch  grease.  Cyanide  of  potassium  being 


a  voilent  poison,  great  care  must  be  exer¬ 
cised  and  the  operation  should  be  per¬ 
formed  in  a  well-ventilated  place.  The 
same  bath,  preserved  in  a  bottle,  may  be 
used  for  a  long  time. 

Banking  American  Watch. — If  an 
American  watch  has  movable  bankings, 
proceed  to  adjust  them  so  that  the  guard 
pin  will  stand  as  close  to  the  roller  as  per¬ 
fect  freedom  in  all  positions  will  allow. 
The  finer  the  watch  the  closer  it  can  be 
banked  with  safety;  with  a  cheap  affair, 
plenty  of  play  should  be  left. 

Over  ban  king. — Overbanking  depends 
on  the  position  of  the  guard  pin  or  point, 
with  reference  to  the  roller  table.  If  the 
guard  pin  stands  too  far  from  the  roller 
table,  it  will  overbank.  Some  watchmakers 
will  advise  to  put  in  a  large  roller  jewel  ; 
but  this  will  not  remedy  the  matter,  and  it 
is  therefore  quite  useless.  We  would  sug¬ 
gest  that  the  repairer  bend  the  pin,  a  fairly 
sharp  bend,  close  to  the  lever,  and  then  a 
little  distance  from  this  bend,  bend  it 
straight  up  so  that  it  will  stand  perpendic¬ 
ularly  where  it  works  against  the  roller 
table.  The  guard  pin  should  always  stand 
perpendicularly  where  it  touches  the  roller 
table  ;  if  it  does  not,  the  banking  will  be 
different  when  the  watch  lies  on  its  back 
and  when  on  its  face,  unless  the  end  shape 
of  the  lever  and  balance  are  exactly  the 
same  :  even  then  there  is  danger  of  trouble, 
as  the  lever  may  not  drop  as  soon  as  the 
balance.  Again  the  pin  is  liable  to  stick 
or  catch  against  the  table  when  it  stands 
slanting. 

Duplex  Watch. —  In  affirmation  of  the 
opinion  some  time  ago  expressed  by  The 
Circular  about  the  duplex  watch,  Mr. 
Glasgow  says:  “When  we  consider  the 
delicacy  of  this  escapement,  its  unsuitabil¬ 
ity  for  a  full  plate  watch,  and  the  way  many 
of  these  watches  were  made,  we  may  easily 
understand  why  the  duplex  escapement 
got  a  bad  name  in  that  quarter  of  the  world, 
and  also  how  it  was  the  Americans  took  to 
machinery,  and  made  watches  themselves. 
It  must  have  taken  a  good  deal  of  ingenuity 
to  devise  so  thoroughly  bad  a  watch  as  a 
full  plate  duplex,  and  what  was  bad  in  the 
original  construction  was  soon  made  worse 
by  the  American  repairers  and  the  fitters  of 
these  movements  to  the  cases.  The  con¬ 
sequence  has  been  that  an  escapement 
which  is  capable  of  and  has  given  excellent 
results,  has  gradually  gone  out  of  favor, 
and  almost  out  of  use.” 

Duplex  Scape-Wheel. — The  train  used 


USE  OE  WASHERS. 


233 


in  duplex  watches  is  invariably  the  18,000, 
as  in  the  chronometer,  and  the  balance  usu¬ 
ally  vibrates  nearly  a  turn.  Overbacking 
cannot  take  place  with  this  escapement  as 
it  does  with  the  cylinder  and  the  lever,  the 
effect  of  the  balance  vibrating  too  far  will 
cause  the  escapement  to  “run,”  that  is, 
two  or  more  teeth  will  escape  at  one  vibra¬ 
tion,  causing  the  watch  to  gain  a  few  sec¬ 
onds.  as  is  the  case  with  the  chronometer. 
Various  methods  were  tried  to  prevent  this 
running  or  tripping  of  the  wheel.  The  old- 
fashioned  plan  was  to  fix  a  stud  or  pin  on 
the  balance  staff  just  above  the  pallet,  hav¬ 
ing  a  slot  cut  in  it  into  which  a  pin  fixed  in 
the  staff,  projected,  allowing  it  to  move  a 
quarter  of  a  turn.  This  stud  had  a  sort  of 
pallet  projecting  from  it,  and,  if  the  balance, 
moved  more  than  half  a  turn  either  way, 
this  pallet  came  in  contact  with  a  banking 
stud  or  pin  fixed  in  the  plate. 

Graham  Escapement. — The  Graham  es¬ 
capement  requires  a  heavy  pendulum,  es¬ 
pecially  if  the  train  is  comparatively  rough. 
The  clock  weight  must  be  sufficient  to 
overcome  increased  resistance  arising  from 
inaccuracy  of  work;  consequently  when 
the  train  runs  freely  so  much  extra  pres¬ 
sure's  thrown  upon  the  dead  faces  of  the 
pallets  that  a  light  pendulum  has  not  suf- 
cient  energy  to  unlock  and  the  clock 
stops. 

Proportion  of  Scape-Wheel  to  Pinion. 
—  It  is  a  good  rule,  when  a  repairer  takes 
an  escapement  into  his  hands,  to  first  look 
at  the  scapewheel  and  pinion  to  see  that  he 
has  not  a  fully  large  wheel  to  the  pinion. 
Next  let  him  hold  up  the  pallets  to  the 
light  to  see  that  they  have  not  very  great 
angles  on  them.  Then  let  him  compare  the 
radii  of  the  lever  and  wheel  and  see  that 
the  lever  is  not  much  longer  than  the  wheel, 
and  finally  see  that  the  roller  goes  three  or 
four  times  in  the  lever,  reckoning  the  roller 
from  balance  staff  to  ruby  pin.  If  he  has 
these  things  the  escapement  will  do  well  as 
regards  its  pieces,  all  the  rest  depending 
upon  properly  fitted  pivots,  proper  depth 
and  freedom,  well  uprighted  staffs,  poising, 
hooking  and  equalizing. 

Ratio  of  Spring  to  Balance. — The 
momentum  of  a  moving  body  varies  with 
its  velocity,  and  in  the  coils  of  a  balance 
spring  the  variation  is  according  to  the 
square  of  their  distances  from  their  centers 
of  motions,  and  as  the  center  of  gyration 
in  the  mass  of  each  coil  is  always  nearer 
the  center  of  motion  than  are  the  balance 
screws,  it  is  self-evident  that  these  two 


factors  bear  unfavorable  relations  to  each 
other,  and  consequently  the  one  cannot  be 
made  to  compromise  with  the  other  for  the 
faults  of  either. 

The  Safety  Action. — See  to  the  safety 
action  ;  when  the  tooth  drops  on  to  the 
locking,  the  safety  pin  should  just  be  clear 
of  the  roller.  If  it  is  not  clear,  the  edge  of 
the  roller  should  be  polished  down  till  it  is 
right.  If  there  is  more  than  clearance,  the 
safety  pin  must  be  brought  closer  to  the 
roller.  See  upon  pressing  the  safety  pin 
against  the  roller  that  the  tooth  does  not 
leave  the  locking,  and  that  the  impulse  pin 
is  free  to/enter  the  notch  without  butting 
on  the  horn  of  the  lever;  also  that  the 
safety^  action  is  sound,  so  that  the  pin  is  in 
__noAdanger  of  passing  the  roller.  If  the  ac¬ 
tion  is  not  sound,  the  diameter  of  the  roller 
should  be  reduced  and  the  safety  pin 
brought  toward  it  sufficiently  to  get  a  broad 
action,  if  it  can  be  done  ;  but  if  the  escape¬ 
ment  has  been  so  badly  proportioned  as 
not  to  allow  of  a  second  action  being  ob¬ 
tained  in  this  way  the  pin  must  be  shifted 
forward  and  the  bankings  opened  to  allow 
more  run. 

Guard  Pin  Depth. — When  a  guard  pin 
depth  is  too  shallow,  the  pin  must  be  bent 
minutely  inward  to  the  roller,  and  the  bank¬ 
ings  opened  a  trifle.  When  a  guard  pin 
depth  is  too  deep,  the  edge  of  the  roller 
may  be  topped  down  with  a  bell  metal 
polisher  and  sharp  rouge.  If  a  screw  is 
placed  up  through  the  nearer  of  the  turns, 
part  of  the  polisher  will  work  on  the  screw 
and  part  on  the  roller’s  edge,  so  as  to  keep 
the  latter  square. 

No  Washers. — Washers  either  laid  un¬ 
der  or  mounted  upon  the  minute  wheel  pin 
are  occasionally  found.  This  remedy,  made 
use  of  for  raising  the  depthing  of  the  min¬ 
ute  wheel  to  the  plane  of  the  cannon  pinion, 
is  not  permissible,  because  such  a  small 
steel  disc  is  lost  only  too  readily. 

Use  of  Washers.— If  the  watch  accel¬ 
erates  its  rate,  bring  it  to  time  by  means  of 
washers  under  the  heads  of  the  screws,  if 
the  balance  is  not  provided  with  mean-time 
screws.  These  washers  are  cut  out  of 
brass  or  gold  plate  rolled  down  to  as  thin 
as  rrnnr  of  an  inch.  It  is  best  to  have  three 
pieces  of  stock,  toVtt,  nunr,  twtt,  in  thick¬ 
ness.  A  half-dozen  washer  cutters  will  em¬ 
brace  all  the  sizes  of  American  balance 
screws.  These  washer  cutters  are  punches 
the  size  of  the  head  of  a  screw  with  under¬ 
cut  end,  a  “  tit  ”  protecting  the  size  of  the 
threaded  portion  of  the  screw.  Place  pairs 


234 


BLEACHING  WATCH  DIAL,  ETC. 


of  these  washers  under  opposite  screws, 
usually  the  screws  at  the  extremities  of  the 
balance  arms.  A  little  experience  will  soon 
guide  you  about  the  thickness  of  stock  re¬ 
quired  to  correct  given  errors  ;  also,  you 
can  always  present  the  watch  with  the  reg¬ 
ulator  in  the  center,  something  which  many 
customers  look  at.  Punch  out  the  washers 
on  a  lead  block. 

The  Collet. — 'The  balance  spring  collet 
often  gives  trouble,  owing  to  bad  fitting  and 
want  of  freedom  of  the  cock  and  screw- 
heads  of  the  index  piece.  I  usually  put 
my  watches  in  beat  by  moving  the  collet 
with  a  fine  screw-driver  or  drill  in  the  slot, 
without  shifting  the  stud  slit  of  the  cock, 
resting  the  cock  on  the  board  paper,  and 
simply  drawing  the  balance  a  sufficient  dis¬ 
tance  to  get  at  the  collet.  I  find  that  being 
out  of  beat  is  a  greater  source  of  stoppage 
than  anything  else,  and  suppose  the  trouble 
and  danger  attending  frequent  removal  of 
the  spring  and  balance  the  reason  why  it  is 
overlooked,  and  devised  this  plan  to  save 
trouble  and  insure  accuracy  of  beat. 

To  Clean  a  Gold  Dial. — First  dis¬ 
solve  one-half  ounce  of  cyanide  of  potash 
in  hot  water;  to  this  add  two  ounces  of 
strongest  ammonia,  and  one-half  ounce 
spirits  of  wine.  Dip  the  dial  fora  few  sec¬ 
onds  and  immediately  immerse  in  warm 
water,  brushing  it  lightly;  this  will  soon 
show  a  clean  dial;  then  rinse  and  dry  off 
in  hot  boxwood  dust.  Some  use  diluted 
nitric  acid  for  cleaning  dials,  or  hvposul- 
phate  of  soda  will  do  it  if  dissolved  and 
mixed  with  ammonia ;  but  with  either  of 
these  the  painted  numbers  go  with  the  dirt, 
so  only  dials  with  gold  numbers  can  be 
done  with  this  process.  We  could  give 
several  recipes  for  dial  cleaning,  but  the 
above  is  as  simple  and  effective  as  anything 
we  know  of. 

Safety  Pin. —The  object  of  the  safety 
pin  is  to  prevent  the  wheel  being  unlocked 
except  when  the  impulse  pin  is  in  the  notch 
of  the  lever.  The  banking  pins  keep  the 
motion  of  the  lever  within  the  desired 
limits.  They  should  be  placed  where  any 
blow  from  the  impulse  pin  on  the  outside 
of  the  lever  is  received  direct.  They  are 
sometimes  placed  at  the  tail  of  the  lever, 
but  in  that  position  the  banking  pins  re¬ 
ceive  the  blow  through  the  pallet-staff 
pivots,  which  are  liable  to  be  broken  in 
consequence. 

Length  of  Lever. — You  may  easily  as¬ 
certain  whether  or  not  the  lever  is  of  proper 


length  by  measuring  from  the  guard  point 
to  the  pallet  staff,  and  then  comparing  with 
the  roller  table;  the  diameter  of  the  table 
should  always  be  just  one-half  the  length 
measured  on  the  lever.  The  rule  will  work 
both  ways,  and  may  be  useful  in  cases 
where  a  new  table  roller  has  to  be  supplied. 

To  Reduce  Diameter  of  Dial. — Rest¬ 
ing  the  dial  in  an  inclined  position  against 
a  block,  file  its  edge  with  a  smooth  or  half¬ 
smooth  file,  which  must  only  be  allowed  to 
act  while  advancing,  and  is  at  the  same  time 
displaced  sideways  and  turned  so  as  to  fol¬ 
low  the  contour  of  the  dial.  The  file  should 
be  dipped  occasionally  in  turpentine,  and 
when  sufficient  enamel  has  bee.n  removed, 
pass  a  new  emery  stick  over  it  to  remove 
the  file  marks. 

Replacing  a  Dial  Foot. — To  replace  a 
dial  foot,  prepare  a  piece  of  copper  wire 
with  an  enlarged  surface  where  it  is  at¬ 
tached  to  the  dial.  Tin  this  surface,  scrape 
away  the  enamel  for  its  reception  by  means 
of  a  graver  moistened  with  turpentine,  tin 
the  copper,  place  the  wire  in  position  and 
gently  heat  with  a  blow-pipe. 

Broaching  Hole  in  Enamel  Dial. — 
Use  a  flat-ended  drill  or  a  conical  broach 
of  copper  into  which  diamond  powder  has 
been  hammered.  A  graver  kept  moistened 
with  turpentine  is  sometimes  used.  The 
edges  of  holes  in  dials  may  be  trimmed 
with  corundum  sticks  to  be  obtained  in 
material  stores. 

Dial  Feet. — In  common  watches,  pins 
falling  out  of  the  dial  feet  are  a  fruitful 
source  of  trouble.  Sometimes  a  dial  foot 
is  burst  at  the  hole.  In  this  case  a  better 
plan  than  removing  the  foot  is  to  encircle 
it  with  a  bit  of  tubing,  soldered  to  the  cop¬ 
per  of  the  dial.  The  hole  in  the  pillar  plate 
can  be  opened  to  suit  the  tubing  and  anew 
pin  fitted,  with  the  assurance  that  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  the  foot  has  not  been  altered. 

Bleaching  Watch  Dial,  Etc.— Dis¬ 
solve  1-2  oz.  cyanide  of  potassium  in  a 
quart  of  hot  water  and  add  2  oz.  strong 
liquor  ammonia  and  1-2  oz.  spirits  of  wine 
(these  two  may  have  been  mixed  pre¬ 
viously).  Dip  the  dials,  whether  silver, 
gold  or  gilt,  in  it  for  a  few  seconds,  then 
put  them  in  warm  water;  brush  well  with 
soap,  and  afterward  with  clear  water  ;  rinse 
and  dry  in  hot  box-wood  dust.  Another 
good  plan  is  to  greatly  heat  the  dial  and 
dip  in  diluted  nitric  acid,  but  this  method 
must  not  be  adopted  for  dials  with  painted 
figures,  for  these  would  be  destroyed. 


TRUING  THE  BALANCE. 


235 


NOTES  ON  ADJUSTMENT  AND  COMPENSATED  BALANCE. 


Adjustment.  —  When  adjusting  a  de¬ 
tached  lever,  examine  the  motion  of 
the  balance  with  an  attentive  eye.  A  bal¬ 
ance  which  does  not  run  truly  circular,  the 
rim  of  which  does  not  everywhere  show 
the  same  breadth  and  thickness,  or  one  in 
which  steel  and  brass  are  unequally  di¬ 
vided,  is  entirely  unfit  for  close  adjust¬ 
ment.  The  writer  saw,  some  months  ago, 
an  excellent  balance  manufactured  in  Ger¬ 
many,  which  he  considered  very  proper 
and  useful.  The  timing  screws  were  placed 
in  longitudinally  cut  holes  in  the  balance 
rim.  A  delicate  incision  in  the  direction 


be  divided  by  the  second,  the  number  ob¬ 
tained  gives  the  number  of  revolutions  of 
the  escape  wheel  in  an  hour.  Multiply 
this  figure  by  twice  the  number  of  teeth  of 
the  escape  wheel,  and  the  product  is  the 
number  of  single  vibrations  performed  by 
the  balance  or  pendulum  in  one  hour. 

Balance  Vibration. — The  phrase  com¬ 
monly  in  use  “  balance  makes  a  turn,”  or 
“  a  turn-and-a-half,”  requires,  perhaps,  ex¬ 
planation,  as  it  is  obviously  impossible  for 
a  watch  with  any  ordinary  escapement  to 
go  if  the  balance  swings  round  over  a 
complete  turn  ;  the  meaning  is  that  it 


of  length  is  made  through  the  screwTrctles — -rfiakes  a  turn,  etc.,  at  each  complete  vibra- 


in  such  a  manner  that  they  have  a  slight 
elasticity,  which  enables  the  screws  to 
move  very  gently,  without  becoming  loose. 

Point  in  Adjusting. — The  distance  of 
the  curbpins  one  from  the  other  should, 
under  no  consideration,  be  greater  than 
twice  the  thickness  of  the  spring  coil.  The 
center  of  the  spring  must  coincide  exactly 
with  that  of  the  jewel  hole.  The  inner 
coil  of  the  balance  spring  around  the  collet 
must  be  at  a  sufficient  distance  from  the 
latter,  so  that  there  is  no  danger  that  it 
will  either  touch  this  or  the  place  of  fasten¬ 
ing  in  the  folding  of  the  spring.  This  con¬ 
tact,  which  can  be  recognized  by  a  jerk 
similar  to  the  crack  of  a  whip,  would' cause 
acceleration  of  the  large  vibrations. 

Compensation. — The  principle  of  com¬ 
pensation  adopted  has  nearly  always  been 
the  construction  of  the  pendulum  with 
two  or  more  metals  of  different  expansi¬ 
bility,  so  arranged  that  the  position  of  the 
center  .of  oscillation  shall  remain  approx¬ 
imately  unaltered.  The  most  successful 
inventions  have  been,  for  regulators  and 
house  clocks,  the  mercurial  and  gridiron 
pendulums,  and  for  large  turret  clocks,  the 
zinc  and  iron  compensation  which,  while 
being  as  effective  as  the  mercurial,  is  a 
good  deal  cheaper. 

To  Calculate  Vibrations. — In  order  to 
calculate  the  vibration  of  a  pendulum  or 
balance,  multiply  together  the  number  of 
teeth  of  the  wheels,  starting  with  the  one 
that  carries  the  minute  hand  (which,  there¬ 
fore,  makes  one  revolution  in  an  hour,  but 
exclude  the  scape  wheel.  Next  multiply 
together  the  number  of  pinion  leaves,  com¬ 
mencing  with  the  one  that  engages  with 
the  center  wheel.  If,  then,  the  first  product 


tion — that  is,  in  its  backward  and  forward 
arcs  of  motion  added  together. 

Quarter  Screws. — When  withdrawing 
or  inserting  the  quarter  screws,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  take  the  movement  out  of  the 
case  :  simply  hold  the  balance  rim  at  the 
place  where  the  screw  to  be  operated  on  is 
placed,  with  a  pair  of  tweezers,  and  make 
the  alteration  in  such  a  manner  as  to  exert 
no  latent  pressure  on  the  balance  rim  or 
staff  pivots.  Very  delicate  and  sharply 
filed  screw-drivers  are  necessary  for  this 
job. 

Balance  Vibration. — The  complete  or 
full  vibration  of  the  balance  is  a  motion 
produced  by  several  additions  of  the  im¬ 
pulsive  force,  the  excursion  of  the  balance 
emanating  from  the  first  impulse  frequently 
being  about  120°  by  measure  on  the  balance 
circle,  while  the  vibration  at  the  end  of  the 
additional  impulse  is,  perhaps,  200°  ;  this, 
doubled  for  both  sides  of  vibration,  makes 
400°  altogether,  so  that  the  impulses,  as  we 
see  them  at  the  full  vibration,  are  given 
when  the  balance  is  already  in  motion, 
and  no  mechanical  power  ever  operates 
with  its  full  energy  when  the  impelled  body 
is  already  in  motion,  and  in  this  case  the 
force  of  pressure  of  the  escape  wheel  and 
lever  gradually  decreases,  as  the  balance 
crank  or  roller  recedes  faster  from  these 
impulse  agents.  It  is  only  at  the  first  im¬ 
pulse  that  the  energy  of  the  main  power  is 
fully  effective  in  impelling  the  balance  ;  all 
the  after  impulses  gradually  decrease  in 
intensity  up  to  the  full  vibration. 

Truing  the  Balance.  — -  Truing  the 
balance  is  best  done  with  copper-lined 
tweezers.  One  pair  needs  a  slot  in  each 
jaw,  transversely,  so  as  to  catch  the  arm 


ADJUSTING  BALANCE. 


236 

near  the  rim  to  elevate  the  segments  to 
match.  To  make  the  arms  the  same  height, 
place  the  wheel  on  a  stick  with  a  large  hole 
in  it,  and  when  the  staff  is  at  one  side  and 
the  end  of  the  arm  at  the  other,  rub  the 
arm  with  a  piece  of  pegwood  so  as  to 
elevate  the  arm,  and  watch  the  height  of 
the  two.  Perfectly  true  and  poised  bal¬ 
ances  are  very  necessary  to  correct  timing, 
but  recollect  a  perfect  round  is  more  essen¬ 
tial  than  a  perfect  flat. 

Examine  the  Balance. — I  have  been 
in  the  habit  for  several  years  of  putting  my 
balance  wheel  separate  from  all  connec¬ 
tions  and  trying  its  freedom  in  all  posi¬ 
tions,  and  if  you  will  try  this  method  you 
will  be  surprised  how  many  you  will  find 
that  bind  or  are  not  perfectly  free  in  all 
positions,  when  you  give  them  the  slightest 
impulse  by  a  trial  of  the  hand  holding  the 
plate.  Then,  too,  carefully  examine  each 
jewel  ;  you  will  be  surprised  how  many  are 
either  loose  in  the  setting  or  plate. 

End  Shake  of  Balance. — When  you 
are  through  with  cleaning  a  watch,  and 
♦  have  put  in  the  balance,  see  that  it  has  but 
a  slight  end  shake,  and  is  in  beat. 

The  Balance. — There  are  three  factors 
upon  which  the  time  of  the  vibration  of 
the  balance  depends  :  1.  The  weight,  or, 
rather,  the  mass  of  the  balance ;  2.  The 
distance  of  its  center  of  gyration  from  the 
center  of  motion  ;  or,  to  speak  roughly,  the 
diameter  of  the  balance  ;  3.  The  strength 
of  the  balance  spring,  or,  more  strictly,  its 
power  to  resist  change  of  form. 

Removing  Blue  from  Balance  Arms. 
— When  it  becomes  necessary,  in  pivoting 
an  unduly  hard  staff,  to  partly  draw  its 
temper,  there  is  danger  of  bluing  the  bal¬ 
ance  arms.  Nothing  makes  a  more  un¬ 
sightly  job  than  having  the  balance  arms 
blued  or  almost  blackened,  half  way  to  the 
rim  as  may  sometimes  be  seen.  If  they 
should  become  slightly  colored  by  heat, 
the  blue  may  be  removed  by  dilute  hydro¬ 
chloric  acid,  cleaning  thoroughly  with 
alcohol  after  to  prevent  their  rusting. 

Conditions  of  the  Balance. — The  time 
in  which  a  balance  will  vibrate  cannot  be 
predicted  from  its  dimensions  alone.  A 
pendulum  of  a  given  length  always  vibrates 
in  the  same  time,  as  long  as  it  is  kept  at 
the  same  distance  from  the  center  of  the 
eartli,  because  gravity,  the  force  that  im¬ 
pels  it,  is  always  the  same,  but  the  want  of 
constancy  in  the  force  of  the  balance 
spring,  which,  in  watches  and  chronome¬ 
ters,  takes  the  place  of  gravity  and  governs 


the  vibrations  of  the  balance,  is  one  of  the 
chief  difficulties  of  the  times.  There  is 
another  point  of  difference  between  the 
pendulum  and  the  balance.  The  time  of 
vibration  of  the  former  is  unaffected  by  its 
mass,  because  every  increment  of  the  mass 
carries  with  it  a  proportional  addition  to 
the  influence  of  gravity,  but  by  adding  to 
the  mass  of  a  balance  the  strength  of  the 
balance  spring  is  not  increased  at  all,  and 
therefore  the  vibrations  of  the  balance  be¬ 
come  slower. 

The  Compensated  Balance. —  It  is  well 
known  that  the  linear  extension  of  all 
balance  springs  is  the  same  by  increasing 
heat,  but  the  diminishing  of  the  elasticity 
is  disproportionate,  and  corresponds  to  the 
degree  of  hardness  of  the  spring.  This 
fact  may  explain  the  variation  of  watches 
that  have  been  regulated  in  temperate 
climates,  when  exposed  to  the  extremes  of 
the  heat  or  cold.  A  well-lrardened  balance 
spring  retains  its  elasticity  best,  and  in 
some  temperatures  insures  the  best  rate. 
Not  so,  however,  in  extreme  ones,  since  it 
is  subjected  to  a  greater  change.  The  gen¬ 
eral  compensated  balance  is  unable  to 
remedy  this  defect.  It  is  apt  to  increase 
it,  because  its  compensating  arms  do  not, 
by  increasing  heat,  move  toward  the  center, 
but  toward  the  sides.  Ingenuity  has  for  a 
long  time  been  at  work  to  overcome  this 
evil,  and  has  devised  many  contrivances, 
of  which  the  auxiliary  compensation  by 
springs,  dating  to  1835,  an<^  more  recently 
added  compensating  arms,  need  only  to  be 
mentioned.  Both  contrivances,  however, 
do  not  work  to  satisfaction,  and  have  not 
been  adopted  in  practise. 

Adjusting  Balance. — The  compensat¬ 
ing  balance  fails  to  meet  the  temperature 
error  exactly  ;  the  rims  expand  a  little  too 
much  with  a  decrease  of  temperature,  and 
with  increase  of  temperature  the  contrac¬ 
tion  of  the  rims  is  insufficient  ;  consequently 
a  watch  or  chronometer  can  be  correctly 
adjusted  for  temperature  at  two  points 
only.  A  marine  chronometer  is  usually  ad¬ 
justed  at  45  degrees  and  90  degrees,  unless 
special  adjustment  is  ordered  to  suit  par¬ 
ticularly  hot  or  cold  climates  ;  pocket 
watches  at  about  50  degrees  and  85  de¬ 
grees.  In  this  range  there  would  be  what 
is  called  a  middle  temperature  error  of 
about  two  seconds  in  24  hours.  To  avoid 
this  middle  temperature  error  in  marine 
chronometers  various  forms  of  compensa¬ 
tion  balances  have  been  devised  and  num¬ 
berless  additions  or  auxiliaries  have  been 


CARE  OF  PALLETS. 


237 


attached  to  the  ordinary  form  of  balance 
for  the  same  purpose. 

Balance  Vibrations. —  It  should  be  re¬ 
membered  that  if  the  vibrations  of  a  bal¬ 
ance  are  to  be  isochronous  the  impulse 


must  be  delivered  in  the  middle  of  its  vi¬ 
bration,  and  that  therefore  no  spring  will 
be  satisfactory  if  the  escapement  is  defec¬ 
tive  in  this  particular. 


NOTES  ON  BALANCE  TRUING. 


In  truing  a  balance  do  not  use  pliers 
nor  any  tool  that  leaves  a  mark  on 
the  rim.  Every  kink  can  be  taken  out 
with  the  fingers  ;  sometimes  it  is  necessary 
to  use  the  thumb-nail  or  finger-nail  as  a 
fulcrum,  but  they  leave  no  mark,  while 
pliers  or  tweezers  always  do.  Thousands 
of  balances  have  been  ruined  in  appear¬ 
ance  by  the  reckless  use  of  suctL'Leolsr' 
The  ability  to  put  two  and  two  together, 
and  a  little  patience  with  the  first  two  or 
three  balances,  ^re  all  that  is  necessary  to 
convince  the  average  watchmaker  that 
“  bending  tools  ”  are  out  of  place  in  such 
work.  Calipers  adapted  for  this  kind  of 
work  can  be  obtained  from  any  material 
dealer  to-day,  and  while  they  cost  more 
than  the  articles  of  Swiss  manufacture, 
there  is  no  comparison  between  them  in 
actual  value.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have 
them  jeweled;  hardened  steel  ends  with  a 
lateral  hole  to  give  the  pivot  clearance, 
allowing  the  conical  shoulders  only  to  bear 
the  strain,  without  touching  the  pivots,  is 
all  you  need.  Then  you  can  “  touch  up  ” 
a  balance  without  taking  it  out  of  the  cali¬ 
pers  or  breaking  a  pivot. 

Compensated  Watches.  —  No 
watch  is  now  made  without  a  compensation 
balance,  but  there  are  also  many  bad  ones 
made  with  them,  and  it  has  become  the 
custom  to  put  what  are  called  compensa¬ 
tion  balances  in  the  very  worst  of  the  for¬ 
eign  watches  sold  everywhere  ;  these  bal¬ 
ances  are  infinitely  worse  than  brass  or 


good 


steel  ones,  especially  if  they  are  cut  open, 
as  the  material  of  which  they  are  composed 
is  so  soft  that  the  least  touch  puts  them 
out  of  shape,  and  consequently  out  of 
poise,  so  essential  to  the  going  of  even  the 
worst  of  watches.  Cheap  watches  with 
compensation  balances  should  be  dis¬ 
couraged  by  both  the  sellers  and  wearers 
of  them,  and  instead  of  a  compensation 
balance  in  such  a  watch  being  a  recom¬ 
mendation  it  should  be  considered  as  indi¬ 
cating  a  sham,  which  it  generally  is. 

Adjusting  a  Watch. — As  soon  as  a 
watch  is  brought  to  within  10  seconds  a 
day  of  correct  time,  the  work  of  adjusting 
to  isochronism  can  be  commenced.  If  the 
balance  is  one  which  has  been  previously 
adjusted  to  heat  and  cold,  it  is  highly  prob¬ 
able  that  we  will  have  to  change  no  more 
than  one  pair  of  screws  to  restore  this  ad¬ 
justment. 

Putting  in  Collet. — The  collet  should 
be  put  on  an  arbor  with  a  bow  and  the 
spring  carefully  set  true  and  flat  in  the 
turns.  In  setting  the  spring  it  must  only 
be  touched  close  to  the  eye.  Steady  time¬ 
keeping  will  be  out  of  the  question  if  the 
eye  of  the  spring  is  bent  to  and  fro  in  reck¬ 
less  attempts  to  get  it '  true.  The  eye 
should  be  brought  around  gradually  to  get 
it  in  circle,  taking  care  not  to  overdo  it. 
When  this  is  right  and  the  spring  is  also 
true  on  the  face  many  good  timers  heat 
the  spring  and  collet  to  a  blue  to  set  the 
eye. 


NOTES  ON  PALLETS. 


Poising  Pallets,  Etc. — A  correspond¬ 
ent  desires  to  know  how  to  poise 
pallets  and  balance.  In  the  first  place, 
pallets  are  not  poised  without  the  lever, 
and  then  only  approximately,  as  they  can¬ 
not  be  so  weighted  with  the  ordinary  con¬ 
struction  that  they  will  not  gravitate  in 
some  positions.  The  balance  cannot  .be 
poised  in  any  quick  and  easy  method,  but 
this  can  only  be  done  by  a  rather  long 


and  tedious  manipulation,  too  lengthy 
to  be  described  in  a  short  Workshop 
Note. 

Care  of  Pallets. — Pallets  should  be 
washed  in  benzine  and  dried  in  sawdust, 
or  with  the  edge  of  a  fresh  piece  of  blotting 
paper  ;  under  no  circumstances  should  pal¬ 
lets  or  roller  go  into  the  alcohol,  except  to 
remove  old  shellac  preparatory  to  resetting. 
Ninth-tenths  of  the  pallets  and  jewel  pins 


238 


CANNON  PINION. 


that  are  found ’loose,  come  so  by  having 
been  in  the  alcohol. 

Freeing  Jewel  Pallets. — The  way 
some  repairers  free  garnet  stone  pallets  is 
with  a  sapphire  file,  which  is  only  a  fair¬ 
sized  piece  of  sapphire  flattened  down  in 
the  ordinary  way  and  cemented  into  a  brass 
handle.  The  sapphire  should  not  be  flat¬ 
tened  too  rough,  or  it  will  chip  the  pallet 
stone.  Ruby  or  any  other  jewel  pallets 
may  be  freed  by  making  a  small  mill,  to  be 
placed  in  the  turns,  of  tortoise  shell  or  vege¬ 
table  ivory:  some  diamond  powder  is  to  be 
rubbed  on  the  mill.  A  quarter  of  a  karat 
of  diamond  powder  should  be  well  mixed 
with  about  a  dessert  spoonful  of  sweet  oil, 
and  allowed  to  settle  for  about  two  hours  ; 
it  should  be  poured  off  into  another  vessel, 
and  allowed  to  stand  a  long  time — until  it 
settles  and  leaves  the  oil  clear  again.  The 
first  sediment  will  be  too  sharp  to  rub  on 
the  mill ;  it  is  the  second  sediment  that  is 
to  be  used.  A  good,  useful  article  can  also 
be  obtained  at  a  material  dealer’s. 

Unequal  Pallets. — When  the  pallets 
are  unequal,  but  too  shallow  on  one  pallet 
only,  the  pallet  should  be  fixed  in  some  sort 
of  clamps,  and  the  clamps  made  warm,  the 
stone  raised  up  sufficiently,  and  the  pallets 
afterward  forced — if  they  require  it.  When 
a  pallet  depth  is  too  deep,  the  wheel  must 
be  topped.  The  topping  of  the  wheel  does 
not  cause  them  to  be  foul  outside,  al¬ 
though  the  wheel  is  then  smaller,  the 
wheel  being  drawn  farther  away  altogether 
by  the  topping.  -When  a  lever  is  not 
equalized  on  the  pallets,  it  mostly  happens 
that  the  two  pins  are  slight  enough  to  per¬ 
mit  the  pallets  to  be  so  minutely  twisted 
further  round  on  the  lever ;  but  if  the  pins 
are  thick,  they  must  be  taken  out  and  the 
holes  drawn  which  ever  way  they  re¬ 
quire. 

The  “  Setting.” — When  a  watch  “  sets  ” 
on  the  impulse  face  of  a  pallet,  the  “  set  ” 
can  be  removed  by  polishing  the  faces  to 
a  smaller  angle,  but  the  repairer  must  see 


that  the  pallet  depth  is  deep  enough  to 
allow  of  being  made  shallower  and  yet  be 
safe,  because,  by  reducing  the  impulse 
angles,  the  wheel  will  drop  shallower,  and, 
although  the  watch  will  go  while  it  is  clean 
if  the  pin  and  notch  is  not  altered,  yet  if 
the  pallet  depth  is  not  quite  secure,  the 
wheel  may  sometimes  pitch  on  the  locking 
edge,  and  probably  stop  the  watch.  If  the 
depth  is  made  too  shallow  by  reducing  the 
angles  of  the  pallets,  a  slightly  larger  wheel 
must  be  put  on. 

Pallet  Lockings. — In  respect  to  the 
pallet  lockings  the  equality  of  sharpness  of 
draft  inward  is  readily  judged.  Some  per¬ 
sons  try  them  by  placing  the  guard  pin 
against  the  round  edge  of  the  roller,  and 
gently  putting  the  peg  on  the  escape  wheel. 
But  the  equality  of  the  draft  inward  does 
not  quite  prove  their  equal  resistance  to 
the  reciprocated  force  of  the  balance,  nor 
does  the  writer  know  of  any  way  to  prove 
when  they  are  so  strictly,  but  he  will  make 
some  remarks  about  them.  It  is  to  be  ob¬ 
served  that  the  two  lockings  are  at  unequal 
distance  from  the  center  of  the  pallet,  and 
also  that  with  deeper  depths  the  wheel  drops 
further  under  the  inside  locking,  so  that  in 
unlocking  the  wheel  has  to  be  moved 
further  back  to  get  the  locking  out  from 
under  the  tooth  ;  still,  as  the  radius  to  the 
inside  locking  is  the  shorter,  therefore  the 
long  arm  of  the  lever  bears  a  greater  ratio 
to  that  shorter  pallet  radius,  and  although 
the  inside  locking  of  itself  may  be  a  trifle 
the  hardest,  yet  it  may  not  subtract  any 
more  velocity  from  the  balance  in  unlock¬ 
ing  than  the  outside  one  ;  and,  indeed,  if 
the  inside  locking'  of  itself  was  as  easy  to 
unlock  as  that  of  the  outside  we  should 
then  be  certain  that  the  resistance  to  the 
force  of  the  balance  would  be  unequal,  as 
the  two  radii  of  the  unlockings  were  un¬ 
equal.  Unequal  radii  must  have  unequal 
resisting  lockings  to  subtract  equal  por¬ 
tions  of  velocity  from  the  same  reciprocated 
force  of  the  balance. 


NOTES  ON  PINIONS. 


Cleaning  Pinion  Leaves. — Take  a 
piece  of  pegwood  and  clean  the  leaves 
of  pinions.  If  you  find  any  of  them  rusty, 
clean  with  pegwood  and  oilstone  powder 
and  oil. 

Oiling  Roller  Jewel. — Some  watch¬ 
makers  recommend  oiling  the  roller  jewel. 
Never  do  this,  as  the  roller  jewel  in  its  fly¬ 


ing  motion  (being  sticky  from  oil)  will 
gather  dirt  and  foreign  substances,  and  soon 
clog  in  the  fork,  and  beside  this,  it  is  per¬ 
fectly  superfluous,  as  it  does  not  lessen  the 
friction  or  improve  the  fork  and  jewel  action. 

Cannon  Pinion. — When  putting  on  the 
cannon  pinion,  see  that  it  is  tight  enough, 
and  give  it  very  little  oil  :  the  friction  lasts 


PIVOTING. 


239 


better  than  if  it  is  dry.  To  tighten  a  can¬ 
non,  file  in  the  side  with  a  small  round  file, 
and  punch  in  until  right;  to  tighten  the 
■Swiss  center  arbor,  roll  it  between  two  files 
and  oil  it  slightly  when  you  put  it  in. 

Cannon  Pinion. — A  loose  cannon  pinion 
can  be  made  to  fit  snugly  by  running  the 
center-point  of  the  center  pinion  back  and 
forth  between  two  files. 

Pinion  Leaves. — If  the  repairer  comes 
across  rusty  pinion  leaves,  he  must  clean 
them  with  pegwood  and  oilstone  powder 
and  oil. 

Replacing  Pivot  of  Hollow  Pinion. — 
It  often  happens  that  the  pivot  of  a  hollow 
center  pinion  is  so  deeply  cut  that  it  cannot 
be  repolished  in  consequence  of  the  care¬ 
less  manner  in  which  too  manyTacttrrffisT 
finish  their  center  holes.  If  the  pinion  it¬ 
self  is  found  to  be  still  in  a  good  condition, 
it  can  be  made  serviceable  as  follows : 
Cement  the  pinion,  with  its  wheel  attached, 
firmly  to  the  chuck  of  a  lathe  after  having 
removed  the  two  worn  pivots,  and  when  it 
is  accurately  centered,  increase  the  hole  by 
means  of  a  drill  that  is  a  trifle  larger  than 
the  original  pivots ;  in  the  hole  thus  en¬ 
larged  and  carefully  smoothed,  insert  a 
close  fitting  steel  tube  that  has  been  hard¬ 
ened  and  tempered  to  a  blue  color,  which 
must  be  smoothed  and  run  true.  The  por¬ 
tion  of  this  tube  that  projects  on  either 
side  is  then  adjusted  to  the  proper  length, 
and  it  only  remains  to  polish  the  pivots. 

Loose  Cannon  Pinion. — Remove  the 
center  wheel  and  put  the  end  of  the  staff  in 
a  solution  made  as  follows  :  i  part  cyanide 
of  silver,  to  parts  cyanide  of  platinum,  ioo 
parts  of  soft  water.  Leave  it  in  the  solu¬ 
tion  till  the  proper  size  is  obtained — the 
size  it  was  when  new,  or  till  it  fits  the  can¬ 
non  pin.  Immerse  the  worn  part  only. 

Tightening  a  Cannon  Pinion. — The 
best  way  to  tighten  a  cannon  pinion  is  to 
take  the  pinion  and  place  it  between  two 
files  of  medium  fine  cut,  placing  one  file  on 
the  edge  of  the  brush  and  the  other  in  the 
hand.  Place  the  center  pinion  between  the 


files  and  run  the  file  in  the+iand  in  a  parallel 
direction.  This  raises  a  little  burr  on  the 
pinion  and  does  not  bind  it,  and  is  sufficient 
to  hold  the  cannon.  Cutting  around  with 
the  cutting  pliers  is  apt  to  bend  if  not 
break  the  pinion,  besides  spoiling  both 
pinion  and  cannon  in  a  little  while  if  the 
watch  is  set  often. 

Beveled  Pinions. — In  watch  work  bev¬ 
eled  pinions  are  seldom  or  never  formed 
correctly,  the  teeth  being  formed  by  one 
cutter,  which  cuts  the  spaces  out  the  same 
width  throughout,  instead  of  tapering  them, 
as  they  should  be,  and  consequently  the 
teeth  (even  if  they  were  cut  at  the  right 
angle,  which  they  seldom  are)  are  only 
touching  at  the  extreme  points  ;  but  as  they 
are  only  used  for  the  winding  work,  and 
are  in  action  for  only  a  short  time,  not  much 
attention  need  be  paid  to  this,  the  main  ob¬ 
ject  being  to  get  a  good  depth  and  a  smooth 
action,  and  this  will  be  best  secured  by  at¬ 
tention  to  the  shape  of  the  teeth  and  to 
their  angles  with  regard  to  one  another. 

Lantern  Pinion. — The  lantern  pinion, 
as  used  in  the  German  clock,  is  a  very  good 
form  of  pinion  for  a  follower,  all  the  action 
taking  place,  even  in  low  numbered  ones, 
after  the  line  of  centers;  but  it  is  not  suit¬ 
able  for  a  driver,  because  then  the  action 
would  be  reversed,  and  would  all  come  be¬ 
fore  the  line  of  centers.  It  is  much  used  in 
French  turret  clocks,  but  it  is  not  used  much 
elsewhere,  though  there  is  no  reason  why  it 
should  not  be,  it  being  especially  suited  for 
the  cheaper  clocks,  and  it  might  be  made  as 
cheaply  as  the  ordinary  drawn  pinions. 
Of  course,  it  could  not  be  used  for  watches 
or  very  small  clocks,  as  the  collets  or 
bushes  into  which  the  pins  forming  the 
leaves  are  riveted  would  take  up  too  much 
room. 

Parachute. — Breguet  devised  the  para¬ 
chute,  thinking  that  if  the  watch  is  let  fall 
or  subjected  to  sudden  jerks  in  any  other 
way,  the  balance  staff  pivots  may  be  saved 
from  breaking  by  the  yielding  of  the  end 
stones. 


NOTES  ON  PIVOTS. 


Pivoting. — Everybody  knows  what  it 
consists  of,  but  there  are  few  who 
can  take  a  fine  staff,  pivot  it,  and  hand  it 
over  to  some  colleague  for  inspection, 
and  not  have  something  said  about  one 
thing  or  the  other  not  being  just  right.  In 
the  first  place,  the  broken  staff  must  be 


accurately  centered  in  a  finely  centered 
chuck,  and  then  the  end  should  be  smoothed 
off,  but  no  more  than  enough  to  present 
just  enough  surface  to  catch  a  center  with 
a  fine  graver  point,  and  do  not  cut  the 
center  any  larger  than  the  diameter  of  the 
drill  to  be  used.  Should  the  shoulder  at 


240 


BALANCE  STAFF  PIVOTS. 


the  rut  of  the  pivot  be  very  small  in  di¬ 
ameter  and  inconvenient  to  drill  with  a 
small  drill,  it  may  be  turned  off  even  with 
the  hair-spring  shoulder  and  a  hole  drilled 
of  sufficient  size  to  hold  a  plug  from  which 
a  new  shoulder  and  pivot  can  be  turned. 
I  generally  use  for  plugs  needles  which 
have  been  tempered  to  the  proper  degree. 
In  filing  them  into  shape  do  not  temper 
them  too  much,  for  they  are  almost  sure 
to  split  the  staff  when  driven  home,  or  will 
be  very  apt  to  work  out  of  the  hole  while 
being  turned.  Get  the  taper  to  be  almost 
imperceptible  ;  it  is  better  to  have  them 
parallel  than  too  tapering.  Never  draw 
the  temper  from  the  staff.  If  the  graver 
can  be  made  to  cut  the  center  very  readily, 
there  is  no  reason  why  a  drill  could  not  be 
made  to  cut,  for  if  the  graver  can  be  made 
hard  enough,  there  is  no  reason  why  the 
drill  cannot  be  made  just  as  hard  or 
harder. 

Polishing  Pivot. —After  the  pivot  has 
been  turned  and  satisfactorily  finished, 
take  the  square-edged  polishers  and  pro¬ 
ceed  to  polish  the  shoulder  at  the  root  of 
the  pivot,  and  at  the  same  time  face  the 
top  of  the  hair-spring  shoulder,  if  it  has 
been  left  square.  First  use  your  steel 
polisher  and  oil-stone  dust  to  remove  any 
graver  marks,  and  follow  with  the  bell 
metal  polisher  and  crocus-antimony,  and 
finish  with  diamantine;  then  burnish. 

High  Finish  on  Pivots. —  If  you  are 
not  satisfied  with  the  finish  on  a  pivot  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  pivot  polisher,  you  may  put 
on  a  higher  finish  with  another  lap  (bell 
metal)  and  diamantine,  or  jewelers’  rouge 
and  oil.  To  finish  by  hand,  you  had  better 
turn  the  cuts  out  with  the  graver,  as  it 
takes  too  long  to  dress  down  with  soft  iron 
file  and  oil-stone.  To  get  nice  corners, 
always  dress  polisher  with  the  file,  after 
each  application  of  polishing  material,  and 
use  a  polisher  curved  on  its  face  next  to 
the  shoulder. 

Pivots  Blackening. — The  quality  of 
the  oil  has  much  to  do  with  the  blackening 
of  the  pivots,  and  those  which  have  the 
greatest  friction  will  become  discolored 
first.  In  ordinary  watches  jeweled  in  the 
third  and  fourth  wheel  holes,  the  lower 
third  wheel  pivot  will  be  blackest,  it  having 
the  greatest  friction,  from  being  so  close  to 
the  action  of  the  center  wheel  in  the  pinion ; 
ancl  if  the  center  holes  be  jeweled,  the  bot¬ 
tom  pivot  will  generally  be  found  more  dis¬ 
colored  than  the  top  one  from  the  same 
cause. 


Shape  of  Pivots. — It  is  somewhat  of  a 
disputed  question  what  is  the  best  shape 
for  pivots  that  turn  on  cap  jewels.  In  my 
opinion  the  cylindrical  decidedly  is,  but  the 
bearings  should  be  conical.  Not  only  does 
this  shape  give  more  solidity,  as  pivots  with 
rectangular  bearing  are  always  more  liable 
to  break  than  the  former,  but  the  conical 
pivots  can  always  be  made  shorter  and 
consequently  finer.  They  also  present  less 
surface  for  capillary  attraction,  and  there 
is  less  likelihood  of  the  oil  running  from 
the  pivot  hole. 

Length  of  Balance  Pivots. — For  cen¬ 
tering  the  balance  spring,  remove  the  end 
stone  from  the  chariot,  and  see  that  the 
pivot  projects  enough  beyond  the  pivot 
hole  when  the  plate  is  inverted.  T  hen  re¬ 
move  the  cock  and  detach  it  from  the  bal¬ 
ance.  Take  off  the  balance  spring  with 
its  collet  from  this  latter  and  place  it  on 
the  cock  inverted,  so  as  to  see  whether  the 
collet  is  central  when  the  outer  coil  is  mid¬ 
way  between  the  curb  pins.  Remove  the 
cock  end  stone  and  end  stone  cap,  place 
the  top  balance  pivot  in  its  hole  and  see 
that  it  proiects  a  little ,  beyond  the  pivot 
hole.  Place  the  balance  in  the  figure  of 
eight  caliper  to  test  its  truth,  and,  at  *he  «- 
same  time,  to  see  that  it  is  sufficiently  in 
poise;  it  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  the  balance  is  sometimes  put  out  of 
poise  intentionally. 

Play  of  Train- Wheel  Pivots. — Allrw 
the  train  to  run  down  ;  if  it  does  so  noisfiy 
or  by  jerks  it  may  be  assumed  that  some 
of  the  depthings  are  bad,  in  consequence 
either  of  the  teeth  being  badly  formed  or 
the  holes  too  large,  etc.  To  test  the  latter 
point,  cause  the  wheels  to  revolve  alter¬ 
nately  in  opposite  directions  by  applying  a 
finger  to  the  barrel  or  center-wheel  teeth, 
at  the  same  time  noting  the  movement  of 
each  pivot  in  turn  in  its  hole  ;  a  little  prac¬ 
tise,  comparing  several  watches  together 
will  soon  enable  the  workman  to  judge 
whether  the  play  is  correct.  The  running 
down  of  the  train  will  also  indicate  whether 
any  pivots  are  bent.  . 

Balance  Staff  Pivots. — The  pivots  to 
the  balance  staff  should  always  be  carefully 
examined.  See  that  they  are  not  too  wide 
in  their  jewels ;  if  so,  replace  by  closely 
fitting  jewels.  Watch  the  cap  jewels  to 
see  that  they  are  not  pitted  :  if  so,  replace 
or  polish  them  with  fine  diamond  dust  on 
black  tin  or  tortoise  shell. 

Balance  Staff  Pivots. — There  is  no 
part  of  a  watch  repairer’s  work  that  requires 


LAP  FOR  POLISHING  PIVOTS,  ETC. 


24I 


so  much  constant  attention  as  the  pivots  of 
the  balance  staff,  either  from  the  watch 
having  had  a  blow  or  a  fall  ;  or  very  often, 
from  the  balance  having  been  put  into  the 
frame  carelessly,  the  end  of  the  pivot  will 
have  become  flattened  or  will  have  a  burr 
thrown  up  on  one  side  of  it  which,  although 
it  may  not  be  sufficient  to  stop  the  watch, 
will  certainly  prevent  anything  like  good 
timekeeping. 

Broken  Balance  Pivot. — If  a  job 
comes  in  with  only  one  pivot  gone  on  the 
balance,  always  make  a  new  staff ;  never 
put  in  a  new  pivot,  which,  if  done,  nine 
times  out  of  ten  will  spoil  the  staff,  and 
then  it  will  not  ran  true. 

End  of  Pivot. — -As— fo^-tbe"'end  of  a 
pivot  there  is  considerable  controversy  as 
to  how  it  should  be  shaped  and  finished. 
Some  workmen  claim  that  a  pivot  left  only 
slightly  rounded  will  give  better  results 
than  when  entirely  rounded,  and  in  some 
watches  either  one  or  both  pivots  are  found 
perfectly  flat,  which  is  usually  done  to  cor¬ 
rect  certain  position  errors.  I  generally 
finish  my  pivots  slightly  round. 

New  Center  Pivot. — It  occurs  quite 
often,  says  a  writer  in  a  Continental  ex¬ 
change,  that  one  of  the  center  pivots  is 
Badly  worn,  and  can  no  longer  be  made  to 
serve  by  polishing;  nevertheless,  many  re¬ 
pairers  try  to  do  it,  with  the  one  never 
failing  result,  viz.  :  it  breaks  under  the 
polishing  file.  In  such  cases  the  pinion 
must  be  renewed  if  the  repairer  cannot  put 
in  a  new  pivot. 

Some  time  ago,  I  learned  a  new  knack 
from  a  very  skilful  fellow-journeyman,  by 
which  one  may  put  a  pivot  into  a  center 
pinion  just  as  easily  and  nicely  as  can  be 
done  into  a  balance  staff,  etc.  If  correctly 
made  the  pivot  sets  as  firmly  as  if  it  were 
of  one  piece  with  the  pinion  ;  this  is  not  in¬ 
jured  at  all,  and  the  place  where  inserted 
cannot  be  recognized  after  finishing  the  re¬ 
pair,  and  which  of  the  two  pivots  has  been 
inserted  cannot  be  distinguished. 

No  one  can  say  that  this  is  a  piece  of 
botch  work,  and  I  make  use  of  this  method 
and  advise  others  to  do  the  same  thing,  not 
only  on  account  of  the  saving  of  time,  but 
also  in  all  cases  where  I  meet  with  a  defec¬ 
tive  center  pivot  in  a  fine  grade  watch.  It  is 
true,  the  good  repairer  will,  by  using  suffi¬ 
cient  time,  make  just  as  good  a  new  pinion 
as  the  old  was  ;  still  the  wheel  will  be 
strained  more  or  less  by  taking  it  off  ; 
but  this  danger  is  entirely  avoided  by  in 
serting  a  new  pivot  as  follows  • 


Mount  the  pinion  first  on  a  turning  arbor 
and  turn  off  smoothly  to  the  injured  pivot, 
without,  however,  injuring  the  burnishing 
of  the  pivot  shoulder.  Then  choose  a  drill 
corresponding  exactly  to  the  thickness  of  the 
new  pivot,  and  take  the  wheel  directly  upon 
the  lathe,  by  letting  the  other  pivot  run 
backward  in  a  center,  while  in  front  you 
have  set  the  T-rest  squarely  to  the  wheel 
and  have  laid  the  drill  upon  it.  You  may 
hereby  let  the  carrier  pin  operate  directly 
upon  the  wheel  crossing,  and  in  this  man¬ 
ner  you  will  drill  into  the  pinion  a  hole 
which  must  be  times  as  deep  as  the  pivot 
is  long. 

After  having  performed  the  drilling,  begin 
with  the  pivot  by  making  a  steel  tube,  the 
inner  width  of  which  truly  corresponds  to 
the  thickness  of  the  center  staff.  Before  it  is 
finished  harden  and  anneal  it  blue,  then  re¬ 
duce  it  by  grinding  so  that  it  fits  precisely 
and  truly  into  the  hole,  after  which  burnish 
it  handsomely.  Corresponding  to  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  the  hole,  taper  the  entering  end  of 
the  tube,  afterward  insert  it  and  drive  it 
home  with  a  few  taps  of  the  hammer  if 
necessary,  chamfer  the  hole  in  the  center 
pinion,  shorten  the  new  pivot  to  its  correct 
length,  and  the  job  is  ready,  without  occu¬ 
pying  more  than  one-fourth,  or  at  most 
one-third  the  time  necessary  for  inserting  a 
new  pinion.  Not  a  trace  can  be  seen  of  the 
pivot  shoulder,  provided  the  job  lias  been 
done  in  a  workmanlike  manner.  In  this 
way  it  is  possible  to  oftentimes  preserve 
a  handsome  and  well-made  center  pinion, 
which  could  never  be  replaced  by  one  bought 
in  some  material  store. 

To  Repair  the  Fusee  Top  Pivot. — First 
file  up  and  repolish  the  square,  taking  off 
the  corners  sufficiently  to  prevent  them 
standing  above  the  pivot  when  it  is  repol¬ 
ished.  Put  the  square  into  an  eccentric 
arbor,  and  get  the  fusee  quite  true.  Now 
put  a  screw  ferrule  on  to  the  fusee  back 
arbor,  and  put  the  whole  piece  in  the  turns 
with  the  eccentric  in  front,  using  the  bows 
on  the  ferrule  at  back.  If  the  pivot  is  much 
cut  it  should  be  turned  slightly  with  the 
point  of  the  graver.  Polish  first  with  steel 
and  coarse  stuff,  and  finish  with  the  glossing 
burnisher. 

Lap  for  Polishing  Pivots,  etc. — Those 
who  have  much  experience  in  polishing 
may,  with  advantage,  use  a  lap  for  straight 
pivots  and  shoulders.  The  lap  and  pinion 
are  rotated  in  opposite  directions  by  means 
of  two  bows  held  in  the  right  hand,  the  lap 
being  centered  in  the  back  limb  of  a  depth- 


242 


BROKEN  PIVOT. 


ing  tool  and  the  pinion  in  the  front  one. 
An  arm  is  fixed  to  the  depthingtool  to  hold 
it  in  the  vise,  and  a  piece  of  brass  wire 
clasps  the  rudders  of  the  front  limb,  so  that 
the  operator  can  move  the  pinion  to  and  fro 
with  his  left  hand.  A  soft  steel  lap  at  first, 
and  a  fine  lap  afterward,  are  generally  used. 
They  should  be  turned  true  on  the  edge  and 
the  face  slightly  undercut. 

To  Redress  a  Bent  Pivot. — For  this 
purpose  some  workmen  merely  use  a  pair 
of  pliers  or  tweezers;  others  place  the  pivot 
in  a  slot  of  the  Jacot  tool,  and  press  on  it 
with  a  burnisher  that  has  little  or  no  cut, 
at  the  same  time  causing  the  shaft  to  ro¬ 
tate.  Another  good  method  is  to  drill  a 
number  of  straight  holes  in  a  plate  exactly 
at  right  angles  to  its  surface.  Now  intro¬ 
duce  the  pivot  into  a  hole  that  fits  it  with 
little  play,  and  redress  it  by  causing  the 
staff  to  rotate,  and  the  same  time  holding 
the  plate  in  the  hand.  Caution  is  neces¬ 
sary,  since  there  is  some  risk  of  bending 
the  pivot  too  far. 

Foot  Pivot  in  a  Cylinder. — A  steel 
stake  with  a  large  number  of  closely  grad¬ 
uated  holes  is  essential  for  this  purpose  ; 
stakes  of  this  kind,  especially  made  for  the 
purpose,  are  kept  for  sale  in  many  watch¬ 
makers’  material  stores.  Having  tried  the 
cylinder  into  the  holes  until  one  is  found 
that  fits  tightly,  then  the  hole  immediately 
sm  filer  is  .the  proper  one  to  use  while  push¬ 
ing  out  the  plug,  which  is  done  with  an  ap¬ 
propriately  shaped  plug  made  from  a  p'iece 
of  mainspring  hook  wire.  A  new  plug  is 
then  turned:  up  and  fitted  carefully,  so  that 
a  tap  of  a  hammer  will  drive  it  home  to  its 
place.  Before  placing  it  in  the  cylinder,  the 
end  should  be  polished  off  square  with  the 
lap  in  a  screw-head  tool.  The  plug  is  then 
driven  into  its  place. 

Rounding  a  Pivot. — -In  rounding  a  pivot 
a  highly  polished  burnisher  is  used. 
Always  begin  from  the  edge  to  the  center  of 
the  pivot,  for  if  it  is  polished  from  the 
center  to  the  edge  a  burr  will  be  formed 
which  will  sometimes  give  trouble. 

Bent  Pivots. — If  a  pivot  is  bent,  place  in 
pliers  and  blow  the  fiame-from  your  lamp 
on  to  the  pliers  until  the  temper  is  drawn 
from  the  pivot  ;  then  press  them  together, 
and  the  pivot  will  be  straightened  in  two 
or  three  trials. 

Bending  Pivot. — If  a  cylinder  pivot  is 
bent  it  may  very  readily  be  straightened 
by  placing  a  bouchon  of  a  proper  size 
over  it. 

Polishing  Conical  Point.  —A  soft  steel 
polisher  made  to  suit  the  pivot  is  used  with 


either  oilstone  dust  or  rouge.  It  should  be 
used  with  a  backward  and  forward  as  well 
as  a  rolling  motion,  till  the  pivot  is  reduced 
so  that  it  will  just  fall  off  the  hole.  The 
pivot  is  then  finished  with  a  very  smooth 
burnisher  and  oil.  Instead  of  the  soft 
steel  polisher  some  prefer  to  use  a  hard 
steel  burnisher  roughened  on  a  piece  of 
lead  with  emery,  which  makes  an  equally 
good  pivot. 

Balance  Staff  Pivot. — There  is  a  little 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper  shape 
for  the  ends  of  balance  staff  pivots.  Many 
manufacturers  say  the  watches  time  better 
if  the  ends  are  left  nearly  flat  ;  this,  how¬ 
ever,  is  disputed  by  others,  who  prefer  the 
pivot  ends  to  be  left  rounded. 

Conical  Point. — The  cone  should  be  an 
easy  curve  dying  away  into  the  pivot 
proper,  which  runs  in  the  hole  ;  this  part 
must  be  perfectly  straight  and  parallel. 
The  pivot  having  been  turned  to  a  little 
over  the  required,  size,  its  end  is  laid  on  a 
bed  formed  in  a  runner  of  the  turns. 
Every  time  the  work  is  examined  the  bed 
of  the  runner  must  be  cleaned  and  the  run¬ 
ner  adjusted  to  a  slightly  different  length, 
so  that  it  does  not  bear  on  the  same  part  of 
the  pivot.  If  this  is  neglected  the  pivot  is 
sure  to  be  marked. 

Broken  Pivot. — If  a  job  comes  in  with 
one  pivot  gone  on  the  balance,  put  the  bal¬ 
ance  in  a  split  chuck,  and  proceed  to  stone 
off  the  end  of  the  staff.  Then  take  a  graver 
with  a  fine  point  and  center  it  nicely  for 
drilling.  If  possible,  always  make  your  own 
drills.  A  correspondent  makes  them  of 
Sharpe’s  best  needles,  which  he  considers 
better  than  wire.  He  draws  the  temper, 
files  down  to  size,  and  hammers  the  end  flat, 
shapes  and  sharpens  it,  and  then  tempers  it. 
Resin  is  used  for  tempering,  but  we  all  have 
our  own  way  of  doing  that.  The  drill  being 
ready,  the  lathe  is  run  at  a  slow  speed,  and 
the  operation  commences.  When  you  have 
drilled  twice  the  length  of  the  pivot,  stop 
and  clean  out  the  hole  thoroughly  with  a 
piece  of  pegwood.  Then  select  a  nice  piece 
of  Stubbs’  steel  wire,  and  getting  the  right 
temper,  file  down  to  size,  making  sure  at 
the  same  time  that  you  do  not  get  it  taper¬ 
ing.  When  you  have  it  down  to  size,  take 
a  hammer  and  tap  the  end  gently  until  you 
get  it  down  to  the  bottom,  then  turn  down 
the  pivot  to  size  to  fit  the  jewel  ;  next  finish 
it,  and  the  job  is  complete.  In  finishing, 
first  use  a  small  oilstone  slip  to  get  a  gray 
finish,  and  then  use  lime  and  crocus  mixed 
on  a  square  piece  of  boxwood,  which  leaves 
a  fine  finish  on  it. 


THE  MAINSPRING. 


243 


NOTES  ON  THE  MAINSPRING. 


Putting  in  a  New  Mainspring.— It 
would  be  quite  useless  to  lay  down  any 
rule  for  the  length  or  strength  of  a  main¬ 
spring  to  be  put  into  a  watch  coming  for 
repairs,  as  in  nearly  every  case  the  matter 
is  arbitrary  and  must  be  determined,  not 
by  any  principle,  but  by  the  work  the  main¬ 
spring  has  to  do.  In  full-plate  watches, 
of  foreign  manufacture,  the  balances  are 
generally  too  large,  and  if  the  escapements 
are  also  large  and  not  very  good,  a  spring 
as  strong  as  the  capacity  of  the  bqrTel  will 

admit  of  will  be  ac qu i red 'The  n umber  of 

turns  of  the  spring  in  thebarrel  is  no  sure 
indication  of  the  number  of  turns  the  barrel 
will  make  by  the  spring  unwinding,  as  the 
spare  space  in  the  barrel,  which  is  partly 
governed  by  the  size  of  the  barrel  arbor  and 
partly  by  the  thickness  of  the  spring,  deter¬ 
mines  the  number;  but  the  mainspring 
should  only  occupy  half  the  space  of  the 
barrel  bottom  with  the  arbor  in  the  place. 

The  best  method  of  attaching  a  main¬ 
spring  to  a  going  barrel  has  given  rise  to 
much  controversy,  any  addition  to  which 
would  be  out  of  place  here  ;  nor  would  it 
be  very  useful  to  repairers,  the  manner  be¬ 
ing  generally  settled  for  them,  as  a  new 
spring  must  be  hooked  in  as  its  predecessor 
has  been  ;  and,  as  it  is  now  the  universal 
practise  to  put  a  simple  steel  hook  in  the 
barrel  and  a  hole  in  the  end  of  the  spring, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  see  that  the  hook 
projects  very  little  beyond  the  eye  of  the 
spring,  and  that  it  is  at  a  sufficient  angle 
to  prevent  the  spring  from  slipping  off. 
The  hole  in  the  spring  should  be  oblong, 
and  made  with  the  lever  punch,  which  is 
much  used  for  this  purpose.  The  hole 
should  be  square  at  the  end,  and  beveled 
off  from  the  inside  to  give  it  a  good  hold 
on  the  hook;  and  the  end  of  the  spring  be¬ 
yond  the  hole  should  not  be  left  longer  than 
what  is  necessary  for  strength  ;  but  should 
be  made  square  at  the  end  and  rounded  off 
from  the  outside.  One  often  finds  main¬ 
springs  choked  up  by  having  a  quantity  of 
oil  put  on  them  which  has  not  been  re¬ 
moved  when  other  parts  of  the  watch  were 
cleaned.  The  spring  in  a  fusee  watch 
should  not  have  oil  put  to  it  ;  all  that  is 
necessary  is  to  see  that  the  spring  is  put 
into  the  barrel  in  such  a  state  that  it  will 
not  rust;  and  the  best  way  to  insure  this 
is  to  apply  a  small  quantity  of  oil  to  a  nar¬ 


row  strip  of  wash  leather  and  draw  the 
spring  through  it  before  winding  it  into  the 
barrel. 

If  a  strong  mainspring  breaks  in  a  going 
barrel,  it  sometimes  breaks  a  leaf  or  two 
out  of  the  center  pinion,  as  neither  Swiss 
nor  English  watches  are  furnished  with 
Fogg’s  patent  pinion  ;  but  I  oftener  have 
found  a  broken  third-wheel  pivot  to  be  the 
result ;  and  if  the  spaces  of  the  center  pin¬ 
ion  were  cut  round  at  the  bottom,  as  they 
should  be,  the  patent  pinion  would  be  of 
very  little  use  in  so  far  as  the  center  pinion 
is  concerned. 

Great  care  should  always  be  taken  when 
winding  a  spring  into  a  barrel  ;  the  winder 
should  be  quite  true  and  never  smaller  than 
the  barrel  arbor. 

Not  'Fake  Out  Mainspring. — If  it  can 
possibly  be  avoided,  a  mainspring  should 
never  be  taken  out  of  the  barrel,  because 
the  spring  is  thrown  into  an  unnatural 
shape  in  so  doing,  and  is  afterward  much 
more  inclined  to  break.  Many  a  good 
spring  has  been  spoiled  in  this  way.  Some 
watchmakers  think  benzine  will  cause  a 
mainspring  to  break  if  washed  with  it. 
This  can  be  avoided  by  washing  in  alcohol 
and  letting  it  dry  before  being  oiled.  I  have 
used  benzine  for  many  years  and  never 
could  see  that  it  caused  aspring  to  break. 

Traction  Force. — In  order  that  the  main¬ 
spring  may  comply  with  its  functions  pass¬ 
ably,  it  must  be  capable  of  exerting  a  uni¬ 
form  traction  force  for  at  least  twenty-four 
hours;  and  it  would  thereby  favor  the  reg¬ 
ularity  of  the  amplitude  of  the  balance 
vibrations,  which  circumstance  is  very  im¬ 
portant  for  the  adjustment.  But  experi¬ 
ence  has  taught  us  that  it  is  not  always  an 
easy  thing  to  attain  this  result,  because  it 
is  well  known  that  the  manufacturers  of 
steel  have  not  yet  been  able  to  produce  it 
with  a  regular  force,  and,  consequently,  a 
uniform  action  in  the  same  conditions  is 
not  the  result.  Nothing  indeed  is  more  in¬ 
teresting  than  experiments  on  their  action, 
to  prove  the  irregularity  produced  by  them, 
as  far  as  this  action  is  concerned,  even  with 
springs  of  the  same  height  and  thickness 
of  blade  ;  this  irregularity  is  a  great  defect. 

The  Mainspring. — Pay  particular  at¬ 
tention  to  the  mainspring.  There  are  lots 
of  theories  why  a  spring  will  break  just 
after  cleaning,  but  I  only  know  that  since 


2  44 


BARREL  ARBOR. 


I  have  adopted  the  method  of  never  taking 
out  the  spring,  except  when,  after  taking 
off  the  cap  of  the  barrel,  I  find  it  is  all 
gummed  up  with  bad  oil,  and  then  of 
course  I  clean  it.  I  have  found  that  a 
spring  does  not  break  any  oftener  than  is 
common,  even  if  the  watch  is  not  cleaned  ; 
but  I  invariably  remove  the  barrel  arbor  and 
clean  out  the  holes  and  the  barrel  itself. 

Cleaning  Mainspring. — The  main¬ 
spring  should  be  cleaned  by  wiping  it  with 
soft  tissue  paper,  being  careful  not  to  pull 
it  out  straight.  It  must  never  be  put  in 
the  benzine,  for  this  would  remove  that 
peculiarly  oily  surface  which  is  obtained 
by  working  in  the  barrel.  Put  the  spring 
in  with  a  winder.  • 

Fastening  Mainspring. — Among  other 
methods  of  attaching  the  outer  end  of  the 
mainspring  to  the  burrel,  one  of  the  most 
simple  and  effectual,  by  Mr.  Philippe,  is  to 
coil  inside  of  the  barrel  a  piece  of  thicker 
mainspring  of  a  little  more  than  one  com¬ 
plete  turn  in  length,  so  that  the  ends  just 
overlap.  The  mainspring  of  the  watch  is 
riveted  to  this  loose  piece,  the  adhesion  of 
which  against  the  barrel  is  sufficient  to 
drive  the  watch.  Three  or  four  half-round 
grooves  are  cut  inside  the  rim  of  the  barrel, 
and  a  corresponding  projection  riveted  to 
the  outside  of  the  loose  piece,  and  the 
clicking  of  this  projection  as  it  enters  the 
grooves  indicates  when  the  spring  is  fully 
wound. 

Friction  of  Coils. — In  order  to  di¬ 
minish  the  friction  of  the  coils  in  a  going 
barrel,  mainsprings  have  been  made  here¬ 
tofore  with  the  outer  coil  curved  backward, 
so  that  the  spring,  when  unconstrained, 
takes  a  form  something  like  the  letter  s. 
This  spring  is  made  with  a  view  to  the 
better  separation  of  the  coils  upon  the 
spring’s  unwinding  as  the  outer  coils  will 
fall  more  readily  away  from  the  inner  ones 
toward  the  edge  of  the  barrel  when  the 
spring  is  bent  in  this  way  than  when  it  is 
straight  or  of  the  usual  form.  It  is  said  to 
be  freer  in  the  barrel,  but  more  liable  to 
break. 

How  to  Select  a  Mainspring. — Of  all 
parts  of  a  watch,  the  mainspring  is  perhaps 
oftenest  repaired.  Before  proceeding  with 
our  remarks  we  would  advise  the  repairer 
to  always  buy  the  best  material,  as  it  pays 
both  the  repairer  and  the  customer.  When 
you  replace  a  spring  examine  whether  the 
breaking  of  the  old  spring  has  not  bent 
any  teeth  on  the  barrel  or  center  wheel. 
See  if  the  hook  on  the  barrel  arbor  is  not 


too  long,  so  as  to  break  the  spring  you  are 
about  to  put  it  in.  If  everything  is  right 
in  your  judgment,  select  a  spring  of  the 
proper  thickness  and  width;  wind  it  and 
put  it  in,  taking  care  that  the  brace  end 
does  not  stick  through  so  as  to  catch  the 
center  wheel  or  balance  as  it  comes  round. 
If  these  points  have  been  observed  you 
cannot  help  but  have  a  good  job. 

Mainspring  Fastening. — It  is  worthy 
of  notice  that  all  the  best  Swiss  watches 
have  a  rigid  attachment  of  the  mainspring 
to  the  barrel,  as,  although  the  hook  is  in 
the  barrel,  and  the  usual  oblong  hole  in 
the  spring,  the  attachment  is  made  rigid 
by  the  pivotal  brace  or  post,  which  contrib¬ 
utes  greatly  to  the  free  action  of  the  spring, 
and  prevents  to  some  extent  the  friction 
and  adhesion  from  the  coils  rubbing  against 
one  another. 

Mainspring  to  Be  Put  In. — When  a 
mainspring  is  to  be  put  in,  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  move  the  regulator  when 
removing  the  balance.  Put  in  the  new 
spring  of  the  same  length  and  strength  as 
the  old  one.  Oil  it  and  wind  it  three  or 
four  times  to  test  it  before  replacing  the 
barrel.  The  cannon  pinion  can  best  be 
tightened  by  rolling  the  part  between  two 
fiies. 

Experiments  with  Mainsprings. — 
From  a  great  many  experiments  with  main¬ 
springs  made  by  French  watchmakers,  in  a 
variety  of  ways  the  result  seems  to  be  that 
a  spring  of  moderate  length,  set  up  about  a 
turn,  with  something  to  spare,  will  have  an 
easier  action  in  the  going  barrel  and  be 
freer  from  adhesion  and  clustering  than 
a  spring  of  greater  length,  although  the 
longer  spring  may  give  a  more  uniform 
pull  if  set  up  several  turns. 

Mainspring  Uncoiling. — A  mainspring 
in  the  act  of  uncoiling  in  its  barrel  always 
gives  a  number  of  turns  equal  to  the  differ¬ 
ence  between  a  number  of  coils  in  the  up 
and  down  positions.  A  celebrated  watch¬ 
maker  says  :  “  Thus  if  17  be  the  number  of 
coils  when  the  spring  is  run  down,  and  25 
the  number  when  against  the  arbor,  the 
number  of  turns  in  the  uncoiling  will  be  8, 
or  the  difference  between  17  and  25.” 

Barrel  Arbor. — In  the  absence  of  a 
suitable  top  or  screw  plate  when  turning  in 
a  Geneva  barrel  arbor,  if  the  collet  is  good 
it  may  be  used  as  a  plate.  Soften  the  col¬ 
let  and  file  two  slight  passages  across  the 
three  with  a  fine  three-sided  file,  screw  a 
piece  of  brass  wire  through  the  collet  so 
as  to  clear  the  threads  of  burr,  then  re- 


TO  MAKE  A  BALANCE  STAKE. 


245 


harden  the  collet  and  cut  the  screw  or  the 
arbor  with  it.  A  pair  of  pliers  with  faces 
curved  to  suit  the  collet  are  used  to  hold 
it  In  an  emergency  the  old  arbor  maybe 
prepared  for  use  as  a  tap  if  the  old  collet 
is  not  available. 

Displaced  Barrel. — Remove  the  arbor 
from  the  barrel.  Turn  a  washer  of  brass 
or  steel  the  same  size  as  the  arbor.  Put  it 
— the  washer — on  the  inside  of  the  barrel 
on  the  arbor  below  where  the  mainspring 
winds. 

Self — Winding. — It  is  well  to  know 
that  several  styles  of  self-winding  are  in 
existence.  Among  others,  one  by  M.  Le- 
bet,  for  winding;  the  watch  by  action  of 
closing  the  huntmg^rxrverTDut  as  it  can  be 
applied  only  to  a  hunting  watch,  the  ar¬ 
rangement  is  of  limited  use  only.  Another 


invention  of  Herr  von  Loehr  utilizes  the 
motion  of  the  wearer’s  body  for  winding. 
There  is  a  weighted  lever  pivoted  at  one 
end,  and  kept  in  its  normal  position  against 
the  upper  of  two  banking  pins  by  a  long 
curved  spring  so  weak  that  the  ordinary 
motion  of  the  wearer’s  body  causes  the 
lever  to  continually  oscillate  between  the 
banking  pins.  Pivoted  to  the  same  center 
as  the  weighted  lever  is  a  ratchet  wheel 
with  very  fine  teeth,  and  fixed  to  the  lever 
is  a  pawl  which  engages  with  the  ratchet 
wheel.  This  pawl  is  made  elastic  so  as  to 
yield  to  undo  strain  caused  by  the  endeavor 
of  the  lever  to  vibrate  after  the  watch  is 
wound.  For  setting  hands  there  is  a  disc 
which  has  a  milled  surface  slightly  cupped 
to  suit  the  point  of  a  finger. 


NOTES  ON  THE  STAFF,  ARBOR,  WHEEL,  TEETH  AND  DEPTH1NG. 


Turning  in  Staff. — Should  you  be 
unable  to  get  the  rough  staff  to  run 
exactly  true,  just  get  it  to  run  as  true  as 
you  can,  as  it  will  not  make  any  difference 
whether  it  is  exactly  true  or  not  at  this 
stage  of  the  work.  Now,  with  a  medium¬ 
sized  and  well-sharpened  graver  proceed  to 
turn  the  shoulder  to  fit  in  the  hole  of  the 
balance.  There  is  no  necessity  for  taking 
the  measurement  with  an  instrument,  for 
we  have  the  hole,  and  it  must  be  tried  fre¬ 
quently  to  avoid  turning  it  too  small  ;  for  if 
it  is  too  small  it  will  be  impossible  to  fasten 
the  wheel  on  centrally.  It  should  fit  very 
snugly  and  at  the  same  time  not  so  tightly 
as  to  require  any  force  to  putin  place.  The 
corner  must  be  cut  out  clean  and  sharp, 
which  can  only  be  done  with  a  very  finely 
pointed  graver.  Another  point  to  be  ob¬ 
served  at  this  stage  is  to  see  that  the  seat 
for  the  balance  is  perfectly  fiat;  for  if  it  is 
undercut,  even  to  a  slight  degree,  it  will 
have  a  tendency  to  throw  up  the  other  ends 
of  the  balance  arms,  and  thus  distort  it 
and  change  seriously,  if  not  entirely  ruin, 
its  rate.  * 

Balance  Staff  Complete. — When  you 
have  one  end  of  the  balance  staff  complete, 
carefully  turn  off  the  shellac  and  turn  down 
the  center  or  hub  of  the  staff  to  proper  size, 
and  cut  back  from  the  left-hand  side  to 
proper  thickness,  and  then  with  the  fiat 
polishers  proceed  to  polish  the  outside  of 
the  hub  ;  then  turn  off  the  shellac,  gradu¬ 
ally  turning  the  staff  true  as  you  go  along, 
until  it  is  cut  back  far  enough  for  the  length 


of  the  roller  end  ;  cut  it  off  at  this  point 
and  preserve  as  fine  a  point  as  possible,  as 
it  is  to  be  used  as  a  center. 

Pivoting  Balance  Staff. — Never  pivot 
the  balance  staff  of  a  fine  watch,  especially 
an  adjusted  movement,  as  removing  the 
temper  from  any  portion  of  the  balance 
staff  destroys  the  adjustment  to  heat  and 
cold.  If  your  customer  insists  upon  cheap 
work,  explain  to  him  the  injury  it  will  do 
his  watch,  and,  if  he  still  insists,  it  may  then 
be  permissible  to  put  in  a  pivot. 

To  Temper  a  Staff. — For  tempering  a 
staff,  the  best  way  is  to  pack  it  into  a  metal 
receptacle,  similar  to  a  baling-out  cup, 
filled  with  fine  brass  filings,  in  such  a  man¬ 
ner  that  the  color  may  be  observed  as  the 
changes  occur.  Hold  the  receptacle  over 
an  alcohol  flame  and  subject  it  to  about 
530°  F.,  which  would  bring  the  color  of  the 
staff  to  a  dark  purple.  This,  I  think,  is 
sufficiently  hard  for  a  balance  staff,  which 
should  by  no  means  be  made  softer.  It 
will  upon  a  fair  trial  be  found  that  a  staff 
of  such  a  degree  of  hardness  can  be  very 
readily  turned  with  a  good  graver  in  good 
condition,  is  capable  of  taking  a  very  fine 
polish,  will  produce  a  good  coloring  pivot, 
and  will  stand  more  hard  usage,  while  in 
the  watch,  in  the  way  of  sudden  shocks 
and  falls,  than  a  staff  either  of  a  greater 
or  less  degree  of  hardness. 

To  Make  a  Balance  Staff. — A  sub¬ 
scriber  says  that  in  the  making  of  a  good, 
fine  balance  staff,  the  steel  from  which  the 
staff  is  to  be  made  is  the  first  consideration. 


246 


STEEL  WINDING  WHEELS. 


As  to  quality,  it  is  beyond  question  that  the 
very  best  only  is  suitable  for  such  a  pur¬ 
pose.  When  he  turns  his  own  blanks,  he 
uses  Stubbs’  wire  steel  of  the  required  diam¬ 
eter,  than  which  nothing  better  can  be  pro¬ 
cured.  Material  stores  occasionally  have 
.some  very  good  blank  staffs,  sold  at  from 
40  to  50  cents  per  dozen.  They  are  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  tempered,  but  it  is  advisable 
for  the  watchmaker  to  attend  to  this  part 
himself,  so  as  to  know  exactly  what  kind  of 
metal  he  is  working. 

Center  Wheel  Arbor. — The  arbor  of 
the  center  wheel  is  sometimes  cut  or  worn. 
Put  it  in  the  lathe  and  turn  it  down  smooth  ; 
but  always  stop  before  turning  off  the 
shoulder  entirely,  as  enough  must  be  left 
for  the  cannon  pinion  to  rest  on,  or  it  will 
bind  on  the  plate. 

Size  of  Barrel  Arbor. — A  good  deal 
of  stress  is  laid  by  various  writers  on  the 
necessity  of  a  proper,  sized  barrel  arbor ; 
but  if  the  arbor  used  is  too  small,  as  it  is 
often,  especially  in  fusee  watches,  when 
too  thick  a  spring  is  used,  the  mainspring 
will  break  at  the  eye,  unless  it  is  made  very 
sofi  at  that  part,  when  the  only  effect  will 
be  that  it  will  bend  round  the  arbor,  acting 
as  a  larger  arbor  and  reducing  the  acting 
length  of  the  spring.  The  size  of  arbor 
found  to  answer  best,  allowing  of  the  neces¬ 
sary  length  of  spring  and  preventing  too 
small  . a  circle  at  the  eye,  is  one-third  the 
inside  diameter  of  the  barrel ;  the  arbor 
should  be  snailed,  so  that  when  the  spring 
is  wound  on  to  it,  it  will  take  a  spiral  form, 
and  not  be  disturbed,  as  it  would  be  by 
winding  on  a  circular  arbor. 

Wheels  and  Pinions. — Wheels  and  pin¬ 
ions  are  divided  into  two  kinds,  which  are 
called  drivers  and  followers.  In  watches 
and  clocks,  the  wheels  are  the  drivers  and 
the  pinions  the  followers,  except  in  the  dial 
wheels,  or  motion  work,  the  winding  work 
of  stem-winders,  and  some  parts  of  compli¬ 
cated  'Swiss  watches.  The  main  object  to 
be  aimed  at  in  the  gearing  of  wheels  is  to 
avoid  “  engaging  friction,”  that  is  friction 
which  takes  place  through  the  teeth  coming 
into  action  before  what  is  called  the  “line 
of  centers”  (a  straight  line  drawn  from 
center  to  center  of  wheels  gearing  together), 
and  the  reduction  to  a  minimum  of  the 
drop  or  shake  of  the  teeth.  This  object  is 
best  attained  by  the  use  of  epicycloidal 
teeth  for  the  drivers  and  hypocycloidal  for 
the  followers,  and  these  forms  of  teeth  are 
me  only  ones  the  watchmaker  has  to  con¬ 
sider. 


Sizing  Wheels  and  Pinions. — The  num¬ 
bers  of  a  wheel  and  pinion  and  their  dis¬ 
tance  apart  from  center  to  center  being 
given,  their  respective  pitch  diameters  may 
be  obtained  by  means  of  the  sector,  pro¬ 
vided  it  is  equally  divided  all  through. 
Suppose  a  wheel  of  60  and  a  pinion  of  8 
are  to  be  planted  75  apart  ;  open  the  sector 
so  that  at  68  (which  is  the  sum  of  then 
wheel  and  pinion  teeth)  the  width  between 
the  limbs  is  double  the  distance  of  centers 
- — that  is,  1.5  inch.  Then  the  width  be¬ 
tween  the  limbs  at  60  will  represent  the 
pitch  diameter  of  the  wheel,  and  at  8  the 
pitch  diameter  of  the  pinion.  Or  the  ful- 
diameters  may  be  obtained  at  one  opera¬ 
tion  instead  of  the  pitch  diameters  by  add¬ 
ing  three  to  the  number  of  the  wheel- 
teeth  and  1.25  to  the  pinion,  if  it  has  cir¬ 
cular,  or  two  if  epicycloidal  addenda.  Say 
it  is  a  circularly  rounded  pinion,  the  sector 
would  then  be  opened  so  that  at  72.25  the 
width  was  1.5  inch,  and  the  width  at  63 
would  represent  the  full  diameter  of  the 
wheel  and  the  width  at  9.25  the  full  diam¬ 
eter  of  the  pinion. 

New  Wheels. — When  a  new  wheel  is  ap¬ 
plied  to  a  watch  under  repair,  it  is  neces¬ 
sary  that  the  angle  of  the  old  wheel’s  tooth 
should  be  looked  to,  as  well  as  the  wheel’s 
size  and  thickness  of  the  tooth’s  point.  If 
a  pallet  depth  is  shallow,  and  a  new  wheel 
is  put  on  of  a  trifle  larger  size,  care  should 
be  taken  that  the  new  wheel  is  not  more 
sloping  in  the  teeth  than  the  old  one,  or 
else  the  pallets  will  be  bound  unduly  hard  ; 
it  is  best  to  have  the  new  wheel  a  little 
straighter  in  the  teeth,  if  possible. 

Wheel  Gauging. — In  gauging  wheels 
and  pinions  round  holes  should  be  used  as 
sizes  where  practicable,  as  the  full  diam¬ 
eter  cannot  be  measured  on  a  slide  gauge 
if  the  teeth  are  not  immediately  opposite 
one  another;  and.  it  should  be  remembered 
in  depthing  wheels  and  pinions  that  it  is 
the  pitch  circles  of  the  wheels  and  pinions, 
and  not  the  diameters,  which  are  propor¬ 
tional  to  the  number  of  teeth  contained  in 
them,  so  that  allowance  must  be«made  for 
the  parts  beyond  the  pitch  circles,  which 
vary  with  the  width  of  the  teeth  and  the 
size  of  the  generating  circle  used  in  tracing 
them. 

Steel  Winding  Wheels. — I  invariably 
lubricate  them  slightly,  not  only  to  make 
them  move  easier,  but  also  for  the  follow¬ 
ing  reason  :  I  have  often  noticed  that  after 
they  have  been  in  use  for  some  time  a  red 
dust  is  formed,  especially  when  the  depth 


VISIBLE  DEPTHINGS. 


247 


ing  was  not  truly  exact.  This  dust  con¬ 
sists  of  oxidized  parts  of  steel,  and  will 
find  its  way  into  the  movement.  It  is 
most  dangerous,  especially  at  the  pallets, 
as  it  dries  the  oil.  This  occurrence  is  fol¬ 
lowed  not  only  by  a  deviation  of  rate  but 
may  also  provoke  the  standing  of  the  water, 
especially  if  the  draw  is  somewhat  deep. 

Club-Toothed  Scape  Wheel. — A  club¬ 
toothed  scape  wheel  allows  of  a  closer 
action  than  a  ratchet  tooth.  Grossmann,  in 
his  Essay,  chapter  7,  gives  three  degrees 
for  drop  with  a  ratchet  tooth,  but  that 
is  more  than  sufficient.  If  the  wheel  is  a 
good  one,  with  a  fine  tootfyfwo  degrees 
are  enough  and  leave  one-half  degree  of 
shake,  thbughjaalletsjije  more  often  made 
with  three  degrees  of  drop  than  they  are 
with  two  degrees. 

Cylinder  Half-Shell  Foul  of  Wheel. 
— In  the  repairing  of  Swiss  watches,  the 
cylinder  half-shell  will  sometimes  be  found 
foul  of  the  wheel.  In  this  case,  it  may 
sometimes  be  found  possible  to  raise  the 
cylinder  sufficiently  bv  stoning  down  the 
brass  setting  of  the  lower  cylinder  end- 
piece,  where  there  is  much  space  between 
it  and  the  jewel  holes  ;  at  the  same  time  it 
should  not  touch  it,  as  in  that  case  the  oil 
would  be  prevented  from  entering  the  res¬ 
ervoir,  and  the  pivot  would  speedily  run 
<iry.  If  this  method  is  not  available,  the 
cylinder  notch  can  be  lowered  by  either  a 
ruby  file  or  steel  polisher  and  oilstone  dust, 
resting  the  balance  on  either  a  piece  of 
pith  or  cork  while  doing  so. 

Cylinder  Scape-Teeth. — If  the  teeth  of 
a  cylinder  escape  wheel  are  too  high  or  too 
low  in  passing  the  opening  of  the  cylinder, 
the  wheel  should  be  placed  on  a  cylinder  of 
soft  brass  or  zinc,  small  enough  to  go  in¬ 
side  the  teeth,  with  a  hole  through  it  and 
with  a  slightly  concave  face.  A  hollow 
punch  is  placed  over  the  middle  of  the 
wheel  while  it  is  resting  on  the  concave 
face  of  the  brass  or  zinc  cylinder,  and  one 
or  two  light  taps  with  a  hammer  will  bend 
the  wheel  sufficiently.  In  fact,  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  overdo  it.  It  really 
happens  that  the  wheel  is  free  neither  of 
the  top  nor  bottom  plug,  but  should  this  be 
the  case  sufficient  clearance  may  be  ob¬ 
tained  by  deepening  the  dust  or  with  a 
sapphire  file.  A  cylinder  with  too  high  an 
opening  is  bad,  for  the  oil  is  drawn  away 
from  the  teeth  by  the  scape  wheel. 

Shape  of  Tooth. — Although  epicycloidal 
teeth  are  practically  the  nearest  thing  to 
perfection  it  is  possible  to  attain,  they  have 


the  disadvantage  of  a  slight  rubbing  fric¬ 
tion  on  one  another  in  receding  from  the 
line  of  centers ;  and  what  are  called  in¬ 
volute  teeth — that  is,  teeth  having  the  act¬ 
ing  curves  of  the  shape  described  by  any 
point  in  a  string  unwound  off  the  circum¬ 
ference  of  a  circle — were  sometimes  used 
in  order  to  prevent  this,  and  where  several 
pinions  geared  with  the  same  wheel  in  the 
old  French  turret  clocks  and  train  remon- 
toires  ;  but  notwithstanding  any  advantage 
they  possess  in  the  saving  of  friction  on 
the  pivots  caused  by  their  obliquity  and  the 
squeezing  pressure  they  produce,  and  al¬ 
though  they  are  theoretically  the  perfect 
teeth,  the  surfaces  rolling  on- one  another 
throughout  the  contact  without  any  rubbing 
friction,  they  are  now  looked  upon  as 
entirely  useless. 

Broken  Teeth. — The  best  wyay  to  re¬ 
place  a  broken  tooth  is  to  discard  the 
wheel  and  supply  a  new  one.  To  replace 
a  broken  tooth  in  a  barrel,  drill  in  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  w'ith  a  drill  smaller 
than  the  thickness  of  the  back  of  barrel ; 
lap  the  hole  and  turn  a  piece  of  brass  wire 
to  fit  the  hole  ;  cut  the  thread  and  screw  in, 
then  file  down  to  match  the  center  pinion. 

Broken  Tooth. — If  there  is  a  tooth 
broken  on  the  barrel,  I  drill  a  small  hole 
and  cut  a  thread  into  it.  I  then  take  a 
piece  of  brass  wire,  file  it  down,  cut  a 
thread  on  it,  and  screw  it  down  tight. 
Then  file  off  the  right  length  and  thickness 
of  the  other  teeth.  If  there  is  a  tooth 
broken  on  any  of  the  other  wheels,  I  always 
put  in  a  new  wheel. 

Putting  Teeth  into  Wheel. — Suppose 
a  tooth  is  broken  out  of  the  barrel — which 
is  the  case  nine  times  out  of  ten  when  any 
is  broken  at  all — take  your  saw,  cut  a  slot 
as  deep  as  the  barrel  will  bear,  shape  a 
piece  of  brass  to  fit  the  slot  tightly.  Now 
take  one  ounce  alcohol,  one  half-ounce 
chloride  of  zinc,  mix  the  two  ingredients 
and  let  stand  twenty-four  hours.  Now 
take  a  small  piece  of  tinfoil  and  solder  the 
new  tooth  in,  using  the  above  solution  in¬ 
stead  of  acid,  and  proceeding  just  the  same 
way  as  you  would  solder  anything  else. 
This,  after  being  dressed  up,  will  show 
little  or  no  lines  of  solder,  will  not  rust  the 
pinion,  and  will  stand  as  much  pressure  as 
any  tooth  in  the  barrel.  Any  wheel  may 
be  mended  in  like  manner. 

Visible  Depthings. — While  the  train  is 
in  motion  through  the  force  of  the  main¬ 
spring.  or  the  pressure  of  a  finger  against 
the  barrel  teeth,  examine  with  a  glass  all 


248 


JEWEL  HOLES. 


the  depths  that  are  visible.  That  of  the 
escapement,  for  example,  can  be  easily 
seen  through  the  jewel  pivot  hole,  when 
this  is  flat,  the  watch  being  laid  horizontal 
and  a  powerful  glass  used.  When  the 
action  cannot  be  seen  in  this  manner  with 
sufficient  distinctness,  hold  the  watch  up 
against  the  light  and  look  through  it. 
Depthings  that  cannot  be  clearly  seen  or 
about  which  any  doubt  exists,  must  be  sub¬ 
sequently  verified  by  touch.  If  examining 
a  new  watch  it  may  be  found  necessary  to 
form  inclined  notches  at  the  edges  of  the 
cocks  or  near  the  centerhole  of  the  plate 
so  as  to  see  the  action  of  the  depthings. 
But  it  is  important  that  the  settings  of  the 
jewels  are  not  disturbed,  and  indeed  that 
enough  metal  is  left  round  these  holes  to 
admit  of  their  being  rebushed,  if  neces¬ 
sary. 

Invisible  and  Doubtful  Depthings. — 
These  must  be  tested  by  touch  in  the  man¬ 
ner  well-known  to  every  repairer,  and  the 
requisite  corrections  applied  after  having 
polished  the  pivots,  etc.,  as  may  be  neces¬ 
sary.  We  would  observe  that  holes  a  trifle 
larger  are  less  inconvenient  than  those 
which  afford  too  little  play,  providing  the 
depthings  are  in  good  condition. 

Effect  of  Bad  Depthing. — Repairers 


are  often  puzzled  by  the  statements  of 
owners  who  bring  their  watches  for  clean¬ 
ing  that  they  are  good  timekeepers,  but 
after  having  been  cleaned  and  put  together 
again  they  are  everything  but  that.  This 
is  due  to  the  depths  having  been  set  bj 
forcing  the  cocks  with  the  pliers  the  last 
thing,  in  the  required  direction,  and  when 
unscrewed  they  will  resume  their  original 
position. 

Securing  the  Depth. — When  the  pallet 
depth  is  barely  safe ,  and  the  pallets  exceed¬ 
ingly  full  to  the  wheel,  the  depth  may  be 
made  secure  by  polishing  up  both  locking 
a  good  bit.  They  must  be  done  a  good 
bit,  else  it  will  not  be  any  use;  this  will 
save  putting  on  a  new  wheel. 

Trains. — The  train  of  wheels  in  a  watch 
or  clock  is  the  method  of  applying  and  the 
medium  for  regulating  and  distributing  the 
power  from  the  prime  mover  to  the  escape¬ 
ment,  which  regulates  the  speed.  l'he 
power  exerted  by  wheels  on  pinions  is  in¬ 
versely  proportional  to  the  relative  diame¬ 
ters  of  their  pitch  circles,  and  they  may  for 
purposes  of  calculation  be  considered  as  a 
series  of  levers,  the  centers  being  the  ful¬ 
crum,  and  the  acting  parts  of  each  tooth  at 
the  line  of  centers  being  their  effective 
strength. 


NOTES  ON  JEWELING. 


Stones  for  Jeweling.  —  The  stones 
used  for  jeweling  watches  are  the 
ruby,  sapphire,  chrysolite  and  garnet  ;  a 
thin  rose  diamond  is  generally  put  as  an 
endstone  to  the  balance  cock  of  English 
watches,  but  only  as  an  ornament,  and  that 
is  the  only  diamond  ever  used  in  the  jewel¬ 
ing  of  a  watch.  There  is  an  uncharitable 
belief  that  watchmakers  sometimes  change 
the  jewels  in  watches  for  stones  of  inferior 
value,  but  there  is  no  foundation  for  the 
calumny,  as  the  time  spent  in  making  the 
exchange  would  certainly  exceed  the  value 
of  the  jewels. 

Loose  Jewel  Holes. — Loose  jewel  holes 
will  often  cause  the  watch  to  stand,  espe¬ 
cially  lever  watches.  It  is  advisable,  there¬ 
fore,  when  repairing  a  watch  to  examine  the 
state  of  the  holes,  best  in  the  following 
way  :  After  having  laid  into  benzine  all  the 
parts  with  jewels  until  the  old  oil  is  all  dis¬ 
solved,  take  them  out  and  dry  ;  then  take 
a  short  annealed  round  broach,  insert  it 
with  a  light  push  carefully  into  the  pivot 
hole  and  turn  it  to  the  right  and  left.  It 


will  often  be  found  that  jewel  holes  hav¬ 
ing  every  appearance  of  being  quite  firm 
can  easily  be  turned  with  the  broach,  care 
is  necessary  when  doing  this  not  to  exert 
any  down  pressure  with  the  broach,  be¬ 
cause  it  might  injure  the  hole.  This  ex¬ 
amination  must  be  conducted  with  great 
care  in  cheap  watches  with  inferior  jewels, 
as  these  might  burst  thereby.  Set  cap 
jewels  are  best  tested  with  a  broken  broach 
ground  to  a  point,  by  trying  to  push  the 
jewel  with  it  in  four  different  directions — 
obviously  before  the  pivot  hole  is  lubri¬ 
cated.  These  tests  must  always  be  made 
by  using  the  magnifier ;  burst  jewels,  even 
though  they  look  ever  so  innocent,  should 
not  be  left  in  a  watch. 

Jewel  Holes. — There  are  so  many  rea¬ 
sons  in  favor  of  good  jewel  holes  that  every 
good  watch  should  have  all  the  train  holes- 
jeweled.  Garnet  is  largely  used  for  jewel¬ 
ing  common  watches,  especially  in  the  col¬ 
lets  to  lever  escapement  ;  it  is  of  the  same 
hardness  as  chrysolite,  but  not  so  brittle. 
The  pallets  are  soon  cut,  a  few  years’  wear 


RESETTING  JEWELS. 


249 


pitting  the  rubbing  face  of  the  stone  on 
which  the  escape  wheel  tooth  drops,  in 
which  case  the  only  remedy  is  new  pallets, 
as  to  polish  out  the  pits  would  spoil  the 
escapement.  Chrysolite  would  answer 
better  for  pallet  stones,  only  it  is  not  so 
like  ruby  as  garnet  is.  Garnet  is  also  used 
for  the  impulse  pins  of  lever  escapements, 
but  the  least  violent  external  motion  to  the 
watch  will  break  off  the  pin,  if  the  balance 
is  a  heavy  one,  and  the  cost  of  replacing  it 
will  be  many  times  the  difference  between 
the  original  price  of  ruby  and  a  garnet  pin. 

Shape  of  Jewel  Hole. — There  has  been 
considerable  difference  of  opinion  among 
watchmakers  as  to  the  best  shape  of  a  hole  ; 
some  advocate  a  long  straight  hole  with  a 
pivot  largest  at  the  extreme  end  to  lighten 
the  friction  ;  but  no  person  who  has  had 
much  experience  with  the  going  of  watches 
would  think  of  making  a  balance-staff  pivot 
unnecessarily  weak,  and  of  a  form  most 
liable  to  injury.  A  jewel  hole  should  not 
be  straight,  but  rounded  from  both  ends 
to  the  middle,  so  that  the  rubbing  surface 
shall  be  small  and  equal,  whatever  the 
amount  of  end  shake  may  be. 

Widening  a  Jewel  Hole. — Chuck  a 
hole  in  the  lathe  with  cement.  Place  a 
spirit  lamp  underneath  to  prevent  the 
cement  hardening.  Hold  a  pointed  bit 
against  the  hole  while  the  lathe  is  running 
until  the  hole  is  true,  then  remove  the 
lamp.  The  broach  to  widen  the  hole  should 
be  made  of  copper,  of  the  size  and  shape 
required,  and  the  point,  after  being  oiled, 
should  be  rolled  in  diamond  dust  until  it  is 
entirely  covered.  The  diamond  dust  should 
then  be  beaten  in  with  a  burnisher,  using 
very  light  blows,  so  as  not  to  bruise  the 
broach.  After  the  hole  is  widened  as  de¬ 
sired,  it  requires  polishing  with  a  broach 
made  of  ivory  and  used  with  oil  and  the 
finest  diamond  dust,  loose,  not  driven  into 
the  broach. 

Watch  Jewels.— When  fitting  hole  or 
cap  jewels  always  try  to  get  a  good  fit,  never 
cement  or  fasten  them  with  shellac.  Should 
a  roller  jewel  be  lost  or  broken,  select  one 
that  fits  the  lever  fork  closely,  as  much 
of  the  impulse  is  lost  by  a  jewel  being  too 
small.  Use  a  jewel  pin  setter  to  set  the 
jewel,  and  always  fasten  with  shellac,  being 
careful  to  put  on  as  little  as  possible.  The 
jewel,  if  rightly  set,  should  carry  the  lever 
clear  into  the  locking;  if  this  is  not  the 
case  the  safety  pin  will  roll  on  the  edge  of 
the  roller  table.  Backing  pins  should  be 
so  set  that  the  roller  jewel  on  its  return  will 


strike  into  the  lever  fork  and  not  on  the 
edge.  Pallet  jewels  also  should  be  fastened 
with  shellac. 

Thickness  of  Jewel  Holes. — When 
adjusting  a  watch,  the  thickness  of  the 
jewel  holes  is  quite  an  important  factor. 
Unduly  thick  jewel  holes  cause  difference 
of  rate  between  the  horizontal  and  perpen¬ 
dicular  positions  ;  they  must  either  be  re¬ 
placed  by  new  or  reduced  to  proper  size, 
should  they  be  too  thick.  This  reduction 
is  done  with  a  copper  chamfer,  and  dia¬ 
mond  powder  (not  to  be  mistaken  for 
diamantine),  mixed  with  oil.  This  diamond 
powder  can  be  bought  at  every  watch 
material  store  ;  there  are  three  numbers, 
Nos.  1,  2,  and  3.  No.  1  is  used  for  grind¬ 
ing  ;  No.  2  for  first  polishing,  and  No.  3 
for  fine  polishing.  The  reduction  of  the 
hole  is  continued  until  the  hole  is  as  thin 
as  the  length  of  the  pivot.  The  sharp  edge 
of  the  hole  produced  by  the  correction  of 
the  jewel  is  chamfered  with  a  pivoted  cop¬ 
per  chamfer,  by  twirling  the  tool. 

Setting  Pallet  Jewels,  Ruby  Pins,  Etc. 
— A  good  course  to  pursue  when  setting 
pallet  jewels,  ruby  pins,  etc.,  is  to  heat  a 
piece  of  shellac  over  the  lamp  and  draw  it 
out  to  a  long,  slender  thread  ;  then  break 
the  end  in  small  particles  of  suitable  size 
for  cementing  the  jewel  ;  by  this  means  the 
shellac  may  be  placed  just  where  it  is 
needed,  and  it  will  not  run  over  the  pallets 
or  table  roller. 

End  Stone. — A  good  way  to  clean  ar_ 
end  stone  or  cap  jewel  is  to  lay  it  down 
on  the  bench  paper  and  rub  the  stone  on  it 
with  the  finger.  When  about  to  put  in  the 
cock  and  foot  jewels,  put  in  the  hole  jewel 
first;  then  put  a  little  oil  on  the  jewel  be¬ 
fore  putting  in  the  end  stone.  Pie  sure  to 
get  this  in  as  far  as  it  will  go. 

Ruby  Pin. — A  matter  that  is  very  essen- 
senttaTToU  gdUd  timing  result  is  the  ruby 
pin  ;  see  that  it  fits  loosely  in  the  fork.  If 
you  are  compelled  to  replace  it  and  do  not 
have  one  just  right,  select  a  slightly  wide 
one  and  scratch  the  fork  with  the  soft  iron 
file  and  oilstone  dust.  If  the  hole  in  the 
table  will  not  take  a  proper  one,  enlarge 
with  a  piece  of  soft  iron  wire  in  the  lathe. 
Draw-file  the  wire,  cover  with  oilstone  dust 
(with  oil,  of  course),  and  be  careful  or  you 
will  have  the  hole  too  large  in  a  jiffy. 

Resetting  Jewels. — There  are  many 
ways  to  jewel  or  to  reset  jewels.  A  cap 
jewel  is  the  one  we  mostly  have  to  deal 
with,  many  of  fyhich  are  not  set  at  all. 
These  we  will  leave  unnoticed.  Nearly  all 


250 


TO  REPLACE  A  ROLLER  JEWEL. 


American  watches  have  their  cap  jewels  in 
settings.  When  one  of  these  is  broken  or 
rough,  press  it  out  with  a  piece  of  pegwood, 
and  then  with  a  cannon  jewel-bezel  opener 
turn  the  bezel  back  as  far  as  it  will  go 
easily,  and  select  a  jewel  that  goes  in  tight; 
then  with  a  small  burnisher  turn  the  old 
bezel  back  far  enough  to  hold  the  jewel  in 
place  firmly.  A  great  many  watchmakers 
do  not  try  to  reset  them  at  all.  They  knock 
the  old  ones  out  and  countersink  the  cap, 
and  lay  a  cap  jewel  in  the  same  as  a  Swiss 
watch.  This  is  not  exactly  a  piece  of  good 
workmanship,  but,  nevertheless,  it  will  an¬ 
swer  all  purposes  and  satisfy  the  custom¬ 
er.  I  always  have  found  that  a  cap  jewel 
with  a  nice  and  perfect  face  fitted  close  and 
even  to  the  jewel  hole,  in  or  out  of  setting, 
gives  my  customers  satisfaction. 

Cutting  Down  Jewels. — -To  cut  down 
balance  jewels  to  fit  smaller  sinks,  shellac 
the  setting  and  jewel  on  the  point  of  a  stiff 
wire  held  in  the  lathe  and  turned  down  to  a 
perfect  point  to  enter  the  jewel  hole.  Cut 
with  the  point  of  a  very  sharp  graver  to  the 
size  required. 

Replace  Broken  Foot  Jewel. — Remove 
the  broken  jewel  from  the  collet  or  setting; 
place  the  collet  or  setting  in  one  of  your 
lathe  chucks,  large  enough  to  hold  the 
same;  start  in  motion,  and  with  a  fine 
pointed  burnisher  raise  the  bezel  sufficient 
to  receive  a  new  jewel ;  select  a  jewel  to  fit 
both  pivot  and  setting,  replace  in  chuck, 
and  with  'a  little  larger  burnisher  close 
down  the  bezel  on  pivot,  and  your  job  is 
complete. 

Jeweling. — There  are  doubtless  no 
watches  made  nowadays  that  have  not  at 
least  the  balance  staff  holes  jeweled,  and 
there  is  perhaps  no  watchmaker  who  will 
not  admit  that  the  holes  of  the  escapement 
would  in  all  cases  be  better  for  being 
jeweled.  I  am  sure  that  there  are  thou¬ 
sands  of  European  watches  that  would  have 
gone  longer  and  cost  less  to  repair  if  they 
had  been  jeweled  in  a  few  more  holes,  the 
Swiss  alone  excepted,  as  they  are  jeweled 
in  even  the  worst  watches  in  as  many  holes 
as  possible,  but  done  so  badly  that  brass 
holes  would  in  many  cases  be  preferable. 

To  Replace  Roller  Jewel. — The  roller 
jewel  requires  careful  attention  in  fitting  it. 
as  a  great  deal  in  the  motion  of  the  watch 
depends  on  it.  Select  a  jewel  that  fits  the 
fork,  for  if  it  is  too  small  the  watch  will  not 
take  a  good  motion.  Now  place  it  in  the 
hole  of  the  roller,  putting  a  small  piece  of 
shellac  behind  it ;  the  tool  I  use  for  heat  is 


one  of  my  own  contrivance,  and  in  my  esti¬ 
mation,  is  ahead  of  anything  1  have  come 
across.  Take  a  piece  of  brass  about  as 
thick  as  a  five-cent  piece,  about  one-eighth 
of  one  inch  wide,  and  about  half  an  inch 
long;  take  a  small  round  rat-tail  file,  put 
the  piece  of  brass  in  a  pin  vise  and  file  a 
half  circle  in  the  end  of  it.  Now  from  the 
center  of  this  half  circle  file  a  slit  a  little 
further  down,  make  the  slit  wide  enough  so 
it  will  take  in  a  very  wide  roller  jewel  with¬ 
out  touching  it.  Now  shape  up  the  outside 
hard,  solder  the  other  end  to  a  heavy  piece 
of  wire  for  a  handle.  Heat  this  a  little  and 
lay  it  on  the  roller  table  with  the  roller 
jewel  fitting  in  the  slit  and  the  wider  part 
of  the  staff.  You  will  be  pleased  to  see  how 
nicely  the  shellac  will  run  around  the  jewel. 

To  Replace  a  Roller  Jewel. — Select  a 
jewel  which  fits  the  fork,  holding  with 
tweezers  at  the  end,  dip  in  shellac  dissolved 
in  alcohol  and  place  it  in  the  collet  of  the 
roller.  Take  a  piece  of  brass  wire  one  inch 
in  length  and  one-eighth  of  -  an  inch  in 
width,  hold  the  wheel  in  the  right  hand  and 
wire  in  left  with  tweezers.  Place  one  end 
of  the  wire  in  the  flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp. 
Remove  tweezers  and  let  the  wire  rest  on 
the  burner  of  the  lamp.  When  the  shellac 
boils  down,  if  it  is  crooked,  heat  the  tweez¬ 
ers  and  grasp  the  jewel  while  the  shellac 
softens,  straighten,  and  when  the  shellac 
cools  the  work  is  done. 

Another  method  of  about  the  same  im¬ 
port,  furnished  by  a  correspondent,  is  as 
follows :  The  ruby  pin  comes  loose  and 
many  times  breaks  off,  when  it  becomes 
necessary  to  insert  a  new  one.  When  this 
is  the  case,  I  generally  use  the  lever  fork 
or  slot  as  a  sure  means.  '  Don’t  select  one 
that  is  tight,  but  choose  one  that  is  loose 
enough  in  the  slot  to  allow  you  to  pass  a 
double  sheet  of  tissue  paper  on  each  side; 
then  set  the  pin.  This  is  a  job  I  always 
had  the  least  difficulty  with,  although  there 
has  been  much  comment,  plans,  modes  and 
machines  for  this  work.  After  you  have  a 
pin  the  correct  size,  insert  it  in  the  table 
roller,  being  careful  to  remove  all  the  old 
pieces.  Generally,,  the  pin  will  go  in  with 
sufficient  tightness  to  hold  it  in  place. 
Then  lay  on  a  small  lump  of  shellac — say 
half  or  one-third  the  size  of  a  grain  of 
wheat.  After  you  have  this  done  heat  a 
small  piece  of  steel — say  a  pivot  file  handle 
— and  hold  it  under  the  table  or  against  it, 
letting  one  end  of  the  handle  remain  in  the 
flame  of  your  lamp,  and  in  a  second  or  so 
the  shellac  will  melt  and  run  to  its  place 


REGULATING  IN  THE  TEMPERATURES. 


251 


nicely  and  you  can  guide  it  to  perfection 
while  the  cement  or  shellac  is  warm.  Set 
the  stone  straight  with  the  staff  and 
straighten  up  and  down,  and  you  have 
your  job  done  right  and  one  that  will  last. 

Another  correspondent  says  :  Should  the 
roller  jewel  be  broken  take  out  the  pieces 
and  match  a  new  one  by  the  lever  fork. 
Do  not  get  it  too  small  or  too  large,  but 
select  one  that  will  clear  the  fork  with  a 
good  piece  of  tissue  paper  by  its  side. 
Then  place  it  in  the  pin  holder,  put  on 
your  table  and  tire  in  with  a  piece  of  shel¬ 
lac.  Do'not  use  cements,  as  they  are  all 
spoiled  sooner  or  later  by  exposure  to  air. 
The  shellac  holds  them  forever,  if  a  good 
job  is  done. 

Roller  Jewel. — To  put  in  a  roller  jewel, 
select  one  as  large  as  the  fork  will  take  and 
be  free  ;  any  unnecessary  shake  in  the  fork 
is  not  merely  a  loss  of  power,  which  may 
be  supplied  by  a  strong  spring,  but  is  det¬ 
rimental  to  good  timekeeping.  Do  not 
attempt  to  set  the  jewel  with  the  roller  on 
the  staff;  and  to  remove  it  the  best  appli¬ 
ance  I  have  seen  is  a  little  table  made  for 
the  purpose,  and  which  can  be  had  at  the 
tool  stores.  If  you  have  no  special  tool  for 
setting  pins,  it  can  be  done  very  well  by 
holding  the  roller  in  the  brass-  lined  pliers, 
and  the  latter  in  the  flame  of  the  lamp 
until  heat  enough  is  imparted  to  flow  the 
shellac;  see  that  the  pin  is  upright  to  the 
face  of  the  roller,  and  that  the  flat  surface 
of  the  pin  is  at  right  angles  to  a  line 
through  it,  and  staff  center,  without  refer¬ 
ence  to  passing  hollow,  as  that  is  often  too 
much  out  of  correct  position.  After  clean¬ 


ing  off  the  superfluous  surface,  which  should 
be  done  with  a  brass  scraper  similar  to  a 
chamfering  tool,  put  the  roller  on  the  staff 
and  the  balance  in  the  watch,  and  see  if 
the  jewel  pin  will  pass  freely  in  and  out  of 
the  fork,  and  if  it  performs  its  function 
of  supplementary  safety-action  ;  if  not,  it 
must  be  put  forward  or  back,  as  the  case 
demands. 

Watch  “Setting”  on  Locking. — When 
a  watch  “sets”  on  a  locking,  and  you  are 
sure  that  the  locking  angles  would  still 
detach  after  being  made  to  unlock  easier, 
the  outside  locking  may  be  made  a  trifle 
more  sloping,  and  the  inside  locking  more 
straight  (not  so  much  cut  under)  ;  this  will 
also  cause  the  wheel  to  take  a  deeper  hold 
of  the  lockings,  which  will  be  no  harm  if  the 
pallet  depth  is  not  too  deep  already.  If  the 
watch  is  a  small  one,  having  a  little  steel 
balance  and  consequently  a  very  weak  bal¬ 
ance  spring,  the  spring,  when  it  is  so  very 
near  its  rest,  has  not  power  to  twist  round 
the  pieces  to  extricate  the  locking  from 
under  the  tooth  of  the  wheel.  In  such 
cases,  the  lockings  would  sometimes  have 
to  be  so  much  altered  to  completely  prevent 
a  set,  that  the  wheel  should  remain  station¬ 
ary  where  it  dropped  instead  of  drawing  the 
pallet  inward,  and  then  the  guard  pin  must 
trust  to  the  momentum  of  the  balance  carry¬ 
ing  round  the  lever  sufficiently  to  free  the 
pin  of  the  edge  of  the  roller.  Such  watches 
are  constantly  stopping,  and  never  can  be 
altered  until  the  lockings  are  made  to  draw 
into  the  wheel.  In  all  such  cases  it  is  best 
to  let  them  set  a  little,  rather  than  persist  in 
completely  getting  off  the  set. 


— 

NOTES  ON  TSniNG. 


Regulating  in  the  Temperatures. — 
It  is  a  well-known  physical  law  that 
heat  expands  bodies,  while  cold  contracts 
them  ;  the  balance  spring  is  naturally  also 
subject  to  this  law.  An  increase  of  the 
temperature  lengthens,  and  at  the  same 
time  weakens,  the  spring,  causing  a  re¬ 
tardation  of  the  watch.  In  cold  it  con¬ 
tracts,  its  elasticity  is  increased,  and  the 
rate  of  the  watch  is  accelerated.  In  order 
to  compensate  these  influences  of  the  tem¬ 
perature,  a  specially  constructed  balance — 
the  compensated  balance — has  been  gotten 
up.  It  consists  of  two  rims,  or  parts.  The 
inner  part  of  the  rim  is  of  steel,  and  the 
outer  part,  which  is  of  brass,  is  twice  the 
thickness  of  the  inner,  and  is  melted  onto 


the  steel.  As  bra^g  expands  more  than 
steel,  the  effect  of  an  increase  of  tempera¬ 
ture  is  that  the  br(iss,  in  its  struggle  to 
expand,  bends  the  rim  inward,  thus  prac¬ 
tically  reducing  the  size  of  the  balance. 
With  a  decrease  of  temperature  the  action 
is  reversed.  The  action,  which  is  very 
small  at  the  fixed  ends  of  the  rim,  increases 
towards  the  free  ends,  where  it  is  greatest. 
The  rim  is  cut,  thus  dividing  it  into  halves, 
each  of  which  is  free  at  one  end  and  fixed 
at  the  other  to  the  central  arm. 

As  already  said,  the  brass  expands  more 
strongly  in  heat  than  the  steel,  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  which  the  rim  bends  inward 
with  an  increase  of  temperature;  the  ex¬ 
treme  part  of  the  rim  at  the  cut  approaches 


252 


THE  TIMING  OF  A  LEVER  WATCH. 


toward  the  center  of  the  balance,  thereby 
making  this  smaller,  as  it  were,  and  accel¬ 
erates  the  motion,  whereby  the  retardation 
produced  by  the  balance  spring  growing 
weaker  in  heat  is  counteracted  or  com¬ 
pensated.  In  cold,  brass  contracts  more 
strongly  than  steel,  so  that  the  rim  expands, 
and  the  extreme  ends  bend  outward,  thereby 
enlarging  the  balance  and  causing  a  retarda¬ 
tion  of  rate,  which  counteracts  or  compen¬ 
sates  the  acceleration,  which  would  occur  by 
the  increasing  elasticity  in  cold  of  the  spring. 
The  extreme  ends  of  these  rims  are  the 
most  active  parts  of  the  compensated  bal¬ 
ance.  and  their  effectiveness  increases  with 
the  division  of  the  weight  upon  them,  and, 
inversely,  their  effect  decreases  in  ratio 
witli  the  amount  of  wreight  taken  off,  and 
upon  this  circumstance  is  based  the  pro¬ 
cess  of  regulating  the  compensation.  If  a 
watch  with  compensated  balance  retards 
in  heat  and  accelerates  in  cold,  the  com¬ 
pensation  is  too  feeble;  more  weight  must, 
from  the  main  body  of  the  balance,  be 
placed  toward  both  ends  of  the  rims  ;  take 
out  two  screws  standing  opposite  to  each 
other,  and  place  them  into  other  holes 
opposite  each  other,  but  lying  nearer  to 
the  effective  extreme  ends.  By  this  greater 
.weight  of  the  outer  parts  more  weight  is 
carried  toward  the  center  of  the  balance  by 
the  bending  by  expansion,  and  this  affects 
the  retardation  of  the  watch.  If  the  watch 
accelerates  in  heat  and  retards  in  cold, 
then  too  much  weight  is  carried  to  the 
center;  the  compensation  is  too  strong. 
'Two  screws,  standing  opposite  to  each  other, 
must  be  moved  away  from  the  ends. 
When  the  difference  is  but  trifling,  it 
suffices  to  file  away  a  little  from  the  cut, 
and  to  compensate  the  loss  of  weight  by 
two  other  and  heavier  screws  on  the  first 
parts  of  the  balance. 

'The  Timing  of  a  Lever  Watch. — The 
greater  weight  of  the  balance  of  a  detached 
lever  watch  causes  a  greater  friction  of 
pivots  in  a  vertical  position,  which  friction 
must  therefore  be  reduced  to  an  amount 
equal  to  that  in  a  horizontal  position,  by 
flattening  the  pivots  and  increasing  the 
friction  in  a  horizontal  position. 

The  adjuster  must  first  try  the  rate  of 
the  movement  in  a  vertical  position.  An 
approximately  close  rate  is  produced  by 
tile  index,  which  manipulation  requires  no 
description;  the  last  exact  timing  in  this 
position  is  effected  by  the  four  so-called 
timing  screws.  Should  the  watch  retard, 
screw  in  two  of  these  screws  standing 


opposite  one  to  the  other,  but  when  it  ad¬ 
vances,  draw  them  out  a  little,  but  be  care¬ 
ful  to  do  it  cautiously  ;  turn  one  as  many 
turns  as  the  other,  otherwise  the  equipoise 
of  the  balance  is  destroyed.  \\  hen  a  cor¬ 
rect  rate  has  been  obtained  in  lying,  try 
the  watch  by  suspending.  If  there  is  a 
difference,  do  as  recommended  for  the 
vertical  position,  by  means  of  the  timing 
screws — in  such  a  way,  however,  that 
nothing  is  changed  in  the  timing  of  the 
rate  in  lying.  Some  equalize  differences 
by  changing  the  equipoise  of  the  balances 
a  mere  trifle.  This  is  done  as  follows  :  If 
the  watch  advances  in  hanging,  the  balance 
is  overpoised  above  toward  the  pendant; 
but  an  overpoise  below  is  required  when  it 
retards.  If  by  taking  the  pendant  as  start¬ 
ing  point,  lines  drawn  between  the  timing 
screws  would  form  a  cross  (+),  then,  in  ad¬ 
vancing,  the  upper  screw  is  to  be  drawn 
out  a  trifle,  and  the  lower  one  screwed  in 
by  that  precise  quantity  ;  if  the  watch  re¬ 
tards,  proceed  in  an  inverse  manner — screw 
in  the  upper  screw  and  draw  out  the 
lower  and  opposite.  If  the  above  men¬ 
tioned  lines  form  a  sign  of  multiplication 
(X),  treat  the  upper  pair  or  the  lower  pair 
as  described  for  the  single  screws. 

When  the  watch  is  laid  flat,  the  balance 
sinks  by  reason  of  its  weight,  so  that  the 
lower  pivot  rests  upon  the  lower  cap  jewel ; 
the  cone  (that  part  of  the  arbor  passing 
over  into  the  pivot)  comes  thereby  closer 
to  the  oil  sink  of  the  jewel  hole,  and  the 
friction  is  increased  by  the  adhesion  of  the 
oil  which  enters  between.  The  thicker  the 
cone  the  greater  this  friction,  and  reverse; 
it  is  lessened  and  finally  ceases  entirely, 
according  to  the  degree  of  tapering  of  this 
part  of  the  arbor,  and  herein  do  we  possess 
a  means  of  equalizing  small  differences  of 
rate  between  hanging  and  lying.  If  the 
watch  retards  in  lying,  its  rate  in  lying 
must  be  retarded  somewhat,  which  is  done 
by  increasing  the  friction  by  adhesion, 
moving  the  cone  closer  to  the  oil  sink  of 
the  jewel  hole  ;  in  other  words,  by  shorten¬ 
ing  the  two  pivots  to  enable  the  cone  to 
sink  in  deeper.  The  expert  watchmaker 
will  know  the  true  quantity  to  be  re¬ 
moved  by  careful  manipulation  and  exam¬ 
ination  of  the  rate.  If.  however,  the  watch 
advances  in  hanging,  its  rate  in  lying  must 
be  accelerated  bv  diminishing  the  friction 
bv  adhesion  ;  this  is  done  by  grinding  more 
or  less,  tapering  with  an  iron  grinding  file 
the  conical  shoulders,  according  to  the 
quantity  of  the  difference  of  rate  observed 


253 


OIL  ^ADHERING  TO  PIVOTS. 


Calculating  a  Lever  Watch  Train.— 
The  fourth  wheel  turning  60  times  for  one 
turn  of  the  center  wheel,  the  numbers  of 
teeth  in  center  and  third  wheels,  multiplied 
together,  must  be  60  times  the  product  ob¬ 
tained  by  multiplying  together  the  teeth  of 
third  and  fourth  pinions.  For  example,  to 
take  the  seconds  train  most  in  use  for 
lever  watches  having  third  and  fourth  pin¬ 
ions  of  8,  we  should  have  8X8  =  64,  and 
64  X  60  =  3.840.  Any  two  numbers  which, 
when  multiplied  together,  make  3,840,- 
would  be.  suitable  for  the  center  and  third 
wheels.  But,  unless  some  special  numbers 
are  desired,  the  calculation  need  not  be 
carried  further,  because  it  is  evident  the 


two  numbers  we  already  have  (64  and  60) 
will  answer  the  condition.  The  escape 
wheel,  having  15  teeth,  turns  once  for  every 
30  vibrations  of  the  balance,  and  with  the 
train  of  16,200  we  have  16,200  -5-  30  =  540 
turns  per  hour  for  the  escape  pinion.  As 
the  fourth  wheel  turns  60  times  an  hour, 
the  number  for  fourth  wheel  and  escape 
pinion  must  be  in  the  same  ratio  as  540 
and  60,  that  is  (540  60  =  9)  as  9  to  1.  An 

18,000  train  is  calculated  in  similar  man¬ 
ner  ;  the  escape  pinion  has  six  leaves; 
first  wheel,  80  with  pinion  of  10  ;  second 
wheel,  64,  pinion  8;  third  wheel,  60,  pinion 
8  ;  fourth  wheel,  60,  pinion  8  ;  fifth  wheel, 
48,  pinion  6. 


NOTES  ON  OILING  AND  OIL. 


Acid  Oil. — The  mode  adopted  fortest¬ 
ing  either  the  acidity  or  the  purity  of 
oil  will  afford  no  evidence  as  to  how  long 
it  will  maintain  its  fluidity,  and  very  good 
results  have  at  times  been  secured  by  the 
use  of  oils  that  were  slightly  acid,  or  from 
mixtures  of  oils  of  two  or  more  quali¬ 
ties 

Acidity  in  Oil. — The  oil  should  be  free 
from  free  water  or  acids,  and  should  not 
change  its  chemical  constitution  through 
age  or  exposure  to  light.  If  a  little  of  the 
oil  is  shaken  up  with  distilled  water  and 
then  the  water,  after  settling,  is  carefully 
siphoned  from  under  the  oil,  the  water  can 
be  easily  tested  by  a  piece  of  blue  litmus 
paper.  If  it  turns  red  in  the  water,  acid,  of 
course,  is  present.  The  action  of  light  on 
the  oil  can  best  be  ascertained  by  exposing 
a  bottle  of  the  oil  to  the  sun  for  several 
weeks.  A  dark  or  brownish  deposit  indi¬ 
cates  a  disintegration  of  the  oil. 

Mixed  Oils. — Good  results,  said  Cl. 
Saunier,  are  frequently  obtained  by  mixing 
together  two  different  kinds  of  oil.  Thus, 
American  watch  oil,  which  is  very  fluid  and 
apt  to  evaporate  at  the  temperature  of  the 
pocket,  is  improved  by  the  addition  of  a 
somewhat  thicker  oil.  A  mixture  of  real 
American  oil  with  the  Rodanet  oil  has  been 
recommended  as  excellent.  Although  no 
results  have  been  published  on  the  ques¬ 
tion,  it  seems  probable  that  some  of  the 
modern  mineral  lubricating  oils  might  be 
added  with  advantage  in  small  quantities 
to  the  ordinary  oils. 

Oil  Sinks. — In  cleaning,  it  is  important 
to  avoid  removing  the  gilding  in  the  oil 
sinks  of  watches  or  the  superficial  oxide  in 


the  sinks  of  clocks  that  have  been  going  for 
a  considerable  time.  For,  if  it  be  removed, 
there  will  be  a  fresh  coating  formed  in 
time,  and  this,  too,  at  the  expense  of  the 
oil. 

Oiling  Watch. — The  oil  in  a  cylinder 
escapement  will  always  deteriorate  very 
rapidly  ;  some  watchmakers  coat  over  the 
inside  of  the  dome-joint  and  recommend 
the  owner  not  to  open  it.  By  doing  so  the 
oil  can  be  maintained  in  good  condition  at 
the  escapement  for  a  long  time. 

Lubricating. — An  excess  of  oil  will 
cause  an  infinity  of  errors  to  arise,  and 
should  be  most  carefully  guarded  against. 

Deterioration  of  Oil. — The  only  evi¬ 
dence  on  which  the  watchmaker  can  rely 
is  that  which  he  obtains  by  experiment¬ 
ing  on  watches  which  he  keeps  to  lend  to 
his  customers,  wliile  their  own  are  under¬ 
going  repairs  ;  and  these  trials  should  last 
at  least  for  a  year.  \  And  there  is  a  great 
variety  among  the\  wearers  of  watches. 
Some  live  in  constantly  varying  tempera¬ 
tures,  often  dusty;!  many  ladies  use  per¬ 
fumes  ;  some  persons  perspire  more  than 
others;  all  these  causes  influence  the  oil 
and  make  it  alter  or  evaporate  more  rapidly 
in  one  watch  than  in  another. 

Oil  Adhering  to  Pivots.— A  high  or 
projecting  finish,  flat  pivots,  and  the  inside 
and  outside  turned  at  an  acute  angle,  make 
the  oil  adhere  better  and  prevent  it  from 
spreading.  In  a  case  where  the  holes  are 
wrinkled  there  is  more  room  for  the  oil,  and 
it  is,  therefore,  more  rapidly  decomposed. 
The  smaller  the  pivot,  the  less  it  is  affected 
by  changes  in  the  oil,  and,  consequently, 
the  less  will  it  vary  in  its  working  in  various 


254 


OILING  STEM-WIND. 


positions.  Pivots,  however,  should  never 
be  made  so  fine  that  their  solidity  will  be 
jeopardized. 

Meaning  of  Capillarity. — Capillarity 
is  the  property  which  all  liquid  bodies  have 
of  adhering  to  the  sides  of  vessels  at  a 
greater  elevation  than  their  own  surface. 
When  a  capillary  tube  is  inserted  in  a  ves¬ 
sel  containing  any  liquid,  this  will  rise  in 
the  tube  to  a  certain  height,  and  the  smaller 
the  tube  tha  higher  it  will  ascend.  Oil 
possesses  this  capillarity  in  a  marked  de¬ 
gree,  and  readily  settles  in  the  depressions 
beside  the  pivot  holes.  If  the  rectangular 
bearing  enters  the  hole  jewels  horizontally 
the  oil  adheres  more  firmly  than  if  the 
bearing  were  hollow  turned. 

Oiling.^ — Oil  the  escapement  by  touching 
the  escape-wheel  teeth  with  oil ;  do  not  oil 
the  fork. 

Oiling  the  Parts. — In  setting  up  a 
watch,  see  that  the  jewels  are  all  firmly  set ; 
put  oil  to  barrel  pivots  (and  ratchet,  if  a 
Swiss  watch)  but  leave  all  pivots  dry  that 
are  not  covered  until  the  balance  is  in 
place  and  you  know  that  it  is  in  beat  and 
everything  right ;  then  take  the  balance 
out  and  put  a  very  little  oil  in  the  caps  of 
jewel  holes  ;  if  it  does  not  draw  through  to 
the  endstone,  take  a  pivot  broach,  and, 
after  drawing  the  temper,  reduce  it  under  a 
slip  of  oilstone,  until  a  little  smaller  than 
the  pivots,  and  with  this  lead  the  oil  to  the 
endstone  ;  or  when  the  jewels  are  separated 
too  much  for  the  oil  to  follow  this  instru¬ 
ment,  cut  a  peg  very  slender  and  use  it;  if 
this  does  not  succeed,  the  endstone  must 
come  out  and  have  oil  applied  directly  to 
it ;  but  it  is  seldom  in  American  watches 
that  it  will  not  draw  through  from  the  cup 
by  using  the  leader,  if  the  proper  quantity 
only  is  applied.  As  it  disappears,  put  more 
on  using  the  leader,  but  no  more  than  will 
draw  through.  If  you  happen  to  get  too 
much,  filling  the  cup,  sop  it  up  with  a 
freshly  cut  peg. 

Results  of  'Testing  Oil. — Tests  made 
on  a  whetstone  and  on  a  window  pane,  as 
well  as  observations  made  on  drops  of  oil 
placed  in  jewel  holes,  or  in  oil  cups  in  a 
metal  plate  kept  for  the  purpose — some  of 
the  drops  being  exposed  to  the  air,  while 
others  are  in  closed  boxes — will  afford  val¬ 
uable  indications  ;  and,  according  to  the 
observations  of  W.  Robert,  it  is  safe  to  con¬ 
sider  an  oil  bad  if  at  the  end  of  six  or  eight 
days  after  being  placed  on  a  plate  of  good 
brass  it  shows  a  marked  green  tinge,  es¬ 


pecially  so,  if  a  clearly  defined  fringe  forms 
round  the  drop,  or  else  if  the  brass  itself  is 
discolored. 

To  Test  Watch  Oils. — Two  preliminary 
tests  will  afford  some  indication  as  to  the 
quality  of  an  oil.  A  thick  layer  is  placed 
on  a  small  portion  of  the  surface  of  a  glass 
plate,  and  side  by  side  a  similar  layer  of 
another  oil  is  used  for  comparison,  and  they 
are  exposed  to  the  air  for  some  time  with¬ 
out  being  touched.  The  one  that  is  found 
to  be  sticky  under  the  finger  when  the  other 
has  dried  up  will,  in  all  probability,  be 
preferable.  The  second  preliminary  test  is 
made  on  a  whetstone ;  it  is  usually  found 
that  the  oil  which  takes  the  longest  time  to 
thicken  is  of  better  quality.  Of  course, 
these  tests  will  only  suffice  to  afford  a  rough 
approximation  and  cannot  be  accepted  as 
conclusive. 

Testing  Oils. — Many  of  the  methods 
recommended  for  purifying  oils  are  illusory 
to  a  great  extent,  for  they  cannot  impart  to 
the  fluid  those  characteristics  that  are 
wanting  from  the  beginning.  Success  de¬ 
pends  largely  on  the  skill  of  the  manipu¬ 
lator,  and  if  he  is  not  endowed  with  the 
power  of  judging,  mainly  by  the  taste, 
whether  oil  satisfies  certain  prescribed  con¬ 
ditions,  he  can  never  be  certain  of  the 
results.  Crops  differ  as  regards  degrees  of 
maturity,  etc.,  from  year  to  year,  and  the 
animals  from  which  oils  are  procured  are 
rarely  in  the  same  condition  as  regards 
health,  age,  nourishment,  etc. 

The  Lubricant. — The  oil  intended  for 
use  as  a  lubricant  for  watch  work  should  be 
kept  away  from  the  light,  as  otherwise  it 
would  be  discolored  ;  it  is  on  this  account 
best  that  the  bottles  for  such  oil  are  pre¬ 
served  by  being  covered  with  black  paper. 
Only  the  quantity  wanted  for  immediate 
use  should  be  placed  in  the  oil  cup. 

Oiling  Center  Wheel. — Before  putting 
in  the  center  wheel,  oil  its  lower  pivot. 
Here  is  a  place  where  the  watchmaker 
must  use  careful  judgment  ;  if  too  little 
oil  is  used  it  will  run  dry,  if  too  much,  it 
will  be  drawn  away  upon  the  plate  and  can¬ 
non,  with  the  same  result.  It  is  often  ad¬ 
visable  to  counter-sink  the  center  hole 
slightly,  even  making  the  hole  thinner;  the 
oil  is  retained  better  in  its  place. 

Oiling  Stem-Wind. — When  putting  the 
watch  up,  replace  the  stem-wind  work  and 
oil  the  crown  and  intermediate  wheels  with 
clock  oil  ;  this  will  be  found  best,  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  great  pressure  which  the  wheels 


POLISHING  MATERIAL. 


255 


receive.  Do  not  oil  the  setting  wheels,  for 
they  run  idle  and  it  would  only  serve  to 
make  them  stick. 

No  Oil  on  Dial  Wheels. — Do  not  oil 
the  dial  wheels,  as  it  could  only  serve  to 
stick  the  minute  wheel  to  the  plate  and 
increase  the  friction. 

Oiling  Detached  Lever. — The  repairer 
is  frequently  at  a  loss  whether  he  should 
oil  the  roller  pin  jewel  in  the  fork — in  fact, 
all  the  pieces  of  a  detached  lever  escape¬ 
ment.  To  this  we  would  say  that  the  fork 
of  the  lever  should  never  be  oiled.  If  it  is 
properly  shaped  and  polished  and  of  the 
proper  size  for  the  ruby  pin  which  plays 
into  it,  no  oil  is  required,  and  if  applied,  it 
would  do  more  harm  than  good.  As  for 


oiling  the  lever  pallets  and  escape  wheel 
teeth,  it  is  considered  a  mark  of  poor  work¬ 
manship  to  oil  them  in  a  fine  watch,  but  in 
a  cheap  movement  it  is  often  better  to  oil 
them  than  to  let  them  dry.  Where  it  is  a 
choice  of  evils,  the  workman  may  be  al¬ 
lowed  to  do  things  which  in  other  cases 
would  be  entirely  inadvisable.  But  only 
very  little  oil  should  be  used  in  any  case, 
just  enough  to  lubricate  the  surface,  but 
hardly  enough  to  be  perceptible  with  the 
eyeglass.  When  the  escape  wheel  teeth 
run  very  close  up  under  the  lever  fork 
above  the  pallets,  particular  care  must  be 
taken  to  avoid  any  surplus  of  oil,  as  it 
would  soon  gather  dirt  and  clog  the  pass¬ 
ing  teeth. 


NOTES  ON  CLEANING,  AGENTS,  REPAIRING,  ETC. 


Chamois  Leather. — To  clean  a  chamois 
leather,  make  a  solution  of  weak  soda 
and  warm  water,  rub  plenty  of  soft  soap 
into  the  leather,  and  allow  it  to  remain  in 
soak  for  two  hours;  then  rub  it  well  until 
it  is  quite  clear.  Afterward  rub  it  well  in  a 
weak  solution  composed  of  warm  water, 
soda  and  yellow  soap.  It  must  not  be 
rinsed  in  water  only,  for  then  it  would  be 
so  hard  when  dry  as  to  be  unfit  for  use. 
It  is  the  small  quantity  of  soap  left  in  the 
leather  that  allows  the  finer  particles  of  the 
leather  to  separate  and  become  soft  like  silk. 
After  rinsing,  wring  it  well  in  a  rough 
towel  and  dry  quickly,  then  pull  it  out  and 
brush  it  well.  In  using  a  rouge  leather  to 
touch  up  highly  polished  surfaces,  it  is  fre¬ 
quently  observed  to  scratch  the  work ;  th.s 
is  caused  by  particles  of  dust  arid  even  hard 
rouge,  that  are  left  in  the  leather  and  which 
may  be  removed  by  a  clean  rough  brush. 

Diamantine. — There  is  nothing  like  dia- 
mantine  for  giving  a  good  black  polish. 
It  is,  however,  very 'quick  in  its  action,  and 
requires  some  little  experience  to  avoid  over¬ 
doing  it  and  making  the  work  foxy.  The 
work,  polishers,  etc.,  must  be  kept  scrupu¬ 
lously  clean.  Diamantine  consists  of  crys¬ 
tallized  boron,  the  basis  of  borax.  By 
melting  loo  parts  boric  acid  and  80  parts 
aluminum,  crystals  are  obtained,  the  so- 
called  bort,  which  even  attacks  diamond. 
Diamantine  bought  in  commerce  is  very 
hard. 

Diamantine  used  as  a  polishing  agent  re¬ 
quires  even  more  care  and  cleanliness  than 
rouge,  and  as  the  grains  are  sharper  it 
must  be  beaten  until  it  is  very  smooth,  and 


used  a  little  thicker  than  the  rouges,  as 
even  the  smallest  quantity  will  polish;  if 
too  much  is  taken  on  the  polisher,  it  cuts 
quickly,  but  does  not  polish.  There  is  a 
prejudice  against  using  diamantine  for  pol¬ 
ishing  pivots,  as  it  is  thought  that  some  of 
the  sharp  grains  become  embedded  in  the 
metal  and  afterward  cut  the  holes  or  pivots  ; 
if  this  is  so,  the  diamond  powder,  used  by 
watch  jewelers  to  polish  the  jewel  holes- 
with,  would  have  even  a  worse  effect,  but  in 
practise  we  hear  nothing  of  it. 

English  Polishing  Agents. —  An  Eng¬ 
lish  polishing  agent  consists  of  94.25  per 
cent,  oxide  of  iron  and  5.75  finely  pow¬ 
dered  charcoal.  The  mixture  is  ground  in 
a  moist  state  upon  the  slab,  and  the  mass 
is  again  pulverized  after  drying. 

Rouge. — Rouge,  or,  as  it  is  called  in 
England,  red  stuff,  is  prepared  of  various 
degrees  of  fineness.  The  coarsest,  known 
as  ‘‘clinker,”  is  use^l  for  giving  a  surface  to 
steel  after  it  is  tempered.  “Coarse”  is 
used  next  for  steel  and  for  polishing  brass. 
“  Medium  ”  is  used  to  finish  steel  that  has 
been  blued,  and  “fine”  for  polishing  bright 
steel.  The  latter  must  not  be  used  for  steel 
that  has  been  blued,  or  the  color  will  not  be 
even. 

Polishing  Material. — To  mix  polish¬ 
ing  material  properly  requires  a  fair  amount 
of  care.  Rouge  should  be  thoroughly 
beaten  up  on  glass  or  a  polished  steel  stake 
to  a  stiff  paste  with  very  little  of  the  best 
oil  that  can  be  obtained.  It  is  very  poor 
economy  to  use  inferior  oil.  Far  too  much 
oil  is  often  used  and  the  mixture  left  thin¬ 
ner  than  it  should  be.  Olive  oils  not  suit- 


256 


WATCH  CLEANING. 


able,  and  if  used  the  polishing  stuff  be¬ 
comes  sticky  in  a  day  or  two.  Refined 
sperm  oil,  such  as  is  used  for  watches,  an¬ 
swers  well.  Diamantine  should  be  mixed 
on  glass  with  a  glass  beater  in  the  same 
way.  as  dry  as  possible,  so  that  when  it  is 
used  the  polisher  is  only  just  damped  with 
it.  If  diamantine  is  brought  into  contact 
with  metal  in  mixing  it  turns  black. 

Cleaning  Agents. — In  cleaning  a  watch 
I  never  use  benzine  or  potash,  or  any  patent 
article.  Benzine  leaves  a  greasy  look  which 
it  is  impossible  to  get  off;  besides  this,  it 
destroys  the  oil,  while  the  potash  makes 
spots  on  the  plates,  if  in  moist  places.  Bure 
alcohol  and  well  crushed  chalk  do  the  best 
work  and  give  the  best  results.  The  chalk 
is  unequaled  for  cleaning  the  case.  With  a 
stiff  brush  it  is  also  excellent  for  cleaning 
jewelry. 

Chalk  Box. — A  little  box  for  holding  a 
lump  of  chalk,  upon  which  to  rub  the 
brushes  used  in  cleaning,  to  free  them  from 
grease  and  dirt,  is  readily  made  by  nailing 
up  a  small  box  from  three  to  four  inches 
square  underneath  the  work  bench,  with  a 
small  piece  of  wood  to  prevent  the  chalk 
from  falling  out  in  front ;  or  by  fixing  a 
piece  of  wood  from  the  right  hand  support 
to  a  place  underneath  the  workboard,  where 
the  chalk  will  wedge  itself  sufficiently  firm 
for  the  purpose. 

Burnt  Bone. — Many  watchmakers  prefer 
burnt  bone  for  cleaning  brushes  in  prefer¬ 
ence  to  chalk,  as  being  less  gritty  and 
dusty.  Burnt  bone  may  easily  be  prepared 
by  placing  ox  bones  in  a  crucible  and  ex¬ 
posing  them  in  a  brisk  fire  for  several  hours. 
The  crucible  should  remain  in  the  fire  un¬ 
til  it  has  died  out ;  when  the  bones  are  cold, 
soft  white  pieces  may  be  selected  for  rub¬ 
bing  the  brush  upon  and  so  cleaning  it. 

Benzine. — Benzine  that  becomes  dirty 
in  cleaning  watch-work  may  again  be  ren¬ 
dered  fit  for  use  by  filtering  through  animal 
charcoal.  A  certain  good  workman  stops 
the  end  of  an  ordinary  pint  glass  funnel 
with  paper  and  places  therein  calcined  bone 
dust  until  about  three  parts  full.  On  the 
top  of  this  he  pours  the  benzine  to  be 
filtered. 

Cyanide  for  Cleaning. — Although  cya¬ 
nide  of  potassium  in  the  proportion  of  two 
ounces  to  one  quart  of  water,  is  frequently 
used  for  cleaning  watches,  its  use  is  after 
all  not  to  be  recommended,  as  its  careless 
employment  may  injure  the  gilding,  if  it 
does  not  entirely  remove  it.  If  every  trace 
is  not  removed  by  hot  water,  alcohol,  etc., 


the  parts  are  sure  to  tarnish  badly,  and  the 
steel  will  rust  speedily.  It  is  far  better  and 
safer  to  use  benzine  and  alcohol,  and  finish 
up  with  dry  bone  dust.  A  mutton  bone 
calcined  in  a  slow  fire  will  have  a  coating 
of  fine  dust  on  its  surface  which,  when  ap¬ 
plied  with  a  soft  brush  to  the  gilding,  will 
impart  a  superior  luster,  and  its  use  does 
not  leave  anything  behind  which  could  in 
the  least  either  injure  the  steel  or  the 
gilded  parts.  Precipitated  chalk  mixed 
with  alcohol  and  used  moderately  is  also 
an  excellent  medium  to  remove  grease  or 
stains  from  gilded  or  polished  brass. 
Strong  caustics  or  acids  of  any  kind  are 
always  to  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible 
in  watch  work,  and  their  presence  on  the 
watchmaker’s  bench  is  very  much  to  be 
deprecated.  A  clean  brush  is  of  para¬ 
mount  importance  in  all  cases. 

Brushes. — Watchmakers'  brushes  are  in 
constant  requisition,  but  are  seldom  kept 
in  proper  order.  A  soft  brush  for  rough 
work  is  useless,  a  hard  one  for  fine  work  is 
ruinous,  and  a  dirty  brush  of  any  kind  is  a 
nuisance.  Some  brushes  are  cleaned  with 
dry  bread  ;  some  by  laying  a  piece  of  tissue 
or  other  paper  across  the  wide-open  jaws 
of  the  bench  vise,  the  corners  formed  by 
the  jaws  taking  off  on  the  paper  a  little  of 
the  dirt.  These  methods  are  imperfect. 
A  good  way  to  clean  a  brush  is  with  soap 
and  water — warm  water  being  preferable. 
Wet  two  brushes,  soap  them,  and  then  rub 
them  together  in  plenty  of  water  till  per¬ 
fectly  clean.  An  objection  to  this  method 
is  the  delay  in  drying.  Much  injury  is 
done  to  the  appearance  of  the  movement 
by  injudicious  brushing,  and  the  watch 
grows  prematurely  old  in  looks  by  such 
treatment. 

Precaution.- — While  treating  of  watch 
cleaning,  it  is  worth  mentioning  that  in  the 
brushing  of  the  plate  a  bristle  of  the  brush 
may  easily  catch  in  some  screwhole  and 
seriously  interfere  with  the  action  of  some 
wheel.  Before  mounting  the  watch,  inspect 
the  plate  carefully  for  some  such  occur¬ 
rence.  Plappily,  the  disturbance  is  easily 
noticed  and  quickly  corrected. 

Watch  Plates. — When  cleaning  the 
watch,  never  brush  the  plate  with  a  stiff 
brush  and  chalk  or  polishing  powder;  it 
not  only  spoils  the  appearance  of  the  work, 
but  ruins  the  gilding.  Work  is  never 
cleaned  in  factories  otherwise  than  by 
washing. 

Watch  Cleaning. — When  cleaning  a 
watch,  the  work  should  be  conscientiously 


WATCH  CLEANING  AGENTS. 


257 


done.  This  is  very  important,  as  when  the 
parts  are  carelessly  cleaned  with  soap  or 
impure  benzine,  they  will,  after  a  few 
months,  assume  a  dull  color,  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  a  thin  layer  of  the  materials  used 
in  cleaning  having  been  left  on  the  surface. 
It  has  at  times  been  noticed  that  steel  work 
was  preserved  from  rust  through  the 
perspiration  of  the  wearer,  after  having 
been  cleaned  with  certain  fluids.  Evi¬ 
dently  this  was  due  to  a  thin  coating  hav¬ 
ing  been  left  on  the  surface  of  the  metal. 
The  conclusion  to  be  drawn  is  obvious — 
clean  carefully,  push  the  pivots  into  rather 
hard  pith,  finish  with  a  soft  brush  in  proper 
condition,  and  clean  out  all  pivot-holes 
with  pegwood. 

To  Clean  a  Watch. — “  For  cleaning,” 
says  a  correspondent,  “  I  use  benzine  and 
alcohol.  I  have  two  wide-mouthed  bottles, 
one  for  benzine,  one  for  alcohol.  I  also 
use  two  camels’  hair  brushes,  one  for  each 
bottle.  Take  up  one  piece  at  a  time  in  a 
stiff  pair  of  tweezers,  dip  one  brush  in  the 
benzine,  and  brush  off  well  with  the  ben¬ 
zine,  and  then  take  the  other  brush  and 
brush  off  with  alcohol.  The  benzine  takes 
off  the  dirt  and  oil,  and  the  alcohol  takes 
off  the  benzine.  Always  take  out  the 
mainspring.  Clean  the  mainspring  by 
holding  in  your  tweezers  and  brush  off  with 
benzine,  putting  plenty  on,  and  let  it  run 
off  at  the  end  of  the  spring  ;  brush  over 
with  alcohol.  Clean  the  barrel  the  same 
way.  Lay  the  pieces  to  one  side  as  you 
clean  them.” 

Examination. — When  a  watch  is  handed 
to  you  to  be  cleaned,  and  it  has  stopped, 
examine  it  to  see  what  stopped  it.  Perhaps 
the  minute  hand  cannot  pinion,  or  center 
post  may  touch  the  glass;  this  can  be  found 
out  by  placing  the  thumb  nail  on  the  glass 
and  running  it  along  just  over  the  hand, 
and  by  getting  the  light  right  so  that  you 
can  see  through  between  the  nail  and  the 
hand,  and  be  able  to  tell  the  exact  distance 
between  the  under  surface  and  the  hand 
pinion,  or  center  post ;  if  the  pinion  or  post 
touch  the  glass,  put  in  a  higher  one,  and  if 
that  cannot  be  done,  lower  the  pinion  or 
stop  a  little. 

Safe  Rules. — I  cannot  resist  the  temp¬ 
tation  of  giving  my  ideas  about  the  clean¬ 
ing  and  repairing  of  watches.  First  and 
foremost,  do  not  undertake  any  job  that 
you  have  any  or  considerable  doubt 
that  you  can  do  it  successfully' ;  never 
leave  a  job  worse  than  you  found  it,  and 
never  mar,  cut  or  slash  any  part  of  a  watch. 


In  other  words,  do  not  undertake  a  job 
that  you  have  any  doubt  as  to  whether  you 
can  do  it  correctly.  One  of  my  old  mas¬ 
ters  told  me  never  to  undertake  to  improve 
on  the  maker’s  work,  and  this,  while  not 
true  in  every  case,  particularly  in  cheap 
watches,  is  a  safe  rule  to  go  by.  Never 
allow  your  file,  screw-driver,  plyers,  tweez¬ 
ers,  or  any  tool  to  deface  any  part  of  a 
watch.  Be  careful  and  not  let  the  move¬ 
ment  swing  so  as  to  in  any  way  injure  the 
balance  in  taking  from  case,  and  if  a  lever 
watch,  take  out  the  balance  the  first  thing 
after  uncasing  the  movement. 

Watch  Cleaning  Fluid. — Prepare  the 
following  in  a  tin  vessel  :  Two  quarts  of 
soft  water,  one  and  one-half  ounces  castile 
soap,  one-half  ounce  aqua  ammonia.  Meas¬ 
ure  out  two  quarts  soft  water,  which  heat 
to  a  boil  over  a  small  lamp  ;  cut  the  soap 
fine,  and  dissolve  it  in  the  water,  after 
which  pour  in  the  ammonia.  This  fluid 
can  be  kept  in  a  corked  bottle  or  jar. 
When  cleaning  a  watch,  heat  one-half  pint  of 
it  to  a  boil,  then  have  a  small  sieve,  which 
can  be  bought  in  any  tin  store,  and  put 
in  all  parts  except  the  roller-table,  spring, 
lever,  screws  and  dial.  Dip  in 'the  prepa¬ 
ration  about  half  a  minute,  take  out,  and 
rinse  in  soft  water  ;  after  this  dip  the  parts 
in  alcohol  and  put  them  in  a  small  paper 
box  with  boxwood  sawdust ;  shake  them 
from  side  to  side  until  dry. 

The  Use  of  Benzine. — We  frequently 
see  benzine  recommended  for  cleaning 
watches,  and,  frankly  speaking,  do  not  hes¬ 
itate  to  recommend  it.  But  it  should  be  re¬ 
membered  that  only  the  purest  should  be 
used,  as  the  ordinary  contains  a  number  of 
hydro-carbons  that  do  not  evaporate  easily, 
but  remain  on  the  metal,  soak  into  it  and 
combine  with  the  oil  subsequently  applied, 
making  it  thick  and  gummy.  Pure  ben¬ 
zine  should  evaporate  completely.  If  the 
slightest  smell  can  be  detected  on  a  piece 
of  brass  dipped  into  it,  after  exposure  for 
some  minutes  to  the  air  of  the  room,  it  is 
entirely  unfit  to  be  used  for  a  timepiece. 
It  is  always  well  to  warm  the  article 
cleaned  with  benzine  to  insure  its  complete 
evaporation,  and  afterward  to  thoroughly 
clean  out  the  holes  with  soft  pegwood. 

Watch  Cleaning  Agents. — During  an 
experience  of  more  than  one-third  of  a 
century,  always  striving  to  improve,  and 
testing  about  all  methods — solutions  that 
do  not  require  the  use  of  a  brush  until  the 
work  is  dry — the  writer  knows  of  no 
method  so  satisfactory  as  washing  with 


258 


EXAMINING  PIECES. 


good  soap  and  water  ;  rinse  thoroughly  (at 
a  running  stream,  if  possible),  and  dry  in 
sawdust,  or,  if  gilding  is  very  delicate,  a 
piece  of  old,  soft  cotton  cloth.  If  plates 
or  bridges  show  tarnish  that  washing  will 
not  remove,  dip  them  in  a  solution  of  cya¬ 
nide  of  potassium  (about  an  even  table¬ 
spoonful  to  a  pint  of  water),  rinse  again  very 
thoroughly,  and  put  in  alcohol  for  a  half 
minute  and  dry  as  before. 

Cvanide  of  Potassium. — For  all  parts 
of  the  movement  that  have  been  stained  or 
will  not  come  bright  in  cleaning,  I  use  cy¬ 
anide  of  potassium  and  water;  in  the  pro¬ 
portion  of  one  ounce  to  the  quart  of  water 
is  about  enough,  but  about  one-fourth  part 
of  each  will  suffice  to  make  at  one  time. 
Place  on  the  dark  spots  with  a  small  brush, 
wash  with  alcohol,  and  be  very  careful  to 
get  off  all  the  potassium  from  the  steel  if 
any  is  on  it.  The  plates  are  placed  on  the 
mixture  after  all  parts  are  removed,  then 
brushed  with  alcohol. 

Use  no  Chalk.— When  after  having 
cleaned  a  watch,  and  while  the  parts  are 
still  in  the  sawdust,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
go  over  all  pieces,  one  by  one,  with  a 
brush  to  remove  particles  of  sawdust  or 
lint,  if  a  cotton  rag  has  been  used.  If  the 
washing  has  been  thorough,  very  little  peg¬ 
ging  will  be  requisite  at  jewels,  except  there 
should  be  noticed  a  deposit  of  gum,  which 
should  have  been  removed  before  washing. 
Plates  and  bridges  will  need  brushing  to 
make  them  look  well;  brush  in  circles, 
breathing  on  the  work  frequently;  it  ap¬ 
plies  just  enough  of  moisture  to  facilitate 
the  work,  and  to  show  when  brushed  suf¬ 
ficiently.  Under  no  circumstances  should 
chalk — dry,  or  in  solution— or  any  other 
abrading  substance  be  used  on  movements 
that  are  in  a  respectable  state  of  preserva¬ 
tion. 

Avoid  Alcohol. — When  cleaning  a 
watch,  remember  that  under  no  circum¬ 
stances  should  the  pallets  or  roller  go  into 
the  alcohol,  except  to  remove  old  shellac 
preparatory  to  resetting.  You  may  think 
it  impossible  that  a  momentary  immersion 
can  do  harm,  if  dried  at  once,  but  it  does, 
and  if  it  is  proper  to  put  pallets  or  roller 
into  alcohol  once,  it  is  equally  proper  to  do 
so  at  every  subsequent  handling  of  the 
watch,  and  they  certainly  cannot  stand  such 
treatment  many  times  without  destroying 
the  life  of  the  shellac.  That  pallet  stones 
and  jewel  pins  are  found  loose  in  new 
watches  is  no  refutation  of  the  charge  that 
contact  with  alcohol  is  a  prolific  source  of 


loosening  jewels  that  are  set  with  shellae  ; 
pernicious  habits  prevail  in  factories  as  well 
as  out  of  them,  and  washing  balances  with 
springs  and  rollers  attached  is  one  of  them, 
and  surely  the  cause  of  many  loose  pins 
and  rusty  springs. 

Cleaning  Watches. — In  cleaning  I  use 
the  old  method  (after  trying  all  ways  sug¬ 
gested),  that  of  chalk.  I  use  the  old  lump 
chalk,  because  the  carpenters’  chalk  balls 
are  made  with  some  kind  of  paste  that  ad¬ 
heres  to  the  plate,  and  have  this  lump  chalk 
at  my  right  hand,  in  a  perforated  bottom 
box,  so  that  any  coarse  pieces  fall  through 
to  the  floor,  and  by  rubbing  the  brush 
across  it  and  then  giving  it  a  slight  rap,  be¬ 
fore  applying  it  to  the  plate,  any  hard  or 
heavy  substance  will  fall  out. 

Taking  a  Watch  Down. — When  I  get  a 
watch  for  cleaning  and  repairs,  I  take  the 
movement  out  of  the  case,  and  then  remove 
the  dust-band,  dial  and  hands.  I  then  take 
off  the  regulator,  first  noting  the  ex¬ 
act  place  it  marked  on  the  index,  thus  mak¬ 
ing  sure  that  it  will  run  nearly  right  when 
put  up  again.  After  removing  the  regula¬ 
tor,  I  unscrew  the  cock  or  balance  bridge 
and  remove  the  balance  from  it,  noting  at 
the  same  time  the  condition  of  the  balance 
pivots,  hairspring,  and  cock  jewel.  I  then 
see  if  my  watch  is  run  down,  and  removing 
the  pillar  and  case  screw,  take  off  the  top 
plate  and  barrel  bridge;  I  then  take  out  the 
train,  pallets,  escape  wheel,  4th,  3d,  and 
center  wheels,  and  remove  the  spring  from 
the  barrel. 

Tools  in  Watch  Cleaning. — Besides 
three  widths  of  screw-drivers  have  the  same 
number  of  tweezers  (3),  one  of  good,  solid, 
heavy  points,  one-sixteenth  inch  wide  at 
the  points  for  taking  down  a  watch,  and 
handling  the  heavier  parts  ;  next,  one  a 
little  finer,  and  one  very  fine  to  work  in  about 
the  train,  balance,  spring,  etc.  Always, 
keep  the  tweezers  in  perfect  order  at  the 
points,  so  that  whatever  you  handle  you 
will  not  mar  or  drop  the  things.  If  you 
cannot  find  tweezers  that  will  suit  you, 
make  your  own,  by  selecting  some  nice 
steel.  Then  a  good  assortment  of  plyers, 
cutting,  flat  and  round. 

Examining  Pieces. — When  the  watch  is 
all  in  pieces,  before  you  proceed  to  clean 
it,  examine  with  a  strong  glass  to  see  if 
the  rim  of  any  wheel  is  rubbing  or  clashing 
with  anything,  particularly  the  center  wheel 
in  any  full-plate  American  watch,  for  these 
wheels  are  often  dragging  on  the  plate  or 
striking  the  rachet  wheel  because  it  is  not 


ADJUSTED  WATCH. 


true,  and  if  examined  before  cleaning  the 
places  where  it  drags  are  a  tell-tale  of  the 
mischief.  Also  make  any  diagnosis  of  the 
watch  that  is  ne'eded  to  discover  any  errors 
from  wear  or  accident,  and  correct  them 
before  going  further,  such  as  looking  to 
each  jewel,  pivot  and  other  parts,  and  make 
all  necessary  repairs  before  cleaning. 

Putting  Up  a  Watch. — Lay  the  bottom 
plate  on  a  movement  rest,  and  proceed  to 
set  up  your  watch  in  the  usual  way.  Put 
in  the  center  wheel  first,  then  the  fourth 
wheel, Then  the  third  wheel,  and  lastly  the 
escape  wheel.  Then  put  on  the  top  plate. 
Lay  a  piece  of  tissue  paper  on  the  plate  to 
keep  your  fingers  from  touching  it.  Take 
up  the  movement  between  the  thumb  and 
finger.  Take  up  the  lever  in  your  tweezers 
and  slip  it  in  place.  Then  press  lightly  on 
the  plate  and  with  a  pair  of  slim  pointed 
tweezers  bring  the  upper  pivots  to  their 
holes ;  put  in  screws  which  hold  on  the 
plate  and  see  if  all  the  wheels  have  end- 
shake  enough.  Put  in  a  hair-spring  stud 
in  the  cock.  Put  cock  and  balance  in 
place.  Be  sure  you  get  the  roller  jewel  in 
the  fork  and  then  put  in  the  bridge  screws. 
Shake  the  movement  a  little  as  you  screw 
down  the  bridge,  and  as  long  as  the  balance 
swings  you  will  know  that  the  pivot  is 
going  in  the  hole  all  right.  Wind  the 
spring  a  turn  or  so,  and  see  if  the  balance 
has  a  good  motion  ;  if  it  has,  wind  and  put 
on  the  motion  work.  See  if  the  cannon 
pinion  fits  tight  enough  ;  if  not  and  it  is  a 
solid  pinion  take  a  small  square  file  and 
with  the  corner  file  a  notch  across  the 
pinion.  Cut  it  almost  or  quite  through, 
then  takd  a  sharp-pointed  punch  and  drive 
in  the  bottom  of  the  notch  very  little. 
Take  an  oilstone  slip  and  remove  the  burr 
from  the  outside  of  the  pinion.  Put  on  the 
dial,  examine  the  hour  wheel  to  see  if  it 
works  free  under  the  dial.  If  it  has  too 
much  play  put  on  a  dial  washer.  Put  on 
the  hands  ;  see  if  they  pass  without  catch¬ 
ing.  Put  your  movement  in  the  case,  set 
the  hands,  and  the  job  is  done. 

To  Put  a  Watch  in  Beat. — To  put  the 
lever  watch  in  beat  the  most  perfectly, 
wind  the  spring  a  quarter  or  half  turn,  and 
stop  the  balance  with  a  tooth  of  the  wheel 
on  the  impulse  face  of  the  pallet,  allow  it  to 
pass  off,  and  note  the  stopping  point  on  the 
other  pallet;  if  not  equal,  make  them  so,  or 
if  difficult  to  get  just  equal  let  it  pass  off 
the  entrance  pallet  the  freest.  Same  with 
the  cylinder  escapement;  if  not  equal,  let 
the  tooth  pass  freest  going  into  the  cylin¬ 


259 

der,  rather  than  out  of  it.  A  duplex  will 
be  very  nearly  in  beat  if  it  starts  off  when 
loosening  the  balance  at  the  point  of  first 
and  third  drops.  A  chronometer  should 
start  off  letting  go  the  balance  at  the  point 
where  the  jewe'l  passes  away  from  the  gold 
spring,  and  where  the  tooth  passes  off  the 
pallet. 

Watch  in  Beat. — To  put  a  watch  in 
beat  is  a  very  important  item,  which  is 
done  by  some  by  placing  a  sharp-pointed 
tweezer,  first  on  one  side  of  the  arm  of  the 
balance  and  then  in  the  other,  and  so  pin¬ 
ning  in  the  hairspring  in  the  stud  that  it 
will  let  off  as  readily  on  one  side  as  on  the 
other. 

To  Bush  a  Hole. — To  bush  a  hole, 
broach  it  out  in  the  plate.  Turn  up  a  bush 
in  the  lathe  to  fit.  My  way  of  putting  in  a 
bush  is  to  turn  the  bush  tapering  a  little 
with  a  hole  in  the  plate  to  match,  drive  the 
bush  in  from  the  inside  of  the  plate;  hav¬ 
ing  countersunk  the  hole  in  the  plate  on 
the  outside,  take  a  large  punch  from  your 
staking  tool  and  rivet  the  bush  on  the  out¬ 
side  just  enough  to  force  the  metal  out  in 
the  countersink.  Put  the  plate  in  the 
lathe  and  turn  off  even  with  plate.  I  cen¬ 
ter  and  drill  the  bush  before  putting  in, 
and  then  broach  out  to  fit  pivot;  after  put¬ 
ting  in  and  finishing  up,  countersink  the 
whole  a  little  at  both  ends  so  as  to  hold  oif. 

Lubricating  Watch. — It  is  a  good  plan 
to  put  a  drop  of  oil  on  center  pinion  lower 
bearing,  before  inserting  in  place.  The 
stem  wind  should  be  judiciously  oiled  with 
clock  oil,  although  some  watchmakers  use 
a  compound  of  beeswax  and  oil  to  lubri¬ 
cate  stem  wind,  which  gives  a  very  smooth 
winding.  To  oil  pallet  action,  sharpen  a 
piece  of  pegwood  down  to  a  thin  blade  and 
dip  it  in  the  oil  cup.  As  the  escape  wheel 
is  revolving  touch  each  tooth  with  the  oiled 
wood.  The  capillarity  of  the  wood  will 
keep  the  oil  from  leaving  in  large  drops,  as 
it  will  from  a  metal  oiler,  and  each  tooth 
will  receive  a  modicum  of  oil.  In  oiling  all 
capped  settings,  after  placing  a  drop  of  oil 
in  the  oil  sink,  take  pegwood  sharpened  to 
a  fine  point  and  insert  in  hole;  this  will 
carry  the  oil  down  between  the  cap  and  the 
hole  jewels  where  it  belongs.  Oil  the  in¬ 
side  of  barrel  and  place  some  oil  in  the 
coils  ;  clock  oil  should  be  used  for  barrel 
and  center  pinion. 

Adjusted  Watch. — The  balance  spring 
of  a  fine  watch  should  never  be  disturbed 
when  repairing  the  watch,  unless  in  some 
very  exceptionable  circumstances.  Its. 


26o 


TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER. 


length  and  curvature  have  probably  been 
carefully  adjusted  to  secure  isochronal  vi¬ 
brations  of  the  balance,  and  taking  it  up  or 
letting  it  out  will  at  once  damage  the  isoch- 
ronism.  Even  taking  up  a  balance  spring 
and  afterward  putting  it  back  where  it  was 
originally  will  often  spoil  it  for  fine  run¬ 
ning,  because  the  shape  of  the  spring  and 
the  condition  of  the  metal  have  been  so 
altered  by  the  pressure  of  the  pin  in  the 
hole,  the  bending  or  straightening  of  the 
coil,  etc.,  as  to  unfit  it  for  isochronal  action, 
it  is  difficult,  in  fact,  for  a  workman  who  is 
not  fully  posted  in  fine  watch  work,  to  han¬ 
dle  a  fine  movement  without  injuring  it 
in  some  way,  although  he  may  not  know 
how  he  did  it,  or  discover  the  fact  till  the 
owner  complains  of  its  inferior  perform- 
a  nee. 

To  Regulate  a  Fine  Watch. — A  cor¬ 
respondent  addressed  The  Circular  some 
time  ago  to  know  how  to  regulate  a  very 
fine  watch  made  by  a  celebrated  English 
watchmaker.  He  stated  that  although  he 
had  tried  to  alter  the  balance  spring  by 
taking  up  and  letting  out,  yet  he  could  not 
obtain  the  desired  effect.”  When  a  watch 
has  no  regulator,  it  is  timed  by  the  timing 
screws  in  the  balance  rim  at  the  end  of  the 
center  bar.  They  are  turned  very  slightly 
inward  to  make  the  watch  gain,  and  out¬ 
ward  to  lose.  Both  screws  must  be  turned 
the  same  quantity  or  the  balance  will  be 
thrown  out  of  poise,  and  regular  running 
will  be  impossible.  Should  the  amount  of 
regulation  wanted  be  too  much  to  be  easily 
corrected  by  these  screws,  it  shows  that 
there  is  some  fault  in  the  movement  which 
should  be  repaired.  This  fault  may  be  in 
the  escapement  or  elsewhere.  It  is  some¬ 
times  caused  by  the  balance  rim  having 
been  injured  by  careless  handling. 

Extracting  Broken  Screws.  —  When 
the  cramp  cannot  be  used,  because  the 
screw  hole  is  drilled  only  partly  through 
the  plate,  do  as  follows  :  Slightly  warm  the 
plate  and  well  cover  it  with  beeswax.  Be 
careful  not  to  let  the  wax  touch  the  broken 
screw,  then  make  a  solution  of  oil  of  vitriol, 
i  pint  of  oil  of  vitriol  and  4  of  water.  Let 
it  stand  until  quite  cold,  then  put  the  plate 
in,  and  in  a  few  hours  the  acid  will  dis¬ 
solve  the  screw.  The  wax  maybe  removed 
by  warming  it  in  olive  oil,  and  washing  in 
hot  soap  and  water. 

Headless  Screw  from  Plate. — Take 
two  pieces  of  steel  wire,  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  in  length,  one  size  smaller  than 
the  screw;  file  one  edge  wedge  shape. 


Put  one  piece  in  the  head  and  the  other  in 
the  tail  stock  of  the  lathe  ;  push  them  near 
together  with  the  plate  between  and  the 
wire  touching  each  end  of  the  screw.  Push 
hard,  and  turn  the  plate  with  your  hand. 

Removing  Broken  Screw. — When  all 
other  means  fail  for  getting  out  a  broken 
screw  and  the  watchmaker  does  not  like  to 
resort  to  the  punch,  he  may  use  the  follow¬ 
ing  chemical  method  :  Mix  four  parts  of 
distilled  water  with  one  part  of  sulphuric 
acid,  and  put  the  plate  in  the  solution  over 
night,  when  the  acid  will  generally  eat 
away  sufficient  from  the  thread  of  the 
screw  to  cause  a  distinct  separation  between 
the  steel  and  the  brass,  and  the  screw  may 
then  be  removed  by  mechanical  means. 

Left-Handed  Screw. — To  make  a  left- 
handed  screw  plate,  screw  a  piece  of  steel 
of  the  desired  size  in  an  ordinary  right- 
handed  screw  plate.  Then  file  it  away  to  a 
feather  edge  and  harden  it.  A  good  left 
handed  screw  plate  may  now  be  cut  with 
the  tap  thus  made  if  it  is  turned  the  re¬ 
verse,  or  left-handed  way. 

Chain  in  English  Lever.- — Sometimes, 
because  of  a  defect  in  the  fusee,  the  chain 
of  an  English  lever  will  fall  over  flat  on 
the  barrel.  It  can  be  restored  to  its  proper 
position  with  the  point  of  a  graver  in  the 
circumference  of  the  barrel  by  forcing  this 
forward,  thereby  taking  off  the  power  of 
the  mainspring;  and  the  defect  in  the 
fusee  can  often  be  corrected  without  taking 
the  watch  down. 

To  Resharpen  Old  Files. — According 
to  the  Eiseii  Ztg.,  cleanse  the  old  files  with 
soda  and  warm  water,  then  immerse  them 
in  water,  to  which  add  sulphuric  acid  in 
drops  until  gas  bubbles  begin  to  form  on 
the  files.  Leave  for  a  few  minutes  in  this 
bath,  then  take  out  and  rinse  with  clear 
water.  The  files  are  said  to  be  good  again 
for  work. 

Soldering  Broken  Broaches. — Steel 
broaches  and  other  tools  are  soldered  by 
cleaning  well  the  parts  broken,  then  dip¬ 
ping  them  into  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
copper  and  soldering  them  with  ordinary 
soft  solder.  The  joint  is  a  good  one  and 
will  stand  ordinary  hard  wear. 

Small  Drills. — In  hardening  small  drills 
very  good  results  are  obtained  by  enclos¬ 
ing  the  blade  in  a  pellet  formed  of  prussiate 
of  potash,  lard  and  Castile  soap,  and  cool¬ 
ing  in  beeswax.  Or  the  surface  may  be 
protected  by  a  layer  of  soft  soap. 

Transmission  of  Tower. — One  of  the 
principal  conditions  of  a  good  and  regular 


TO  SMOOTH  AN  OILSTONE 


261 


transmission  of  power  is  a  good  and  suit¬ 
able  shape  of  the  wheel  teeth,  and  it  is 
astonishing  to  see  in  what  an  indifferent 
way  this  important  matter  is  treated.  It  is 
a  well-known  fact  that  the  wheel  teeth  in 
order  to  act  properly,  ought  to  have  an 
epicycloidal  rounding,  and  no  engineer 
would  suffer  any  other  form  for  the  teeth 
of  the  wheels.  Berthoud  treated  this  sub¬ 
ject  in  a  most  elaborate  way  about  a  cen¬ 
tury  ago.  Reid  and  others  have  also 
explained  the  principles  of  the  construction 
of  toothed  wheels  most  explicitly,  but  in 
vain.  -It  seems  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
horological  community  have  resolved  to 
view  the  shape  of  the  wheel  teeth  as  a 
matter  of  taste. 

Tightening  Seconds  Hand,  etc. — 
Seconds  hands  may  be  tightened,  by  in¬ 
serting  the  socket  in  a  wire  chuck  and 
pinching  by  severe  drawing  in  ;  also  hair¬ 
spring  collets  that  are  loose  may  be  tight¬ 
ened  in  the  same  manner,  holding  the  spring 
by  inserting  a pegwood  in  the  center  of  the 
collet. 

To  Clean  Top-Plate. — To  clean  the 
top-plate  so  as  not  to  destroy  the  gilding 
or  scratch  the  plate,  wash  this  with  jeweler’s 
cleaning  soap  and  a  soft  brush,  which 
makes  the  plate  look  like  new;  rinse  off  in 
clean  water  or  alcohol,  and  dry  in  sawdust. 
Then  sharpen  a  piece  of  pegwood  so  it 
will  have  three  corners  ;  it  can  be  sharpened 
.with  three  cuts  of  the  knife.  Clean  out  all 
the  holes  carefully.  Again  sharpen  the 
pegwood  in  the  same  way,  only  make  it 
blunt  so  that  it  will  fit  in  the  oil  sinks,  and 
clean  them  out  well ;  sharpen  the  pegwood 
as  it  gets  dirty. 

Center  Pinion  Touching  Crystal. — 
A  good  way,  besides  the  usual  manner  with 
the  thumb  nail,  to  tell  if  the  pinion  touches 
the  glass,  is  by  putting  a  little  oil  on  the 
part  supposed  to  touch,  and  then  shut  the 
bezel  tight  all  around  ;  then  raise  it  and 
see  if  there  is  any  spot  of  oil  on  the  glass  ; 
if  there  is.  the  pinion  touches. 

Tightening  a  Glass. — To  tightly  fit  a 
glass  on  3,  4  or  5  oz.  open-face  cases,  where 
the  rim  is  cut  under  very  deep,  heat  the 
rim  of  the  case  over  an  alcohol  lamp,  when 
you  can  easily  put  in  a  glass  that  will  fit 
tightly  after  the  rim  cools  off. 

Countersinks. —  In  hole  jewels  with  cap 
jewels  over  them,  the  countersink  in  the 
jewels  must  be  toward  the  shoulder  of  the 
pivots;  all  without  caps  must  be  set  the 
opposite  way. 

Inserting  Barrel  Tooth. — To  set  a 


tooth  in  the  mainspring  barrel,  smooth  the 
broken  part  with  a  small  file,  drill  a  hole 
where  the  tooth  was,  take  a  piece  of  brass 
wire,  file  flat  and  to  the  thickness  of  the 
other  teeth  ;  then  file  round  at  one  end  to 
fit  the  hole,  solder  with  soft  solder,  and 
then  round  up.  For  center  wheel,  file  a 
groove  where  the  broken  tooth  was  with  a 
screw-head  file,  and  fit  another  tooth  in  the 
same  manner  as  specified  for  a  barrel 
tooth. 

Hour  Hand. — Before  putting  on  the 
dial,  wind  up  the  spring  about  half  and  see 
if  you  can  turn  the  hands  back  without 
interrupting  vibrations  of  the  balance  ;  if 
not,  free  until  they  will  so  turn  without  dis¬ 
turbing  vibrations,  and  be  sure  to  carry. 
Put  on  the  dial,  and  if  hour  wheel  has  too 
much  shake,  use  a  tinsel  washer,  concave 
side  to  the  dial.  These  are  excellent 
things  to  prevent  “dipping  ”  of  hour  hand 
when  the  wheel  socket  is  too  large  for 
cannon  pinion.  See  that  hands  are  free  of 
dial,  glass,  and  each  other,  and  the  job  is 
done. 

Spotting  the  Plates. — The  spotting  of 
the  plates  is  a  branch  in  itself  ;  it  is  done 
in  an  engine  resembling  a  wheel-cutting 
engine  ;  after  the  plates  are  polished  with 
rotten  stone,  the  plate  or  piece  that  is  to  be 
spotted  being  fixed  to  the  dividing  plate,  a 
small  hollow  ivory  point  charged  with  oil¬ 
stone  dust  or  emery  and  oil  is  attached  to  a 
jeweled  arm.  This  point  is  brought  into 
contact  with  the  plate  while  it  is  rotating, 
the  plate  being  shifted  after  each  spot,  and 
circular  or  geometrical  patterns  marked  on 
it  as  arranged  on  the  dividing  plate.  The 
steel  works  and  the  screws  are  blued,  but 
it  is  not  thought  safe  to  harden  the  large 
screws,  since,  if  a  screwhead  broke  off  and 
stopped  the  timepiece,  the  result  might  be 
serious. 

Barrel  Hook. — To  put  in  a  barrel  hook, 
drill  a  hole  into  the  barrel,  and  cut  a  screw 
into  it;  then  cut  a  thread  on  a  brass  wire 
the  same  size  as  the  hole,  file  under  on  one 
side  to  form  a  hook  screw  into  the  barrel, 
and  cut  off.  Select  a  suitable  spring,  put  it 
into  the  barrel  ;  if  an  American,  see  that 
the  catch  on  the  end  does  not  protrude  too 
far,  or  the  balance  will  be  apt  to  catch  on  it. 

To  Smooth  an  Oilstone. — Oilstones 
are  apt  to  wear  hollow,  and  it  is  necessary 
to  smooth  them.  For  this  purpose  take 
coarse  emery  and  water  upon  a  slate  or 
marble  slab,  and  with  a  circular  motion 
grind  the  oilstone.  Another  very  good  way 
is  to  nail  a  piece  of  coarse  emery  paper 


202 


MOVABLE  BOUCHONS. 


upon  a  board,  and  treat  the  stone  in  the 
aforesaid  manner.  Paper  is  best,  because 
the  grains  of  emery  remain  stationary, 
while,  when  loose  upon  the  slab,  they  roll 
around,  and  therefore  are  less  effective. 

Tarnished  Gilt  Clock  Bezels. — To  re¬ 
move  tarnish  from  gilt  clock  bezels,  dead 
white  silver  work,  etc.,  dissolve  one  ounce  of 
cyanide  of  potash  in  one  quart  of  rain 
water;  bottle  it,  and  label  it  “poison.” 
Place  the  work  in  an  earthen  vessel,  pour 
sufficient  of  the  cyanide  solution  on  the 
work  to  cover  it,  and  the  tarnish  will  dis¬ 
appear  in  five  minutes.  Re-bottle  the  solu¬ 
tion  for  future  use. 

To  Make  a  New  Collet. — Should  the 
contingency  arise  when  the  repairer  is  forced 
to  make  a  new  collet,  the  old  one  being  de¬ 
fective,  and  that  a  material  dealer  does  not 
live  near  him,  he  can  make  one  from  a  brass 
stopping  (bouchon).  The  drilling  of  a  bal¬ 
ance  spring  collet  is  not  easy  ;  in  fact,  it  is 
the  most  difficult  thing  there  is  to  drill,  and 
if  the  drilling  is  made  easier  by  drilling  in 
both  directions,  great  destruction  of  pivot 
broaches  results.  In  attempting  to  open  a 
hole  that  has  two  directions,  a  special  soft 
and  fine  pivot  broach  is  needed  to  com¬ 
mence  the  opening.  Workmen  who  sing  and 
whistle  over  the  finest  pivoting,  generally 
look  serious  when  drilling  the  collet. 

The  Double  Roller. — The  double 
roller,  as  its  name  indicates,  has  two  rollers 
on  the  balance  staff,  the  large  one  carrying 
the  impulse  pin,  as  in  the  table  roller,  while 
t  he  small  one  is  used  for  a  safety  roller  only. 
In  an  ordinary  escapement  with  a  lifting 
angle  of  30°  at  the  roller,  the  intersection 
is  only  just  safe  when  the  escapement  is  a 
good  one  and  all  the  parts  well  made  and 
jeweled  ;  but  if  the  pallet  staff  have 
brass  holes  and  less  skilful  workmanship 
generally,  pallets  of  higher  angles  and  a 
longer  escaping  are  necessary.  There  are 
no  proportions  of  the  lever  escapement 
upon  which  greater  diversity  of  opinion  ex¬ 
ists  than  on  the  proper  lifting  angle  of  the 
pallets.  Lifting  angles  of  150  may  be  found 
in  old  watches,  while  some  modern  watch¬ 
makers  advocate  as  low  an  angle  as  6°. 
Now,  as  the  driving  planes  increase  in 
length  with  the  lifting  angles,  and  also 
become  more  divergent  from  the  course  in 
which  the  wheel  is  traveling,  the  friction  in¬ 
creases,  and  in  an  increasing  ratio  as  the 
planes  approach  more  nearly  to  lines  of  the 
wheel  radii. 


Riveting  of  Bouchons. — Some  watch¬ 
makers  have  found  considerable  advantage 
in  replacing  the  sudden  and  irregular  im¬ 
pacts  of  a  hammer  by  gradual  pressure, 
without  shock,  obtained  by  a  small  press 
worked  by  hand  on  the  principle  of  a 
punching  machine.  With  a  well  made  bou¬ 
chon,  the  flat  end  of  which  is  slightly 
rounded  and  the  inside  of  the  hole  in  the 
plate  finished  with  a  rattail  rather  than 
with  a  cross-file,  it  is  found  that  the  rivet¬ 
ing  is  always  perfect.  Others  employ  an 
ordinary  pair  of  sliding  tongs,  the  noses 
of  which  are  drilled  to  receive  two  punches, 
one  flat  and  the  other  rounded,  as  in  the 
mainspring  punch.  Three  pairs  of  punches 
suffice  for  all  sizes  of  bouchon,  and  the 
same  tool  can  be  used  for  closing  up  screw 
holes,  etc. 

Tapped  Bouchon. — Every  watchmaker 
knows  how  to  proceed  in  adjusting  an  or¬ 
dinary  perforated  bouchon  or  stopping.  We 
would  make  a  few  remarks  on  the  subject 
of  bouchons  generally.  The  tapped  bou¬ 
chon  is  very  firm,  but  in  order  that  it  may 
be  well  centered,  it  is  essential  that  its 
thread  fits  exactly  the  tube  of  the  tool,  and 
that  the  pointed  rod  is  exactly  central.  A 
turned  bouchon,  especially  when  a  broach 
can  be  passed  into  it  after  it  is  in  position, 
is  more  easily  made  central. 

Solid  Bouchon. — When  bushing  holes 
that  are  rather  large  with  solid  bouchons, 
after  the  hole  has  been  marked  with  the 
pointer,  it  must  be  drilled  with  a  small  drill, 
a  larger  one  being  subsequently  passed 
through,  so  as  to  increase  it.  Otherwise 
there  is  great  danger  of  the  hole  turning  to 
one  side.  If  a  hole,  say  that  of  the  center 
wheel,  is  bushed  with  a  perforated  bouchon, 
it  will  often  be  found  to  incline  toward  the 
barrel,  so  that  the  hole  is  displaced.  Such 
an  inconvenience  may  be  avoided  by  using 
a  bouchon  with  a  hole  smaller  than  is  ul¬ 
timately  required,  afterward  enlarging  it 
with  the  plate  centered  (by  the  bar  pivot 
hole)  in  the  mandril  or  lathe. 

Movable  Bouchons. — These  are  for  use 
in  regulator  clocks  and  others  of  large  di¬ 
mensions,  and  a  few  words  must  suffice  for 
their  description.  It  is  always  desirable, 
with  a  view  to  prevent  wear,  that  when 
metal  pivot  holes  are  used  the  pivot  should 
bear  on  a  length  equal  to  about  three  times 
its  diameter  ;  but  for  such  a  condition  to 
be  satisfied,  it  is  essential  that  the  axes  of 
both  holes  and  pivots  be  absolutely  parallel. 


MENDING  MARBLE  CLOCK  CASES. 


263 


NOTES  ON  flENDING  CASES,  AND  VARIOUS  ITEflS. 


Going  Abroad  for  Home  News. — 
The  Moniteur  de  la  Bijoicteric ,  etc. 
•says  that  1,200,000  watches  are  annually 
manufactured  in  the  United  States  which 
require  12,000,000  precious  stones,  Or  from 
7  to  21  for  each  watch.  The  larger  part  of 
these  jewels  are  imported  ;  there  is  only 
one  company — the  Waltham — which  has 
them  cut  by  more  than  30  workmen. 

Magnetism  in  a  Watch — To  ascertain 
whether  any  of  the  several  steel  parts  of  a 
watch  are  magnetized,  suspend  the  article 
by  sticking  it  with  a  piece  of  beeswax  to 
a  fine  silk  thread,  when  the  polarity  may 
be  tried  with  a  small  magnet.  On  no  ac¬ 
count,  however,  should  steel  filings  be  used 
in  testing,  because  if  not  magnetic  to  begin 
with,  they  will  speedily  become  so  when 
brought  into  contact  with  the  article  under 
treatment.  With  soft  iron,  even,  it  is  well 
to  occasionally  change  the  fragment  used 
for  testing. 

Age  of  a  Watch. — If  an  old  watch  has 
a  balance  spring,  it  is  not  older  than  1660; 
if  it  has  a  minute  hand,  its  age  is  not  greater 
than  1770;  should  it  have  an  enameled 
dial,  it  was  made  in  the  17th  century. 

The  Astronomical  Mean  Solar  Day 
is  reckoned  from  noon  to  noon,  and  the 
hours  are  counted  continuously  from  1  to 
24  instead  of  being  divided  into  two  equal 
parts  of  12  hours  each,  as  is  the  ordinary 
custom  ;  thus,  half-past  six  o’clock  in  the 
morning,  say,  of  the  second  day  of  January, 
would  be  expressed  by  astronomers  as  Jan¬ 
uary  1,  18  hours,  30  minutes.  In  an  as¬ 
tronomical  regulator  the  hour  circle  is  ac¬ 
cordingly  divided  into  24,  and  the  hour 
hand  goes  round  once  in  24  hours. 

Solar  Day. — A  solar  or  civil  day  is  the 
time  between  the  transits  of  the  sun  over 
the  meridian  on  two  successive  days  ;  but 
as  the  sun  revolves  relatively  in  the  same 
direction  in  which  the  earth  rotates  (of 
course,  strictly  speaking,  it  is  the  earth 
which  revolves  round  the  sun  ;  it  is  only 
apparently  that  the  sun  moves  round  us) 
the  sun  requires  nearly  3  minutes,  56 
seconds  on  the  average  longer  than  any 
particular  star  to  bring  him  up  to  the  same 
meridian  on  every  successive  day;  there  is 
therefore  one  more  actual  or  sidereal  day 
in  the  year  than  there  are  solar  days. 

Sidereal  Day. — The  duration  of  a  side¬ 
real  day  is  23  hours,  56  minutes,  3  seconds. 


Cycle  of  the  Sun. — A  cycle  of  the  sun 
is  a  period  of  28  years,  after  which  the 
days  of  the  week  again  fall  on  the  same 
day  of  the  month  as  during  the  first  year  of 
the  former  cycle.  The  cycle  of  the  sun 
has  no  relation  to  the  sun’s  course,  but  was 
invented  for  the  purpose  of  finding  the 
dominical  letter  which  points  out  the  days 
of  the  month  on  which  the  Sundays  fall 
during  each  year  of  the  cycle.  Cycles  of 
the  sun  date  nine  years  before  the  Christian 
era.  If  it  be  required  to  know  the  year  of 
the  cycle  in  1882  nine  years  added  will 
make  1891,  which,  divided  by  28,  gives  the 
quotient  68,  the  number  of  cycles  that  have 
passed,  and  the  remainder  15  will  be  the 
year  of  the  cycle  answering  to  1882. 

Sulphuric  Acid. — Sulphuric  acid  will 
dissolve  iron,  steel,  copper,  tin,  silver,  zinc, 
brass,  nickel,  mercury,  German  silver. 

Gilding  on  Marble. — To  gild  on  marble 
mix  white  lead  to  proper  consistency  with 
fat  oil,  and  then  with  turps  ;  paint  the 
portion  to  be  gilded  with  the  mixture,  af¬ 
terward  sizing  it  with  japanner’s  gold  size, 
and  when  it  is  dry  applying  the  gold  leaf, 
the  best  material  being  employed. 

Marble  Clock  Cases. — To  polish 
marble  clock  cases  make  a  thin  paste  of  best 
beeswax  and  spirits  of  turpentine,  clean 
the  case  well  from  dust,  etc.,  then  slightly 
cover  it  with  the  paste,  and  with  a  handful 
of  clean  cotton  rub  it  well,  using  abundant 
friction  ;  finish  off  with  a  clean  old  linen 
rag,  which  will  produce  a  brilliant  black 
polish.  For  light  colored  marble  cases 
mix  quick  lime  with  strong  soda  water,  and 
cover  the  marble  with  a  thick  coating. 
Clean  off  after  twenty-four  hours  and  polish 
well  with  fine  putty  powder. 

Mending  Marble  Clock  Cases. — 
Plaster-of-Paris  may  be  used,  but  it  is  bet¬ 
ter,  especially  if  the  mended  part  is  visible, 
to  soak  the  plaster-of-Paris  in  a  saturated 
solution  of  alum,  and  then  bake  it.  It  is 
used  with  water,  may  be  mixed  with  any 
desired  coloring  material,  and  will  take  a 
high  polish.  Lime  and  white  of  egg  make 
the  best  cement  for  closely-fitting  surfaces, 
but  it  requires  using  very  quickly,  as  it 
soon  sets.  Marble  case  makers  use  a 
cement  composed  of  Russian  tallow,  brick 
dust  and  resin  melted  together,  which 
sets  as  hard  as  stone  at  ordinary  tempera¬ 
ture. 


264 


BAROMETRIC  ERROR. 


NOTES  ON  THE  PENDULUM. 


T'he  Knife  Suspension. — A  watchmaker 
complains  in  a  German  horological  ex¬ 
change  about  the  irregular  rate  of  a  second’s 
regulator,  and  is  answered  as  follows  :  If  the 
clock  has  a  knife  suspension,  as  nearly  all 
the  clocks  made  in  the  first  part  of  this  cen¬ 
tury  have,  you  will  find  that  the  pan  causes 
this  irregularity.  If  the  watchmaker  omits 
in  the  setting  up  of  the  clock  to  lubricate 
the  knife-edge  and  pan,  steel  rust  will  form 
at  the  place  of  contact,  and  the  knife  wears 
the  pan  no  matter  if  it  is  glass  hard  and 
polished  black,  and  eventually  forms  a  deep 
gutter.  I  have  found  this  true  at  least 
twenty  times  in  the  course  of  my  practise. 
When  I  then  restored  the  conditions  of 
knife-edge  and  pan,  and  lubricated  both,  or 
replaced  them  with  a  suspension  spring, 
the  arc  of  oscillation  of  the  pendulum  was 
at  once  enlarged,  essentially,  and  in  all  cases 
the  rate  became  more  regular,  and  custom¬ 
ers  have  often  expressed  their  satisfaction. 
But  if  the  clock  has  a  suspension  spring 
and  has  an  irregular  rate,  there  is  some¬ 
thing  the  matter  with  the  fastening,  so  that 
at  the  time  when  the  pendulum  is  about  to 
return,  the  elastic  force  of  the  spring  assist¬ 
ing  the  specific  gravity  of  the  pendulum 
bob  is  at  fault. 

Pendulum  Bobs. — Variously  shaped 
bobs  have  been  from  time  to  time  devised, 
the  most  common  in  all  the  old  clocks, 
being  the  lenticular,  or  lens  shaped,  which 
has  been  recommended  by  Reid  and  others. 
If  exactly  made,  this  would  not  be  a  bad 
form  for  the  bob,  but  it  is  a  very  difficult 
one  to  form  accurately,  one  of  the  convex 
sides  being  invariably  more  protuberant 
than  the  other,  or  if  these  are  properly 
divided  there  is  another  difficulty  in  getting 
the  hole  exactly  in  the  middle  of  them. 
Any  inequality  of  this  kind  will  cause  the 
pendulum  to  have  a  twist  at  every  swing, 
and  prevent  the  good  going  of  the  clock  ; 
for  this  reason  pendulums  are  now  nearly 
always  made  with  cylindrical  shaped  bobs, 
which  is  also  a  convenient  shape  for  com¬ 
pensation  pendulums. 

Torsion  Pendulum. — Rotating  pendu¬ 
lums  of  this  kind — that  is  in  which  the  bob 
rotates  by  the  twisting  of  the  suspension 
rod  or  spring — will  not  bear  comparison 
with  vibrating  pendulums  for  timekeeping. 
They  are  only  used  when  a  long  duration 
of  the  pendulum  is  required.  Small  clocks 
to  go  for  twelve  months  without  winding 


are  made  with  torsion  pendulums  about  six 
inches  long,  making  15  excursions  per 
minute.  The  time  occupied  in  the  excur¬ 
sion  of  such  a  pendulum  depends  on  the 
power  of  the  suspending  rod  to  resist  tor¬ 
sion  and  the  weight  and  distance  from  its 
center  of  motion  of  the  bob.  In  fact,  the 
action  of  the  bob  and  suspending  rod  is 
very  analogous  to  that  of  a  balance  and 
balance  spring. 

Striking  Half  Hours. — The’  usual 
way  of  getting  the  clock  to  strike  one  at 
the  half  hour  is  by  making  the  first  tooth 
of  the  rack  lower  than  the  rest  and  placing 
the  second  pin  in  the  minute  wheel  a  little 
nearer  the  center  than  the  hour  pin,  so  that 
the  rack  hook  is  lifted  free  of  the  first  tooth 
only  at  the  half  hour.  But  this  adjustment 
is  too  delicate  and  the  action  is  liable  to 
fail  altogether  or  to  strike  the  full  hour 
from  the  pin  getting  bent  or  from  uneven 
wear  of  the  parts.  An  arrangement  devised 
by  an  English  watchmaker  appears  to  be 
much  safer.  One  arm  of  a  bell  crank  lever 
rests  on  a  cam  fixed  in  the  minute  wheel. 
The  cam  is  shaped  so  that  just  before  the 
half  hour  the  other  extremity  of  the  bell 
crank  lever  catches  a  pin  placed  in  the  rack 
and  permits  it  to  move  the  distance  of  but 
one  tooth.  After  the  half  hour  has  struck 
the  cam  carries  the  catch  free  of  the 
pin. 

Length  of  Pendulum. — For  regulators, 
the  one-second  pendulum  is  never  exceeded 
and  is  generally  adhered  to,  being  a  con¬ 
venient  length  ;  but  of  course  any  de- 
rease  of  the  length  of  a  pendulum  is  at¬ 
tended  with  a  greatly  increased  effect  of 
errors  in  the  escapement,  shake  in  the  holes, 
etc. 

Barometric  Error. — The  error  caused 
by  variations  of  the  density  of  the  atmos¬ 
phere  is  called  the  “  barometric  error,”  and 
various  methods  have  been  tried  for  its  cor¬ 
rection,  such  as  causing  the  pendulum  to 
vibrate  in  a  vacuum,  fixing  small  barome¬ 
ters  to  the  pendulum  rod,  etc.  ;  but  the  first 
of  these  could  hardly  be  adopted  in  turret 
clocks,  and  in  these  the  adjustment  is  very 
troublesome.  T'he  best  plan  is  to  make  the 
pendulum  describe  so  large  an  arc  that  the 
circular  error  will  correct  the  barometric. 
With  a  decrease  in  the  pressure  of  air  and 
consequent  fall  of  the  barometer  the  pen¬ 
dulum  increases  its  arc  of  vibration  with  an 
increase  in  the  pressure  of  the  air  and  con- 


CENTER  OE  OSCILLATION. 


265 


sequent  rise  of  the  barometer  the  pendulum 
diminishes  its  arc  of  vibration. 

Regulators. — The  pendulum  lock  of  a 
a  regulator  should  be  securely  bolted  to 
the  back  of  the  case,  which  should  not  rest 
on  the  ground,  but  be  fixed  to  a  permanent 
wall  of  the  room,  and  the  back  should  be 
suitably  substantial,  not  less  than  1^  inches 
in  thickness.  Reid  recommends  that  a 
bracket  be  in  this  manner  fixed  to  the  wall, 
and  the  movement  screwed  or  bolted  to  it, 
the  front  of  the  case  being  capable  of  being 
pushed  on  or  pulled  off  ;  and  this  is  the 
method  adopted  in  all  the  best  regulators. 

Timing  French  Pendules. — Escape 
wheels  of  French  pendules  make  two  revo¬ 
lutions  a  minute,  so  that  the  pendulum 
makes  four  times  as  many  vibrations  per 
minute  as  there  are  teeth  in  the  escape 
wheel.  A  pendule  may  therefore  be  quickly 
brought  to  time  by  counting  if  the  beats  of 
the  pendulum  per  minute  equal  four  times 
the  number  of  teeth  in  escape  wheel. 

Mercurial  Pendulum. — In  the  mer¬ 
curial  pendulum  the  jar  of  mercury  does 
not  answer  so  quickly  to  a  change  of  tem¬ 
perature  as  the  steel  rod,  and  preference  is 
therefore  now  generally  given  to  the  zinc 
and  steel  arrangements  ;  still  the  elegant 
appearance  of  the  mercurial  renders  it 
suitable  for  show  regulators,  for  which  it  is 
often  used.  The  following  are  the  dimen¬ 
sions  of  a  good  pendulum  of  this  class: 
Steel  rod  0.3  inch  diameter,  34  inches  long 
from  top  of  face  part  of  suspension  spring 
to  bottom  of  stirrup,  side  rods  of  stirrup 
0.3  inch  wide  and  0.125  inch  thick,  height 
of  stirrup  inside  8  inches,  bottom  of  stirrup 
0.5  inch  thick  with  a  recess  turned  out  to 
receive  jar;  glass  jar  7.6  inches  deep  and  2 
inches  diameter  inside,  outside  2.25  inches 
diameter  and  7.8  inches  high;  height  of 
mercury  in  the  jar  about  7.4  inches  ;  the 
weight  of  mercury  entering  such  a  jar  is 
about  11  pounds,  12  ounces. 

Filling  Pendulum. — Great  care  should 
be  taken  when  constructing  a  mercurial 
pendulum  to  remove  all  the  air  bubbles 
from  the  mercury.  To  facilitate  this  the 
jar  of  mercury  removed  from  the  stirrup, 
and  with  a  piece  of  bladder  tied  over  the 
top,  may  be  subjected  to  a  temperature  of 
about  1 50°  for  a  week  or  two.  The  parts 
of  the  stirrup  may  with  advantage  be  an¬ 
nealed  after  they  are  finished,  so  as  to 
guard  against  the  possibility  of  magnetism. 
It  is  important  to  get  the  mercury  as  pure 
as  possible  for  a  pendulum.  A  good  way 
for  removing  impurities  is  to  add  sulphuric 


acid  to  the  mercury,  and  shake  the  mixture 
well.  The  metal  is  then  washed  and  after¬ 
ward  dried  on  blotting  paper. 

To  Purify  Mercury. — Mercury  often 
becomes  contaminated  with  alloys  and 
other  impurities  which  may  be  removed  by 
simple  filtration.  This  may  be  done  in 
simple  glass  funnels,  the  stems  of  which 
are  drawn  out  to  a  fine  capillary  tube.  Put 
this  often  becomes  clogged  after  a  short 
time,  and  then  ceases  to  act;  besides  this, 
it  acts  very  slowly.  A  chemist  recommends 
a  method  which  has  long  been  practised  in 
Bunsen’s  laboratory.  A  filter  is  made  of 
writing  paper  and  numerous  fine  holes  are 
punched  into  it.  Instead  of  making  these 
round  with  a  needle,  it  is  better  to  use  the 
point  of  a  pen-knife,  which  causes  the  little 
holes  to  be  triangular.  The  holes  should 
be  pricked  both  vertically  in  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  radius  of  the  filter,  and  hori¬ 
zontally  at  right  angles  with  the  former  ; 
part  of  the  holes  should  be  pricked  from 
the  outside  inward,  and  the  other  in  the 
opposite  direction.  A  still  better  way  to 
purify  mercury  by  filtration,  according  to 
the  same  author,  is  the  following:  Select 
a  glass  tube  of  about  the  thickness  of  a 
lead  pencil,  and  about  a  yard  long.  Ex¬ 
pand  one  end  to  the  shape  of  a  funnel,  and 
the  other  to  a  tulip-shaped  bulb,  or  expand 
this  end  to  a  wave-like  form  such  as  is 
customary  when  rubber  tubing  is  to  be 
stretched  and  tied  over  the  end  of  a  tube. 
A  piece  of  linen  or  chamois  is  firmly  tied 
over  the  latter  end,  and  the  tube  is  then 
suspended.  On  pouring  the  mercury  into 
the  funnel,  it  will  be  pressed  through  the 
pores  of  the  filtering  medium  with  a  pres¬ 
sure  considerably  exceeding  that  of  the 
atmosphere. 

Center  of  Oscillation. — The  center  of 
oscillation  is  that  point  in  a  vibrating  body 
in  which,  if  all  the  matter  composing  the 
body  were  collected  into  it,  the  time  of 
the  vibration  would  not  be  affected.  In  a 
straight  bar  suspended  at  one  extremity, 
the  center  of  oscillation  is  at  two-thirds  of 
its  length,  and  in  a  long  cone  suspended  at 
the  apex  at  four-fifths  of  its  length  from  the 
apex.  From  the  irregular  form  of  the  pen¬ 
dulum  the  position  of  its  center  of  oscilla¬ 
tion  is  not  so  easy  to  calculate,  but  it  is 
always  situated  below  the  center  of  gravity 
or  center  of  mass  of  the  pendulum.  In  con¬ 
structing  a  pendulum  it  will  be  sufficiently 
near  to  assume  the  center  of  oscillation 
to  be  coincident  with  the  middle  of  the 
bob. 


266  THE  STOOL. 

Pendulum  Wire. — Always  examine  the  ducing  a  piece  of  glass  tube  eight  or  ten 
pendulum  wire  at  the  point  where  the  loop  inches  long  it  will  fill  with  mercury  as  high 
of  the  fork  works  over  it.  You  will  gener-  as  the  top  line  of  the  jar,  and  by  placing 
ally  notice  a  small  notch  or  at  least  a  rough  the  finger  on  the  top  of  the  tube,  the  tube 
place  worn  there.  Dress  it  out  perfectly  can  be  lifted  with  its  charge  of  mercury, 
smooth,  or  your  clock  will  not  be  likely  to  and  in  this  manner,  small  quantities  can  be 
work  well.  Small  as  this  defect  may  seem,  taken  out  when  necessary.  Usually  the 
it  stops  a  large  number  of  clocks.  amount  put  in  a  jar  is  a  little  under  the 

Compensating  Pendulum. — In  adding  amount  required,  and  afterward  additions 
mercury  to  or  taking  it  from  the  jar  in  ad-  are  made,  which  is  more  readily  done  than 
justing,  it  is  convenient  to  have  a  hole  taking  from  the  jar;  all  mercury  added 
through  the  cover  of  the  jar,  and  by  intro-  should  be  pure,  clean  and  dry. 


NOTES  ON  THE  BENCH  AND  TOOLS. 

Too  Many  Fancy  Tools. — A  great  many  and  the  tool  becomes  nearly  useless.  The 
watchmakers  have  too  large  a  num-  same  might  occur  with  any  other  form  of 
ber  of  fancy  tools,  which  they  do  not  pliers  or  tweezers.  In  the  hands  of  a  good 
know  how  to  use.  A  good  watchmaker  can  workman,  they  will  last  for  a  long  time,  but 
do  satisfactory  work  with  a  good  lathe  with  if  used  unintelligently,  without  proportion- 
all  the  chucks,  a  good  vise,  centering  tool,  ing  the  size  of  tool  to  the  force  that  has  to 
a  good  set  of  pincers,  drills,  full  set  of  files,  be  applied,  taking  up  the  first  that  comes 
and  other  small  tools  generally  used  by  a  to  hand,  all  the  tools  will  soon  become  un¬ 
watchmaker  in  repairing  English  lever,  satisfactory  and  the  work  itself  will  suffer. 
Swiss  chronometers,  split  seconds,  and  all  It  is  very  desirable  to  have  one  or  more 
foreign  watches.  A  watchmaker  must  have  pairs  of  brass  pliers  and  tweezers  for  han- 
handled  some  of  the  above-mentioned  time-  dling  metal  work  without  the  risk  of  scratch- 
pieces  ;  and  a  great  deal  in  repairing  ing. 

watches  must  lay  with  the  ingenuity  of  the  Files. — Watchmakers  often  fix  files  into 

workman.  handles  by  driving  them  firmly  into  round 

The  Eyeglass. — The  usual  form  of  a  holes  in  the  handles ;  this  practise  leads  to 
watchmaker’s  glass  is  a  convex  lens  one  the  handles  being  cracked,  and  the  follow- 
inch  in  diameter,  mounted  in  a  horn.  Al-  ing  method  is  preferable :  Take  an  old 
though  sometimes  extra  strong  glasses  are  worn  out  file  or  a  piece  of  iron  of  the  same 
used  for  special  purposes,  the  focus  for  form  as  the  tail  of  the  file  to  be  fitted  ;  heat  it 
•general  work  ranges  from  two  to  four  inches,  several  times  to  bright  redness  and  drive  it, 
Some  workmen  find  the  muscular  exertion  when  so  heated,  into  the  handle,  taking 
of  supporting  the  glass  irksome,  and  attach  care  to  maintain  it  perpendicular.  A  hole 
it  to  a  wire  held  in  the  mouth  or  behind  the  will  thus  be  formed  of  the  required  size  in 
ear,  or  to  a  light  spring  coiled  around  the  which  the  file  will  hold  without  there 
head.  Eyeglasses  for  lightness  may  now  be  being  any  occasion  to  apply  excessive  force 
obtained  mounted  in  cork.  Holes  are  of-  in  fixing  it  in  position. 

ten  drilled  through  the  mounting  to  prevent  The  Bench. — This  should  be  fixed  in 
the  glass  being  dulled  by  the  collection  of  front  of  a  large  window  that  affords  a  good 
moisture  on  it.  There  is  a  very  superior  light.  The  various  hooks,  recesses,  etc.,  for 
achromatic  glass  with  two  plano-convex  holding  the  bows,  files,  hammers,  etc.,  as 
lenses,  which  has  the  double  advantage  of  well  as  the  drawers,  should  be  well  in  sight, 
giving  a  perfectly  colorless  view  with  a  flat  not  only  in  order  that  the  hand  can  at  once 
field.  Watch  jewelers  use  a  glass  with  take  hold  of  whatever  tool  is  required  but 
double  lenses,  half  an  inch  in  diameter  and  also  to  enable  the  workman  to  restore  them 
with  a  very  short  field.  to  their  places  immediately  after  use.  By 

Pliers,  Tweezers,  Ere.— It  is  advisable  doing  so  he  will  have  no  occasion  to  retain 
to  have  a  considerable  number  of  these,  as  on  the  bench  any  but  those  tools  that  are 
their  strength  should  always  be  proportional  very  frequently  or  continuously  in  use. 
to  the  force  that  has  to  be  applied  to  them.  The  Stool. — The  stool  used  by  workers 
For  example,  if  a  pair  of  sliding  tongues  is  at  the  bench  is  worthy  of  consideration, 
used  when  a  hand-vise  is  needed,  the  former  Those  with  cane  seats  are  to  be  preferred, 
will  be  strained  beyond  its  limit  of  elasticity,  The  height  of  the  bench  and  stool  should  be 


RIVETING  STAKE. 


so  related  that  the  muscles  of  the  chest  are 
not  too  much  cramped,  especially  if  the 
workman  is  engaged  on  an  operation  that 
occupies  a  long  time  and  obliges  him  to 
maintain  a  stooping  position.  The  stool 
with  a  screw  is  advantageous  in  this  respect. 

Making  Odd  Tools. — Says  a  correspond¬ 
ent  :  I  have  adopted  the  plan  of  making 
any  tool  I  happen  to  need  for  any  special 
purpose,  so  that  by  making  these  at  the 
time  I  happen  to  want  a  tool  that  I  cannot 
purchase,  I  have  accumulated  quite  a  vari¬ 
ety  of  odd  tools ;  among  them  are  a  varied 
lot  of  millers  for  milling  and  raising  jewels, 
and  deepening  the  countersink  holes  for 
jewel  settings  and  screw-heads  ;  also  a  tool 
for  holding  a  roller,  to  set  the  jewel  pin, 
and  one  for  holding  the  hairspring  collet, 
and  a  pair  of  tweezers  for  holding  jewels 
while  cleaning,  etc. 

Rounding-up  Tool. — This  most  in¬ 
genious  tool  is  one  of  the  most  useful  to 
watch  repairers.  By  its  aid  a  wheel  may 
be  almost  instantly  reduced  in  diameter; 
corrected,  if  out  of  round,  or  have  the  form 
of  its  teeth  altered  as  may  be  required. 
'The  cutters  are  little  over  half  a  circle  and 
terminate  in  a  guide.  While  one  end  of 
the  guide  meets  the  cutter,  the  other  an¬ 
gles  a  little,  so  that  instead  of  meeting  the 
other  extremity  of  the  cutter,  when  the 
circle  is  completed,  it  leaves  a  space  equal 
to  the  pitch  of  the  wheel  to  be  cut.  By  this 
means  after  the  cutter  has  operated  on  a 
space  the  wheel  is  led  forward  one  tooth  by 
the  time  the  cutter  arbor  has  completed  its 
revolution. 

Selecting  the  Cutter. — Some  little 
practise  is  required  to  select  exactly  the 
cutter  required  for  the  rounding-up  tool. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  use  one  too  thick, 
or  the  teeth  will  of  course  be  made  too  thin, 
and  the  wheel  probably  bent.  When  the 
guide  is  adjusted  to  the  pitch,  it  will  be 
well  to  see  that  it  enters  the  space  properly 
before  rotating  the  tool  quickly.  The  wheel 
should  be  held  firmly,  but  not  too  tight  be¬ 
tween  the  centers,  which  should  rest  well 
on  the  shoulders  of  the  pinion.  The  rest 
piece  for  the  wheel  should  be  as  large  as 
possible  to  keep  the  wheel  from  bending,  to 
give  it  firmness,  and  to  insure  a  clean  cut. 

Left-Handed  Screw  Plates. — Screw  a 
piece  of  steel  of  the  desired  size  in  an  or¬ 
dinary  right-handed  screw  plate.  Then  file 
away  to  a  feather-edge,  and  harden  it.  A 
good  left-handed  screw  plate  may  now  be 
cut  with  the  top  so  made,  if  it  is  turned  the 
reverse  or  left-handed  way. 


267 

Composition  Files. — These  files  which 
are  frequently  used  by  watchmakers  and 
metal  workers  for  grinding  and  polishing 
and  which  in  color  resemble  silver,  are 
composed  of  8  parts  copper,  2  tin,  1  zinc, 
i  lead.  They  are  cast  in  forms ;  treated 
upon  the  grindstone  ;  the  metal  is  very  hard 
and  is  worked  with  difficulty  with  the  file. 

A  Surfeit  of  Tools. — Some  repairers 
encumber  themselves  with  a  great  variety 
of  useless  or  worn-out  tools,  pliers  for  in¬ 
stance,  of  which  two  or  three  pairs  are 
quite  sufficient.  A  watch-repairer  should 
never  use  hardened  tooth  pliers  ;  they  spoil 
the  work  and  are  not  necessary  ;  a  pair  of 
long-nosed  pliers,  softened  with  a  good 
point,  filed  up  occasionally,  and  small  at 
the  points,  will  be  almost  constantly  in 
use ;  they  are  much  mbre  reliable  than 
tweezers  for  all  such  work  as  picking  up 
pins,  or  for  many  other  purposes  for  which 
tweezers  are  commonly  used.  A  greater 
variety  of  tweezers  are  necessary,  as  those 
with  long  thin  points,  that  must  be  used 
for  such  work  as  putting  a  chain  on  the 
fusee,  or  getting  the  pivots  into  the  holes 
when  putting  a  repeater  together,  should 
only  be  used  for  some  such  purpose,  as  the 
limbs  are  so  weak  that  a  pin  is  held  in 
them  with  difficulty.  Very  good  tweezers 
are  now  being  sold,  made  light  and  stiff  by 
giving  the  middle  part  of  each  leg  the  form 
of  the  segment  of  a  tube. 

Staff  Punch. — The  staff  punch  is  a 
useful  tool  for  driving  pallet  and  other 
staffs  and  colletted  wheels  to  correct  posi¬ 
tion.  It  may  be  made  from  a  piece  of 
polished  steel.  A  large  hole  is  first  drilled 
transversely  near  one  end  and  a  smaller 
one  of  a  size  to  allow  of  the  passage  of 
ordinary  pivots  is  then  drilled  from  the  end 
to  meet  it.  The  mouth  of  the  smaller  hole 
is  chamfered  and  rests  on  the  shoulder  of 
the  staff  to  be  driven  ;  the  pivot  passing 
into  the  larger  hole  is  secure  from  damage 
during  the  operation. 

Riveting  Stake.— The  ordinary  rivet¬ 
ing  stake  is  too  well  known  to  require  de¬ 
scription.  Another  form  is  circular,  with  a 
shifting  table  or  stake  round  which  holes  of 
various  sizes  are  arranged  in  a  circle  so 
that  any  particular  hole  maybe  brought  ex¬ 
actly  under  a  suitable  punch  moving  in  a 
vertical  guide.  A  set  pin  fits  a  hole  in  the 
edge  of  the  table  to  secure  it  correctly  to 
position  with  relation  to  the  punch.  A 
somewhat  similar  tool  is  used  for  closing 
holes  in  watch  plates.  There  are  no  holes 
in  the  table  and  the  punches  are  cupped  so 


268 


DEPTHING  TOOL. 


as  to  stretch  the  material  of  the  watch  plate 
toward  the  hole.  Sometimes  the  punches 
are  formed  with  a  punch  center  to  insure 
their  acting  concentrically  round  the  hole 
in  the  plate. 

Fly  Cutters. — The  usual  form  of  fly 
cutters  has  a  single  cutting  edge  used  for 
cutting  the  teeth  of  brass  wheels.  Flv  cut¬ 
ters  are  at  present  frequently  made  double. 
A  piece  of  steel  fitted  to  the  cutter  holder 
so  as  to  project  equally  on  each  side  is 
turned  to  the  form  the  cutter  is  to  be.  The 
steel  is  thinned  on  opposite  sides  till  the 
faces  are  just  coincident  with  the  center  of 
the  holder,  and  after  being  filed  back  from 
the  edge,  to  give  requisite  clearance,  is 
hardened  and  tempered. 

Use  of  a  Sector.— Suppose  a  pinion  of 
8  is  required  for  a  wheel  of  75  teeth  ;  the 
wheel  is  placed  between  the  limbs  of  the 
75  mark  and  the  proper  size  for  the  pinion 
is  then  the  distance  between  the  limbs  at 
the  8  mark.  Of  course,  if  the  pinion  is  in 
hand  and  the  size  of  wheel  is  required  the 
operation  is  reserved ;  the  pinion  is  placed 
between  the  limbs  at  the  8  mark  and  the 
distance  between  the  limbs  at  the  75  mark 
gives  the  size  of  the  wheel. 

Chamfers. — The  best  form  of  chamfer 
for  making  the  oil  sinks  around  pivot  holes 
is  a  steel  wheel  mounted  on  a  notch,  cut 
diameterwise,  in  the  end  of  a  properly 
made  shaft.  The  wheel  projects  slightly, 
and  when  the  tool  is  rotated  with  a  recipro¬ 
cating  motion  the  wheel  cuts  a  hollow  of 
circular  section,  the  radius  corresponding 
to  the  size  of  the  wheel.  For  cutting  the 
edge  of  the  wheel  is  left  quite  square,  but 
when  rounded  it  serves  as  a  burnisher. 
Two  wheels  of  the  same  diameter,  one  to 
cut  and  one  to  burnish,  are  usually  mounted 
in  the  opposite  ends  of  one  shaft.  Differ¬ 
ent  diameters  produce  different  sized 
chamfers,  wheels  from  one-tenth  of  an  inch 
to  a  quarter  of  an  inch  diameter  being 
commonly  used. 

Uprighting  Tools. — The  chief  require¬ 
ments  in  an  uprighting  tool  are  that  the 
holes  in  the  arm  and  in  the  table  shall  be 
exactly  opposite  and  straight  one  with  an¬ 
other  and  also  perfectly  perpendicular  with 
the  table.  If  the  holes  are  in  line  a  true 
runner  fitting  them  should  pass  from  one  to 
the  other  without  binding.  The  readiest 
way  for  testing  if  the  runners  are  perpen¬ 
dicular  to  the  table  is  first  to  ascertain  that 
the  runners  are  true  in  themselves,  and 
then  to  fasten  to  each  of  the  runners  in 
turn  a  piece  of  wire  extending  horizontally 


to  nearly  the  edge  of  the  table.  The  point 
of  the  runner  is  pressed  on  a  plate  and  on 
rotating  the  runner  the  wire  will  clear  the 
face  of  the  table  exactly  the  same  distance 
all  round,  if  the  tool  is  correct.  Uprighting 
tools  are  not  used  so  much  now  as  formerly, 
for  as  accuracy  of  drilling  is  more  absolutely 
insured  if  the  work  rotates,  the  mandrel  is 
now  generally  preferred  where  extreme  ex¬ 
actness  is  required.  From  the  readiness, 
however,  with  which  the  work  may  be  ad¬ 
justed  in  the  uprighting  tool  it  is  not  with¬ 
out  its  advantages. 

Screw-driver. — A  screw -driver  for 
watch-maker’s  use  should  be  as  light  as 
possible,  consistent  with  strength,  properly 
proportioned  to  the  work,  with  well  polished 
point  of  a  width  nearly  equal  to  the  diameter 
of  the  screw  heads  to  be  operated  upon,  and 
of  a  thickness  to  fit  the  slits  with  only  suffi¬ 
cient  taper  to  secure  it  from  breaking.  A 
tool  with  a  blunt  taper  will  ruin  the  best  of 
screws.  Screw-drivers  made  from  pinion 
wire  collect  dust  in  the  ridges,  and  are 
therefore  objectionable.  A  better  form  is 
readily  made  from  square  steel  twisted 
while  hot. 

Screw  Taps. — When  making  a  screw 
tap  the  upper  part  is  generally  left  larger 
than  the  screw  part,  and  in  turning  the  tap 
care  should  be  taken  to  make  a  long  curve 
between  the  two,  for  if  a  square  shoulder  is 
turned  there  the  tap  is  very  likely  to  break 
usi  ne. 

Emery  Grinders. — Shellac,  melted  to¬ 
gether  with  emery  and  fixed  to  a  short 
metal  rod,  forms  a  grinder  used  for  open¬ 
ing  the  holes  in  enameled  dials.  The 
grinder  is  generally  rotated  with  the  thumb 
and  forefinger,  and  water  is  used  to  lubri¬ 
cate  its  cutting  part,  which  soon  wears 
away.  The  grinder  is  reshaped  by  heating 
the  shellac  and  molding  the  mass  while  it 
is  in  a  plastic  condition. 

Depthing  Tool. — Accuracy  of  construc¬ 
tion  is  absolutely  essential  in  the  depthing 
tool,  and  before  venturing  to  use  a  new 
one,  it  should  be  tested.  The  centers 
should  be  turned  end  for  end  and  trans¬ 
posed,  ascertaining  after  each  change  if 
there  is  any  deviation  in  a  circle  described 
by  the  points  ;  also  if  the  points  when  they 
meet  coincide  exactly.  If  possible,  a  com¬ 
parison  should  be  made  with  an  approved 
tool  by  trying  both  a  large  and  also  a  small 
wheel  and  pinion.  The  adjusting  screw 
had  better  be  removed  so  as  to  see  that 
the  joint  works  smoothly  and  that  the 
spring  has  perfect  control  over  it.  If  the 


SLIDING  CARRIER. 


269 


joint  is  stiff  and  appears  to  be  dirty,  the 
joint  pin  may  be  taken  out  and  the  joint 
cleaned  thoroughly. 

Joint  Pusher. — Quite  a  convenient  tool 
is  a  joint  pusher,  a  round  piece  of  tem¬ 
pered  steel,  generally  in  a  wooden  handle, 
for  forcing  small  pins  into  or  out  of  position. 
A  tight  pin  is  started  much  easier  by  im¬ 
pact  than  by  pressure,  and  a  good  plan  is 
to  have  a  punch  or  joint  pusher  with  a 
square  body  which  is  clasped  in  the  vise 
not  tightly,  but  just  so  as  to  hold  it  in  the 
position.  If  then  the  work  is  held  in  one 
hand  against  the  point  of  the  joint  pusher 
the  other  hand  is  at  liberty  to  give  the  head 
of  the  joint  pusher  a  light  tap  with  a 
hammer. 

Drawplate. — Every  watchmaker  should 
possess  a  plate  for  drawing  round  wire  so 
as  to  be  able  to  obtain  it  of  any  required 
diameter.  It  can  be  had  at  any  ordinary 
store.  In  bushing  holes  in  a  brass  plate  it 
not  unfrequently  happens  that  the  brass 
used  for  the  bouchon  is  not  of  the  same 
color  as  the  plate.  To  avoid  such  a  differ¬ 
ence,  cut  off  a  piece  from  a  plate  of  the 
same  color  and  round  it  by  hand,  making 
one  end  to  taper.  Fixing  the  drawplate  in 
the  vise,  pass  this  end  through  one  of  its 
holes  and  gripping  it  in  the  hand  vise,  pull 
the  brass  through  the  plate.  Continue 
this  operation  through  successive  holes  un¬ 
til  the  requisite  thickness  is  attained.  No 
special  precautions  are  necessary,  further 
than  keeping  the  holes  well  greased  and 
annealing  the  brass  from  time  to  time  so 
as  to  counteract  the  hardening  caused  by 
the  operation.  Such  a  plate  can  also  be 
used  for  steel  wire  and  plates  with  holes  of 
special  form  ;  for  example,  those  for  draw¬ 
ing  click  and  pinion  wire  are  well  known 
in  the  trade. 

Drifting  Tool. — This  appliance  is  very 
useful  for  making  holes  of  round,  oval, 
square  or  any  required  form.  It  takes  the 
place  of  a  punching  machine  for  light 
work  ;  but  for  heavier  work  it  will  be  nec¬ 
essary  to  resort  to  the  punching  machine. 
There  are  several  constructions  in  use,  but 
the  most  usual  is  essentially  the  same  as 
that  of  the  tool  just  described.  The  screw 
works  vertically  in  a  strong  bridge,  that  is 
fixed  to  the  bed  in  which  the  counterpart 
of  the  punch  is  held.  Great  use  is  made 
of  this  machine  in  factories  at  the  present 
day,  almost  every  part  of  a  watch  being  in 
the  first  instance  roughly  shaped  by  its 
means.  Indeed,  this  metal  is  often  left  as 
it  comes  from  the  punch,  and  very  perfect 


crossings  of  wheels,  etc.,  are  thus  produced. 
Steel  does  not  cut  well  in  the  press  unless 
it  is  soft  and  homogeneous,  and  the  final 
dimensions  of  the  object  can  be  more 
clearly  approached  according  as  these  con¬ 
ditions  are  satisfied.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  cut  levers,  etc.,  of  the  exact  di¬ 
mensions  requited,  but  it  is  better  to  leave 
a  slight  excess  of  metal  to  be  afterward  re¬ 
moved  by  a  mill  cutter  or  other  means. 
The  crossings  of  steel  levers  and  cylinder 
escape  wheels  are  punched  out,  but  the 
metal  used  is  of  special  excellence. 

Truing  a  Grindstone. — The  best  way 
to  restore  the  roundness  of  a  small  grind¬ 
stone  is  by  wearing  it  down.  I  had  such 
an  untrue  grindstone,  and  tried  all  kinds 
of  ways,  but  found  the  following  the  best : 
I  fastened  the  two  sides  of  the  shaft  in  a 
block  of  wood,  sufficiently  tight  to  keep  it 
from  wobbling,  and  then  took  a  piece  of 
charcoal,  which  I  held  carefully  against  the 
stone  to  mark  the  raised  and  uneven  places. 
I  next  took  a  sharp  hammer,  something 
like  a  mason’s,  and  trimmed  the  high 
places  down,  continuing  until  the  stone  ran 
fairly  true.  This  operation  is  so  simple  as 
to  be  not  worth  explaining.  I  then  re¬ 
moved  the  stone  to  its  frame,  took  a  piece 
of  hard  steel  and  turned  the  stone,  which 
became  nice  and  round  in  a  short  time.  As 
the  watchmaker’s  grindstone  is  not  large, 
any  fair-sized  hammer  (of  course  the  sharp 
or  so  called pcne  end)  may  be  used.  If  the 
frame  of  the  stone  is  sufficiently  strong  the 
work  of  dressing  may  be  performed  with¬ 
out  removing  the  stone. 

Diamond  Broached. — These  broaches 
are  made  of  brass,  the  size  and  shape  de¬ 
sired.  Having  oiled  them  slightly  their 
surfaces  are  rolled  in  fine  diamond  dust 
until  entirely  covered.  Place  the  broach 
on  the  face  of  an  anvil,  and  tap  with  a 
light  hammer  till  the  .grains  are  imbedded 
in  the  brass.  Great  caution  is  necessary 
in  this  operation,  so  as  not  to  flatten  the 
broach.  Very  light  blows  are  all  that  will 
be  required;  the  grains  will  be  driven  in 
much  sooner  than  would  be  imagined. 
Some  roll  the  broach  between  two  pieces 
of  smooth  steel  to  imbed  the  diamond  dust. 
It  is  a  good  way,  but  somewhat  more  waste¬ 
ful  of  the  dust.  Broaches  made  in  this 
way  are  used  for  dressing  out  jewel  holes. 

Sliding  Carrier. — This  useful  adjunct, 
the  sliding  carrier,  although  not  generally 
supplied  with  a  Jacot  tool,  may  with  advan¬ 
tage  be  fitted  to  it.  It  is  often  handier 
than  the  screw  ferrule,  and  saves  time 


270 


BOW  LATHE  VS.  FOOT  LATHE. 


when  used,  instead  of  covering  or  cement¬ 
ing.  A  small  steel  plug  or  arbor  is  fitted 
to  one  of  the  centers.  The  ferrule  of  steel 
runs  on  a  collet  of  hard  brass,  and  is  kept 
in  its  place  by  a  small  washer.  The  collet 
is  pierced  to  move  freely  on  the  steel  arbor, 
and  its  projecting  end  slit,  and  then 
pinched  together,  so  as  to  grip  the  ar¬ 
bor  sufficiently  tight  to  remain  in  posi¬ 
tion  when  in  use,  and  yet  not  so  tightly 
that  it  cannot  be  moved  to  and  fro  without 
trouble.  Holes  may  be  made  at  conven¬ 
ient  positions  in  the  ferrule  to  receive  the 
carrier  pin.  The  shake  between  the  cross¬ 
ings  is  not  objectionable  with  small-sized 
wheels,  but  for  large  and  heavy  balances, 
etc.,  two  pins  and  a  large  ferrule  may  be 
used.  To  compensate  for  the  room  taken 
up  by  the  projecting  end  of  the  collet,  a 
little  is  sometimes  taken  off  the  boss  of  the 
Jacot  tool. 

To  Mount  a  Grindstone. — Small  though 
a  watchmaker’s  or  jeweler’s  grindstone  be, 
it  is  after  all  not  a  very  large  job  to  mount 
it  correctly,  in  such  a  manner  that  it  shall 
not  “  wobble  ”  to  and  fro,  or  hang  out  of 


true.  The  hole  is  to  be  at  least  one-half  or 
three-quarters  of  one  inch  larger  than  the 
axis,  and  the  former  as  well  as  the  latter 
must  be  square.  Then  make  wedges  for 
each  side,  all  of  which  are  to  be  equal  and 
sufficiently  thin,  so  that  a  wedge  passes 
from  each  side  through  the  hole.  These 
wedges  are  to  be  inserted  from  both  sides. 
If  the  hole  through  the  stone  is  regular  and 
equal,  the  wedges  will  fix  the  stone  as  it 
ought  to  fit.  But  if  it  is  not  at  right  angles 
to  the  stone,  it  is  to  be  made  so,  or  else  the 
wedge  must  be  made  accordingly,  so  that 
they  will  equalize  any  irregularities. 

Oilstone.- — An  oilstone  thoroughly  sat¬ 
urated  with  oil  is  often  cast  aside,  but  if  it 
is  soaked  in  benzine  for  two  or  three  days 
it  will  be  as  good  as  ever.  The  ordinary 
animal  and  vegetable  oils  are  not  so  suit¬ 
able  for  use  with  the  oilstone  as  petroleum 
especially  for  setting  small  tools.  A  mix¬ 
ture  of  glycerine  and  alcohol  is  even  better 
than  petroleum  for  watchmakers’  tools,  or 
glycerine  alone  may  be  used.  Glycerine 
has  the  advantage  of  neither  evaporating 
nor  clogging,  as  oil  is  apt  to  do. 


NOTES  ON  THE  LATHE. 


USE  of  Lathe. — As  to  lathes,  I  have 
found  that  there  is  a  necessity  of 
about  two  lathes  ;  one  a  Swiss,  light-run¬ 
ning  lathe  for  cementing  any  pivot  work, 
and  I  prefer  these  because  they  run 
lighter  and  easier  than  American  lathes; 
and  yet,  if  confined  to  but  one,  I  would 
use  a  small  American,  with  a  good  assort¬ 
ment  of  split  chucks,  particularly  those 
with  the  smaller-sized  holes,  for  holding 
balance  staffs,  wheel  arbors,  etc.,  which 
come  in  use  almost  every  day,  for  taking 
off  the  burr  from  the  point  of  a  balance 
pivot,  which  has  come  from  a  collapse  of 
the  case;  driving  the  end-stones  down  on 
the  end  of  pivots,  even  sometimes  to  the 
extent  of  heading  them  on  the  inside  of  the 
hole  jewel.  These  small-size  split  chucks 
I  have  found  extremely  useful  for  the  last- 
named  purpose,  and  I  am  not  so  “senti¬ 
mental  ”  but  that  I  oftener  use  these  split 
chucks,  even  for  setting  fine  balance  pivots, 
rather  than  take  time  to  cement  them  ;  and 
while  I  do  not  advise  the  use  of  a  split 
chuck  for  this  purpose  in  every  case,  yet 
with  a  little  experience  one  can  tell  when  a 
staff  is  held  so  that  the  new  pivot,  when 
set,  will  “line”  and  be  true,  and  of  clear 


beat  or  swing.  To  make  a  very  nice  pivot 
the  cementing  process  is  preferable,  and 
yet,  for  nearly  a  year,  my  old  No.  i  Amer¬ 
ican  lathe  was  not  set  up  (for  reasons  irrel¬ 
evant  to  mention),  and  during  that  time  1 
employed  a  very  skilful  workman  to  do  my 
pivoting,  and  this  man  would  not  think  of 
ever  doing  a  nice  job  unless  he  cemented 
it ;  and  I  can  assure  you  that  he  put  more 
pivots  out  of  line  and  out  of  true,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  months,  than  I  had  done 
in  all  my  life.  Speaking  of  “  sentiment,” 
I  will  say  that  too  many  young  work¬ 
men  use  the  lathe  too  much,  and  seem 
to  depend  on  a  fine-looking  lathe  and  hand¬ 
some  tools,  and  spend  too  much  time  in 
using  the  lathe  and  in  decorating  their 
bench  with  a  fine  display.  But  do  not  con¬ 
strue  this  as  meaning  that  one  can  do  nice 
work  with  a  jack-knife  and  handsaw';  for  I 
do  most  certainly  believe  in  a  good  and 
substantial  set  of  tools. 

Bow  Lathe  vs.  Foot  Lathe. — Some 
workmen  still  insist  that  there  is  nothing 
equal  to  the  bow  lathe,  and  I  am  willing  to 
admit  that  some  of  the  finest  of  work  has 
been  produced  by  this  means.  Others, 
however,  claim  that  continuous  motion  will 


TEMPERING  STEEL. 


produce  as  good  work  and  do  it  quicker. 
The  writer  is  of  the  latter  opinion  ;  he  also 
claims  that  a  split  chuck  in  a  lathe  of  Ameri¬ 
can  or  foreign  make  will  not  hold  a  piece 
absolutely  true.  Such  chucks  will,  no  doubt, 
do  well  enough  for  ordinary  work,  but  when 
a  fine  staff  or  pivot  is  to  be  turned,  he 
agrees  with  the  manufacturer  of  the  leading 
American  lathe,  that  nothing  equals  a  well- 
centered  cement  chuck.  He  has  tried  almost 
every  make  of  lathes,  and  has  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  for  the  finest  kind  of  work 
the  Swiss  or  cement  lathe  is  most  suitable 
on  account  of  its  lightness  and  the  facility 
with  which  the  wearing  parts  may  be  ad¬ 
justed  ;  or  a  cement  brass  may  also  be  used 
with  an  American  lathe ;  and  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  if  the  chuck  is  removed 
from  the  lathe  it  must  always  be  carefully 
recentered  when  replaced,  no  matter  how 
true  it  may  seem  to  run. 

Care  of  Lathe. — To  prevent  the  rust¬ 
ing  of  the  lathe,  some  use  an  oily  cloth  to 
wipe  it  with,  which  is  a  very  good  plan 
when  one’s  perspiration  is  very  corrosive. 
The  lathe  should  be  left  under  a  glass 
cover,  when  practicable,  as  it  answers  all 
purposes  as  a  protector,  and  has  the  advan¬ 
tage  of  looking  nice.  When  it  is  not,  a 
piece  of  chamois  skin  or  cotton  flannel 
should  be  thrown  over  it  when  not  in  use, 
especially  when  leaving  the  shop  in  the 
evening.  The  heavier  the  foot  wheel  used 
the  more  regular  will  be  the  motion  of  the 
lathe.  The  swing  treadle  produces  a  more 
uniform  motion  than  the  common  foot 
treadle,  the  advantage  of  which  is  obvious. 
I  use  clock  oil  for  oiling  my  lathe,  but  oil 
with  a  little  more  body  might  not  be  objec¬ 
tionable.  The  oil  cups  should  always  be 
closed  after  oiling  to  prevent  chips  from 
working  into  the  bearings.  There  is  noth¬ 
ing  to  be  saved  in  springing  a  chuck  by 
pressing  work  intb  it  which  is  too  large  for 
it,  or  clamping  upon  it  work  which  is  too 


small.  Better  use  wax  on  such  jobs  than 
spoil  a  $1.25  chuck. 

A  Nice  Underturning. — To  introduce 
a  nice  underturning  on  a  pinion,  balance 
staff,  etc.,  remember  the  following  points: 
1.  The  object  in  hand  must  run  between 
good  centers,  without  any  side  shake  ; 
every  tremble  is  ruinous  to  the  graver  point 
and  the  pinion  or  staff,  which  will  bend 
easily.  2.  The  graver  used  must  be  ground 
carefully,  so  that  it  will  attack  well  ;  as 
soon  as  it  cuts  no  turnings,  stop  at  once 
and  grind  the  graver,  as  otherwise  the 
turned  place  will  simply  polish,  after  which 
it  is  quite  difficult  to  make  the  graver  catch 
hold  again.  3.  The  graver  rest  must  stand 
at  an  almost  right  angle  to  the  running-bar 
of  the  lathe,  and  be  set  as  closely  as  possi¬ 
ble  to  the  object  to  be  turned. 

Turning. — Hardened  steel  that  has 
been  let  down  to  a  blue  temper  requires 
certain  precautions.  If  the  graver  is  found 
not  to  cut  cleanly,  it  must  at  once  be  sharp¬ 
ened,  and  no  attempt  should  be  made  to 
remove  more  metal  by  increasing  the  pres¬ 
sure  of  the  hand,  because  the  steel  will 
burnish  and  become  hard  under  a  point  or 
edge  that  is  blunt,  and  the  portions  thus 
burnished  are  sometimes  so  hard  as  to  re¬ 
sist  the  best  gravers.  The  only  way  of 
attacking  them  is  to  begin  at  one  side  with 
a  fine  graver  point,  which  must  be  sharp¬ 
ened  for  each  stroke;  at  times  it  becomes 
necessary  to  temper  the  metal  afresh  before 
it  will  yield.  It  is  asserted  that  by  moist¬ 
ening  the  point  of  the  graver  with  petro¬ 
leum,  it  becomes  more  able  to  attack  hard 
substances,  and  that  a  mixture  of  two  parts 
petroleum  and  one  part  turpentine  en¬ 
ables  it  to  turn  very  hard  steel  with  com¬ 
parative  ease.  Indeed,  for  all  turning,  it  is 
a  common  practise  to  moisten  the  graver 
with  oil,  water,  turpentine,  or  by  simple 
introduction  into  the  mouth. 


NOTES  ON  STEEL  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


Tempering  Steel. — It  is  known  that 
soft  steel  increases  its  volume  when 
it  is  hardened,  and  it  is  easy  to  arrive  at 
the  conclusion  that  the  steel  is  less  dense 
in  proportion  as  it  approaches  the  condition 
of  iron.  If,  therefore,  a  piece  of  steel  is 
heated  in  the  open  fire  and  an  air  current 
passed  over  it,  then  the  outer  part  of  the 
metal,  in  consequence  of  its  decarbonization, 
partakes  less  of  the  nature  of  steel  than 


formerly  ;  thence  follows  that  the  interior 
part  of  the  article,  compared  to  the  outer, 
becomes  too  large,  and  the  workman  is 
consequently  exposed  to  the  danger  of  see¬ 
ing  it  burnt.  But  when  the  piece  is  sur¬ 
rounded  with  a  mixture  suitable  for  effect¬ 
ing  cementation,  or  exposed  to  a  fire,  which 
may  also  operate  with  a  steel-forming  ef¬ 
fect,  containing  animal  charcoal,  then  the 
opposite  phenomenon  will  result.  The 


272 


MAKING  A  DRILL. 


outer  part,  instead  of  being  decarbonized 
by  the  fire,  becomes  richer  in  carbon  than 
the  inner  portion,  in  consequence  of  which, 
in  place  of  cracking  during  the  cooling,  it 
will  become  harder  and  more  dense. 

Cracks  in  Steel. — The  cracks  which 
often  appear  when  steel  is  dipped  into  water 
do  not  always  seem  to  be  due  to  the  sud¬ 
den  contraction  which  the  latter  experi¬ 
ences,  while  the  interior  portion  remains 
expanded  by  the  heat,  and  retains  its  in¬ 
crease  of  volume  for  another  moment  after 
the  exterior  has  been  brought  in  contact 
with  the  water. 

Rust. — Nuts  are  oftentimes  so  tightly 
rusted  upon  screws  that  other  means  than 
unscrewing  must  be  made  use  of  to  loosen 
them;  kerosene  or  naphtha,  even  turpen¬ 
tine,  will,  in  a  short  time,  penetrate  be¬ 
tween  the  nut  and  stem.  Next,  heat  them 
in  the  fire,  which  will  quickly  loosen  them. 

Hardening  Steel.  — •  In  hardening, 
bright  steel  should  not  be  exposed  naked 
to  a  fire  or  flame.  It  may  with  advantage 
be  placed  in  a  covered  box  containing  bone 
dust  or  animal  charcoal  in  some  other  form, 
or  another  plan  is  to  smear  soap  all  over  the 
article  to  be  hardened.  Water  or  oil  is  the 
medium  generally  selected  for  plunging  the 
article  in  to  cool  it.  Petroleum  is  recom¬ 
mended,  if  extra  hardness  is  desired. 
Either  mercury  or  salt  water  will  give  great 
hardness,  but  the  steel  is  rendered  brittle. 
Oil  is  the  best  medium  for  hardening  steel, 
if  toughness  is  required. 

To  Frost  Steel  Work. — After  the  work 
Iras  been  prepared  with  a  surface  free  from 
scratches,  it  is  rubbed  with  a  short  back¬ 
ward  and  forward  motion  on  a  small  glass 
slab,  with  a  thickish  paste  of  oilstone  dust 
and  sweet  oil.  Before  mixing  this  paste 
look  over  the  powdered  oilstone  with  a 
very  strong  magnifier  and  carefully  remove 
all  the  black  atoms  which,  if  left,  would  in¬ 
evitably  scratch  the  work.  The  work  is 
cleaned  and  finished  by  rubbing  in  a  circu¬ 
lar  direction  with  pith;  or  instead  of  rub¬ 
bing  with  pith,  the  work  may  be  carefully 
breaded  and  immersed  in  benzine. 

To  Prevent  Rust. — Dip  iron  or  steel 
articles  in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  car¬ 
bolic  acid  and  olive  oil,  rubbing  the  surface 
with  a  rag.  Others  rub  the  metal  with  a 
mercurial  ointment,  leaving  a  thin  layer 
over  the  entire  surface.  It  is  stated  that, 
if  iron  be  dipped  in  a  solution  of  carbonate 
of  potash  or  soda  in  water,  the  surface  will 
be  protected  against  rust  for  a  long  time, 
and  objects  can  be  protected  for  any  period 


by  burying  in  quicklime.  Rubbing  the  sur¬ 
face  with  plumbago  has  a  similar  effect, 
and  Barff  has  pointed  out  that,  by  expos¬ 
ing  iron  to  the  action  of  steam,  heated 
above  the  boiling  point  of  water,  a  coating 
of  magnetic  oxide  of  iron  is  formed,  which 
is  equally  serviceable. 

To  Keep  Steel  from  Rusting. — To 
keep  steel  articles  from  rusting,  cover  them 
with  powdered  quicklime.  If  they  must  be 
exposed,  place  near  them  a  small  open 
vessel  containing  chloride  of  calcium.  By 
immersing  rusted  steel  articles  for  a  few 
minutes  in  a  strong  solution  of  cyanide  of 
potassium,  they  will  be  cleaned  much 
easier.  Steel  or  iron  that  has  been  im¬ 
mersed  in  caustic  soda  will  resist  rust  for 
a  long  time.  Spots  of  rust  on  chronometer 
springs  and  other  steel  pieces  are  generally 
rubbed  with  a  piece  of  brass,  but  some  say 
the  best  plan  after  cleaning  the  spots  is  to 
apply  a  little  spirits  of  ammonia  to  them. 

A  Solvent  of  Rust. — It  is  sometimes 
very  difficult  and  occasionally  impossible 
to  remove  the  rust  on  certain  iron  articles. 
This,  however,  is  quickly  done  by  immers¬ 
ing  them  in  an  almost  saturated  solution  of 
chloride  of  tin.  The  length  of  their  ex¬ 
posure  in  the  bath  is  according  to  the 
thickness  of  the  layer  of  rust ;  generally 
speaking,  24  hours  are  sufficient.  The 
solution  must  not  contain  a  large  amount 
of  acid,  as  this  would  attack  the  iron.  Af¬ 
ter  withdrawal,  the  articles  are  rinsed,  first 
in  water,  next  in  ammonia,  and  rapidly 
dried.  The  pieces  are  of  a  matt  silver 
color;  a  simple  polish  restores  their  gen¬ 
eral  appearance. 

Making  a  Drill. — After  having  made 
the  drill,  the  greatest  possible  care  must 
be  exercised  in  the  hardening  and  temper¬ 
ing,  not  to  overheat  it.  The  following 
method  dispenses  with _  the  hardening. 
Select  a  round  pivot  broach  ;  as  sold  they 
will  be  found  to  be  tempered  to  the  correct 
degree  of  hardness.  By  means  of  the  split 
gauge,  measure  the  part  of  the  broach 
which  is  the  exact  diameter  required  for 
the  intended  hole,  and  break  off  the  steel 
at  that  point  ;  the  small  piece  is  used  ;  it 
must  be  broken  off  if  too  long,  and  cement¬ 
ed  into  a  drill  stock  with  shellac ;  an  or¬ 
dinary  drill  stock  will  do,  or  a  piece  of  brass 
joint-wire  serves  the  purpose.  Soft  solder 
may  be  used  instead  of  shellac,  and,  if 
carefully  heated,  the  temper  will  not  be 
drawn.  The  piece  of  tapering  steel  is  now 
formed  into  a  drill  by  grinding  down  the 
sides  with  a  piece  of  Arkansas  stone,  and 


HARDENING  WITH  DISCOLORING.. 


the  end  shaped  up  to  a  cutting  angle.  The 
thick  end  of  the  broach  forms  the  cutting 
end,  and  the  ordinary  taper  of  a  broach 
will  be  quite  sufficient  to  give  clearness  to 
the  drill,  which  may  be  sharpened  by  grind¬ 
ing  until  the  hole  is  used. 

Shape  of  Drill. — After  the  operator  is 
satisfied  that  his  drill  has  a  truly  central 
point,  he  must  see  to  the  getting  of  his  cut¬ 
ting  edges  in  position,  which  is  largely  in¬ 
fluenced  by  the  material  he  desires  to 
drill.  If  it  is  brass,  he  may  make  the  cut¬ 
ting  edges  at  about  right  angles  ;  if  he 'de¬ 
sires  to  'cut  copper,  he  may  make  them 
about  an  angle  of  7 5 °,  and  at  the  same  time 
give  them  a  little  more  clearance,  so  that  the 
drill  will  not  be  so  likely  to  bind;  he  will 
find,  if  he  has  to  drill  pretty  far  into  soft 
metal,  that  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  keep 
the  drill  from  binding,  unless  he  is  careful 
and  gives  it  a  good  clearance. 

To  Drill  Steel  of  Blue  Temper. — At 
first  not  much  difficulty  will  be  experienced 
in  drilling  blue  tempered  steel,  but  when 
the  drill  has  reached  a  certain  depth,  and 
the  metal  seems  to  oppose  a  gradually  in¬ 
creasing  resistance,  the  operation  must  at 
once  be  stopped.  If  the  blade  of  the  drill 
be  examined  with  a  glass,  it  will  be  easy  to 
see  which  point  has  ceased  to  cut,  produc¬ 
ing  instead  a  series  of  bright  rings  at  the 
bottom  of  the  hole  that  are  very  difficult  to 
remove.  Exchange  the  drill  for  one  of  a 
different  form  ;  or,  without  reducing  its 
width,  change  the  form  of  the  blade.  If  it 
was  arrow-headed,  for  example,  make  it 
semicircular  or  semi-oval,  or  chisel-shaped 
with  sloping  edges.  All  that  is  essential  is 
that  the  form  be  so  changed  that  the  bright 
portion  of  the  surface  shall  be  gradually 
removed,  and  that  no  attempt  be  made  to 
act  on  the  whole  bright  surface  at  once. 
Until  this  hard  portion  is  removed,  the 
blade  will  require  frequent  sharpening. 
Some  recommend  that  the  hole  be  moist¬ 
ened  from  time  to  time  with  dilute  nitric 
acid,  which  is  washed  off  and  renewed 
when  a  shiny  surface  is  produced.  Oil 
may  with  advantage  be  replaced  by  turpen¬ 
tine  as  a  lubricant  for  a  drill  blade. 

The  formation  of  hard,  shiny  surfaces  is 
attributed  to  three  causes  :  1.  To  the  cut¬ 
ting  edge  being  rounded,  rolling,  as  it  were, 
and  hardening  the  surface  of  the  metal 
against  which  it  continues  to  move;  2.  To 
the  drill  being  made  of  poor  steel  or  imper¬ 
fectly  hardened,  so  that  small  particles 
break  off  and  are  imbedded  in  the  metal 
operated  upon  ;  3.  To  a  deficiency  in  the 
18 


273 

supply  of  oil,  or  a  too  great  velocity  of  ro¬ 
tation  of  the  drill. 

To  Drill  into  Hard  Steel. — Make 
your  drill  oval  in  form  instead  of  the  usual 
pointed  shape,  and  temper  as  hard  as  it 
will  bear  without  breaking.  Then  roughen 
the  surface  where  you  desire  to  drill  with  a 
little  diluted  muriatic  acid,  and  instead  of 
oil,  use  with  your  drill  turpentine  or  kero¬ 
sene  in  which  a  little  gum  camphor  has  been 
dissolved.  In  operating,  keep  the  pressure 
on  your  drill  firm  and  steady,  and  if  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  the  hole  should  chance  to  become 
burnished  so  that  the  drill  will  not  act,  as 
sometimes  happens,  again  roughen  with  di¬ 
luted  acid,  as  before  ;  then  clean  out  the 
hole  carefully  and  proceed  again. 

Hardening  Steel. — In  the  case  of  deli¬ 
cate  pieces,  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  the  use 
of  the  blowpipe,  as  the  current  of  air  causes 
the  surface  to  scale,  and,  as  is  well  known, 
the  metal  being  unevenly  heated,  will  be 
distorted  in  hardening  and  will  not  be  uni¬ 
formly  hardened.  It  is  better  to  enclose 
the  article  between  two  pieces  of  ignited 
charcoal,  or  in  a  metal  tube,  or  to  bring  it  in 
contact  with  a  sufficiently  hot  piece  of 
metal,  etc.  An  excellent  plan  is  to  heat 
the  article  in  a  bath  of  hot  lead,  or  of  lead 
and  tin  in  proportions  dependent  on  the 
temperature  required.  The  heating  is  thus 
exceedingly  uniform,  and  if  operating  in  a 
dark  room,  the  temperature  can  be  accu¬ 
rately  judged. 

Hardening  Punches. — Punches  are 
pickled  by  dropping  upon  their  surface  a 
drop  of  muriatic  acid  ;  they  are  then  rubbed 
off  with  a  brush,  washed  and  anointed 
with  fat.  When  fairly  clean  and  without 
flaws  they  are  annealed  pale  yellow,  and 
they  then  possess  sufficient  hardness  to  be 
driven  cold  into  softened  steel. 

Hardening  Without  Discoloring. — 
When  it  is  required  to  harden  an  object  with¬ 
out  discoloring  the  surface  or  destroying  the 
polish,  it  may  be  placed  in  a  tube,  and  com¬ 
pletely  surrounded  with  powdered  wood 
charcoal,  or  preferably,  animal  charcoal. 
The  whole,  after  being  heated  is  plunged 
in  water  without  the  steel  being  in 
any  way  exposed  to  the  air.  The  powder 
must  be  heaped  up  as  a  precaution  against 
access  of  air.  On  being  taken  from  the 
water  the  steel  is  at  once  placed  in  alcohol, 
and  if  at  all  dull  it  will  generally  be  only 
necessary  to  rub  the  surface  with  a  little 
rouge.  It  is  essential  that  the  animal  char¬ 
coal  be  previously  heated  in  order  to  expel 
moisture,  as  otherwise  it  would  adhere  to 


2/4 


GILDING  STEEL. 


the  surface  and  produce  marks  and  irregu¬ 
larity  in  the.  hardness. 

Agents  for  Hardening  Steel. — In  re¬ 
gard  to  hardening  steel  there  is  at  present 
considerable  controversy  and  any  number 
of  methods.  A  correspondent  says  that  he 
has  at  different  times  and  for  different  pur¬ 
poses  tried  castor  oil,  linseed  oil,  sperm  oil, 
petroleum,  fresh  water,  salt  water,  and 
mercury.  The  first  three  named  oils,  in  his 
opinion,  gave  the  same  results.  Fresh 
water  gives  the  same  degree  of  hardness, 
but  does  not  leave  the  steel  as  tough  as  the 
oil  does.  Petroleum  renders  the  metal  a  trifle 
harder  than  the  other  oils  do,  and  at  no  ap¬ 
parent  cost  in  regard  to  brittleness,  while 
either  salt  water  or  mercury  renders  the 
metal  so  very  brittle  as  to  be  suitable  for 
only  large  or  medium  sized  drills,  and  is  no 
particular  advantage  in  hardening  such  a 
piece  as  a  balance  staff. 

To  Harden  a  Staff. — When  a  repairer 
is  working  for  future  contingencies  and 
making  a  supply  of  balance  staffs,  his  chief 
consideration  is  how  to  harden  them  nicely. 
Let  him  do  as  follows  :  Take  about  a  dozen 
blank  staffs,  lay  them  in  a  hollow  in  a  piece 
of  charcoal  and  cover  them  with  a  thin 
piece  of  soap,  and  by  means  of  a  good- 
sized  alcohol  flame  and  blowpipe  heat  them 
to  a  cherry  red,  and  then  plunge  them 
quickly  into  linseed  oil.  In  preparing  this 
operation,  see  that  as  the  flame  is  directed 
the  soap  melts  rapidly  and  covers  the  pieces 
with  a  thin,  black  coating,  which  will  serve 
to  exclude  the  air  while  heating.  If  it  is 
properly  done  the  sudden  cooling  causes 
this  shell  to  chip  off  and  leaves  the  blank 
staff  perfectly  white  ;  but  should  the  result 
not  be  satisfactory,  a  little  rolling  between-, 
the  fingers  will  remove  it,  or  should  a  better 
polish  be  desired  and  the  repairer  has  an 
American  lathe,  he  can  quickly  and  nicely 
polish  them  with  a  fine  emery  stick. 

Bluing. — Before  the  operator  places  the 
articles  to  be  blued  in  the  bluing  pan,  he 
should  have  this  well  warmed  to  disperse 
all  moisture.  Steel  for  bluing  should  be 
finished  with  medium  rouge  and  the  last 
few  rubs  given  not  with  a  metal  polisher  but 
with  a  piece  of  boxwood  or  horn  and  plenty 
of  rouge  and  oil.  Pieces  that  have  been 
cleaned  in  dirty  benzine  (that  is,  benzine 
charged  with  oil)  will  become  specky  in 
bluing.  Difficulty  is  often  experienced  in 
bluing  soft  screws,  but  an  eminent  author- 
ity  says  that  a  good  even  color  may  always 
Ire  obtained  if  they  are  finished  with  a 
slightly  soapy  burnisher. 


Polishing  Steel  Pieces. — Large  steel 
pieces,  such  as  in  lever  and  repeater  racks, 
which  are  not  solid,  and  springs  should  be 
shellaced  to  a  brass  block  and  polished 
underhand;  aflat  surface  is  first  obtained 
by  rubbing  with  fine  emery  on  a  glass 
plate ;  afterward  with  coarse  rouge  on  a 
bell  metal  block.  The  work  is  then  finished 
off  with  diamantine  on  a  zinc  or  grain  tin 
block.  The  diamantine  should  be  well 
beaten  up  on  glass  with  as  little  oil  as  pos¬ 
sible,  Such  parts  as  rollers  and  collets 
are  polished  in  the  same  way.  Levers  are 
pressed  into  a  piece  of  willow  held  in  the 
vise  and  polished  with  a  long,  flat  bell 
metal  or  zinc  polisher,  moving  the  polisher 
instead  of  the  work. 

Steel  for  Watchmakers. — Cast  steel 
is  preferable  for  most  horological  purposes, 
such  as  pinions,  staffs,  pivots,  etc.  It  is 
the  only  kind  that  can  with  certainty  be 
highly  polished,  turned  perfectly  round, 
and  that  does  not  get  distorted  in  the 
smoothing.  Moreover,  when  wear  does 
occur,  it  exhibits  less  irregularity. 

Tempering  Case  and  Other  Springs. 
— Draw  the  temper  from  the  spring,  and  fit 
it  properly  in  its  place  in  the  watch;  then 
take  it  out  and  temper  it  hard  in  rain-water 
(the  addition  of  a  little  table-salt  to  the 
water  will  be  an  improvement)  ;  after  which 
place  it  in  a  small  sheet-iron  ladle  or  cup, 
and  barely  cover  it  with  linseed  oil;  then 
hold  the  ladle  over  a  lighted  lamp  until  the 
oil  ignites  ;  let  it  burn  until  the  oil  is  nearly, 
not  quite,  consumed  ;  then  re-cover  with 
oil  and  burn  down  as  before  ;  and  so  a  third 
time  ;  at  the  end  of  which  plunge  it  again 
into  water.  Main  and  balance  springs 
may,  in  like  manner,  be  tempered  by  the 
same  process;  first  draw  the  temper,  and 
properly  coil  and  clamp  to  keep  in  position, 
and  then  proceed  the  same  as  with  case 
springs. 

Tempering  Small  Steel  Pieces.— The 
tempering  in  kerosene  gives  excellent  re¬ 
sults.  The  pieces  are  first  heated  on  a 
coal  in  the  usual  way,  then  coated  with 
soap,  and  raised  to  a  cherry  red  ;  they  are 
then  plunged  into  kerosene,  and  no  fear 
need  be  entertained  that  the  liquid  will 
take  fire.  The  pieces  annealed  in  this 
manner  do  not  warp,  small  though  they  be, 
and  remain  entirely  white. 

Gilding  Steel. — -Polished  steel  may  be 
beautifully  gilded  by  means  of  the  ethereal 
solution  of  gold.  Dissolve  pure  gold  in 
aqua  regia ,  evaporate  gently  to  dryness,  so 
as  to  drive  off  the  superfluous  acid,  re-dis- 


ETCHING  ON  GLASS. 


solve  in  water  and  add  three  times  its  bulk 
of  sulphuric  ether.  Allow  to  stand  for 
twenty-four  hours  in  a  stoppered  bottle  and 
the  ethereal  solution  of  gold  will  float  on  top. 

Engraving  on  Steel. — Lightly  heat  the 
metal  and  cover  it  with  a  layer  of  beeswax  ; 
hold  it  over  a  smoking  flame  to  blacken  the 
wax  so  as  to  better  see  the  lines  drawn  up¬ 
on  it  either  with  a  pin,  pen,  or  point.  This 
done,  run  nitric  acid,  diluted  with  twice  its 
volume  of  water,  over  the  lines  laid  bare. 
Be  careful  to  spread  the  liquid  of  a  uniform 
thickness.  The  operation  will  be  finished 
in  about  three  minutes. 

Bluing  Steel. — In  order  to  blue  steel 
easily,  the  following  will  give  satisfactory 
results:  First  blue  the  object  without  any 
special  regard  to  uniformity  of  color.  If  it 
proves  to  be  imperfect,  take  a  piece  of  dead 
wood  that  does  not  crumble  too  easily,  or  of 
cleaning  pith,  and  whiten  the  surface  with 
rouge,  without  having  it  too  dry.  Small 
pieces  thus  prepared,  if  cleaned  and  blued 
with  care,  will  assume  a  very  uniform  tint. 

Etching  Liquid  for  Steel. — Mix  x  oz. 
-of  sulphate  of  copper,  1-4  oz.  of  alum,  and 
one-half  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  reduced  to 
powder,  with  1  gill  of  vinegar  and  20  drops 
of  nitric  acid.  This  liquid  may  be  used 
either  for  eating  deeply  into  the  metal 
or  for  imparting  a  beautiful  frosted  ap¬ 
pearance  to  the  surface,  according  to  the 
time  it  is  allowed  to  act.  Cover  the  part 
you  wish  to  protect  from  its  influence  with 
beeswax,  tallow,  or  some  similar  substance. 

Blue  Color  on  Iron  or  Steel. — To 
remove  the  blue  color  imparted  to  iron  and 
steel  by  exposure  to  heat,  rub  lightly  with  a 
sponge  or  rag  dipped  in  dilute  sulphuric, 
nitric,  or  hydrochloric  acid.  When  the  dis¬ 
coloration  is  removed,  carefully  wash  the 


275 

article,  dry  it  by  rubbing,  warm  it,  and  give 
it  a  coat  of  oil  or  it  will  rapidly  rust. 

Hammering  Steel. — Watchmakers  who 
are  called  upon  to  manipulate  exceedingly 
small  pieces  of  steel  can  somewhat  increase 
the  body  and  homogeneity  of  the  metal  by 
cold  hammering.  After  annealing,  the  ob¬ 
ject  is  hammered  with  light,  uniform  blows, 
again  annealed,  and  the  same  operation  is 
repeated  one  or  more  times,  according  to 
the  degree  of  malleability  already  acquired 
by  the  metal.  Steel  thus  prepared  has  more 
body;  the  particles  composing  it  are  more 
closely  pressed  together  ;  it  files  and  turns 
well,  can  be  heated  more  easily,  and  is  not 
distorted,  or  only  very  slightly,  in  harden¬ 
ing,  provided  the  requisite  precautions  are 
taken. 

To  Anneal  Hardened  Steel. — It  may 
sometimes  happen  that  hardened  steel  parts 
require  a  few  finishing  touches,  which  can¬ 
not  be  given  because  they  are  too  hard,  and 
their  polish  would  be  ruined  by  annealing 
them,  as  it  turns  blue,  and  the  piece  re¬ 
quires  then  a  renewed  polish,  which  con¬ 
sumes  a  great  deal  of  time.  The  most 
practical  way  is  to  cover  it  with  the  oily  dirt 
from  the  oilstone,  after  which  it  can  be 
annexed  with  impunity,  that  is,  the  flame  is 
with  the  blowpipe  directed  to  the  part  re¬ 
quired.  The  article  is  afterward  cleaned 
in  benzine. 

Whitening  Iron. — To  render  iron  as 
white  and  beautiful  almost  as  silver,  take 
ammoniacal  salts  in  powder  and  mix  it  with 
an  equal  quantity  of  quicklime.  Dissolve 
in  cold  water  and  mix  well.  When  done, 
immerse  the  red  heated  article  in  this  bath 
and  it  will  become  as  white  as  silver.  Be 
careful  not  to  burn  the  article  by  overheat¬ 
ing. 


NOTES  ON  GLASS  AND  ITS  WORKING. 


CEMENT  FOR  BRASS  UPON  GLASS. — C. 

Pusher  recommends  in  the  Ind.  Bl. 
a  very  tenacious  cement  for  fastening  brass 
upon  glass,  which  is  said  to  be  very  useful 
for  cementing  brass  burners  upon  the  glass 
bulbs  of  kerosene  lamps,  since  the  kerosene 
cannot  penetrate  the  cement,  nor  chip  off 
in  heat  (water  will  attack  it  superficially 
only).  This  cement  is  prepared  by  boiling 
one  part  caustic  soda  and  three  parts  colo¬ 
phony  (yellow  rosin)  in  five  parts  water. 
A  soap-like  product  is  obtained,  which  is 
ltneaded  with  gypsum,  say  about  one-half 


its  weight.  The  cement  obtained  hereby 
hardens  in  30  to  45  minutes. 

To  Cut  Glass  Without  a  Diamond. — 
Scratch  the  glass  about  the  shape  you  de¬ 
sire  with  the  corner  of  a  file  or  other  hard 
substance  ;  then,  having  bent  a  piece  of 
wire  in  the  same  shape,  heat  it  red  hot  and 
lay  it  upon  the  scratch  ;  sink  the  glass  into 
cold  water  just  deep  enough  for  the  water 
to  come  almost  on  a  level  with  its  upper 
surface.  The  glass  will  rarely  ever  fail  to 
break  perfectly  true. 

Etching  on  Glass. — Fancy  work,  orna- 


2/6 


TO  MOUNT  PHOTOGRAPHS  ON  GLASS. 


mental  figures,  lettering  and  monograms  are 
most  easily  and  neatly  cut  into  glass  by  the 
sand-blast  process.  Lines  and  figures  on 
tubes,  jars,  etc.,  may  be  deeply  etched  by 
smearing  the  surface  of  the  glass  with  bees¬ 
wax,  drawing  the  lines  with  a  steel  point, 
and  exposing  the  glass  to  the  fumes  of  hy¬ 
drofluoric  acid.  This  acid  is  obtained  by 
putting  powdered  fluorspar  into  a  tray  made 
of  sheet  lead  and  pouring  sulphuric  acid  on 
it,  after  which  the  tray  is  slightly  warmed. 
The  proportions  will,  of  course,  vary  with 
the  purity  of  the  materials  used,  fluorspar 
(except  when  in  crystals)  being  generally 
mixed  with  a  large  quantity  of  other  matter, 
but  this  point  need  not  affect  the  success  of 
the  operation.  Enough  acid  to  make  a 
thin  paste  with  the  powdered  spar  will  be 
about  right.  Where  a  lead  tray  is  not  at 
hand,  the  powdered  spar  may  be  poured  on 
the  glass  and  the  acid  poured  on  it  and  left 
for  some  time.  As  a  general  rule,  the  marks 
are  opaque,  but  sometimes  they  are  trans¬ 
parent.  In  this  case,  cut  them  deeply  and 
fill  up  with  black  varnish,  if  they  are  re¬ 
quired  to  be  very  plain,  as  in  the  case  of 
graduated  vessels.  Liquid  hydrofluoric 
acid  has  been  recommended  for  etching, 
but  is  not  suitable,  as  it  leaves  the  surface 
on  which  it  acts  transparent.  The  agent 
which  corrodes  the  glass  is  a  gas  which 
does  not  remain  in  the  mixture  of  spar  and 
acid,  but  passes  off  in  the  vapor.  To  mix 
fluorspar  and  sulphuric  acid  and  keep  it  in 
leaden  bottles  under  the  idea  that  the  mix¬ 
ture  is  hydrofluoric  acid  is  a  gross  mistake. 

Drilling  Glass. — A  thick  plate  of  glass 
is  perforated  by  using  a  revolving  brass 
tube  which  is  kept  filled  with  water  during 
the  drilling;  finely  pulverized  emery  is 
added  to  the  water.  A  thinner  glass  plate 
can  be  perforated  in  a  simple  manner  by 
spreading  a  moist  disc  of  clay  upon  the 
glass  ;  a  hole  of  suitable  size  is  then  made 
through  the  clay,  laying  bare  the  glass. 
Melted  lead  is  then  poured  into  the  hole, 
whereupon  the  glass  springs  off  at  once  and 
opens  the  hole  of  corresponding  size.  This 
method  is  based  upon  the  sudden  heating 
of  the  glass,  which  causes  the  circular  hole. 

Drilling  Glass. — For  drilling  holes  in 
glass,  a  common  steel  drill,  well  made  and 
well  tempered,  is  the  best  tool.  The  steel 
should  be  forged  at  a  low  temperature,  so 
as  to  be  sure  not  to  burn  it,  and  then  tem¬ 
pered  as  hard  as  possible  in  a  bath  of  salt 
water  that  has  been  well  boiled.  Such  a 
drill  will  go  through  glass  very  rapidly  if 
kept  well  moistened  with  turpentine,  in 


which  some  camphor  has  been  dissolved. 
Dilute  sulphuric  acid  is  equally  good,  if  not 
better.  It  is  stated  that  at  Berlin,  glass 
castings  for  pump-barrels,  etc.,  are  drilled, 
planed  and  bored  like  iron  ones,  and  in  the 
same  lathes  and  machines,  by  the  aid  of 
sulphuric  acid.  A  little  practise  with  these 
different  plans  will  enable  the  operator  to 
succeed. 

Turning  Glass  in  Lathe. — Black  dia¬ 
monds  are  the  best  tools  for  turning,  plan¬ 
ing,  or  boring  glass  where  much  work  is  to 
be  done.  With  a  good  diamond  a  skilful 
worker  can  turn  a  lens  roughly  out  of  a 
piece  of  flat  glass  in  a  few  seconds,  so  that 
it  will  be  very  near  the  right  shape-  A 
splinter  of  diamond  may  be  very  readily 
fastened  in  the  end  of  a  piece  of  stout  brass 
wire  so  that  it  can  be  used  for  drilling  or 
turning  glass.  Bore  a  hole  the  size  of  the 
splinter  and  so  deep  that  the  diamond  may 
be  inserted  beyond  its  largest  part,  but 
leaving  the  point  projecting.  Then,  by 
means  of  a  pair  of  stout  pliers,  it  is  easy  to 
press  the  end  of  the  brass  so  that  it  will  fill 
in  around  the  diamond  and  hold  it  tight. 
Diamonds  are  sometimes  cemented  in  such 
holes  by  means  of  shellac,  or  even  solder  is 
run  around  them.  This  answers  for  some 
purposes,  but  not  for  drilling  or  turning. 

To  Mount  Photographs  on  Glass. — 
Dissolve  ]/2  oz.  of  Nelson’s  No.  2  gelatine 
in  5  oz.  of  water,  and  place  in  a  flat  dish, 
keeping  it  warm.  The  print  should  be 
trimmed  rather  smaller  than  the  glass  to 
allow  for  stretching.  It  is  then  immersed 
in  the  gelatine  solution.  At  the  side  of  the 
dish  have  another  containing  water  at  about 
1 15  deg.  F.,  and  in  this  place  the  glass  till 
ready-  Lift  up  the  print  by  both  ends  and 
lay  it  face  downwards  with  a  curl — similar 
to  when  floating  paper — on  the  glass. 
Smooth  gently  into  contact,  drain  off  excess 
and  press  down  with  a  squeegee.  When 
dry,  place  a  piece  of  white  paper  over  the 
back  with  stiff  starch  paste  or  gelatine,  and 
after  again  drying,  mount  on  the  strut  back 
with  glue.  The  glasses  and  struts  can  be 
obtained  from  any  photographic  dealer.  If 
preferred,  the  print  and  glass  (warmed)  may 
be  placed  together  in  the  gelatine  solution 
and  brought  into  contact  under  the  surface, 
or  a  pool  may  be  poured  upon  the  glass, 
which  is  laid  flat  on  the  table  and  the  print 
laid  upon  it.  “Opalines”  improve  the 
permanency  of  the  print  considerably.  Old 
negative  glasses,  a  size  larger,  may  be 
cleaned  and  used,  the  edges  being  painted 
with  flowers  or  covered  with  some  design 


POLISHING  M  A  T 1-'.  R I A I 


277 


in  stamped  paper,  etc.;  if  some  spotting 
and  working  up  is  required  upon  the  print, 
it  should  be  done  with  oil  paints  or  a  lead 
or  chalk  pencil,  otherwise  it  will  be  dis¬ 
solved  away  when  mounting. 

Ink  for  Etching  on  Glass. — An  ink  or 
writing  fluid  that  can  be  used  for  etching 
directly  on  glass,  may  be  made  from  the 
following  ingredients,  which  are  kept  sepa¬ 
rate  until  the  ink  is  required  for  use  :  a  solu¬ 
tion  of  ammonium  fluoride,  some  sulphate  of 
baryta,  and  sulphuric  acid.  When  required, 
a  portion  of  the  sulphate  of  baryta  is  moist- 
•ened  with  the  fluoride  solution,  a  few  drops 
■of  the  sulphuric  acid  are  stirred  into  the 
mixture,  and  the  thin  fluid  paste  is  at  once 
applied  to  the  glass  with  a  pen,  with  which 
the  desired  characters  are  written.  The 
•etching  will  be  found  to  be  sufficiently 
legible  after  the  ink  has  remained  on  the 
glass  for  an  hour.  This  preparation  will 
corrode  steel  pens,  but  is  otherwise  free 
from  objections. 


Fastening  Letters  on  Glass. —  For 
fastening  glass  letters,  figures,  etc.,  on  glass 
(show  windows),  so  that  they,  even  when 
submerged  in  water  for  several  days,  will 
not  become  detached,  use  an  India-rubber 
cement.  The  best  for  this  purpose  consists 
of  one  part  India-rubber  three  parts  mastic, 
and  50  parts  chloroform.  Let  the  mixture 
stand  for  several  days  in  low  temperature 
to  dissolve  the  parts.  It  must  be  applied 
very  rapidly,  as  it  becomes  thick  very  soon. 

Gleaning  Powder  for  Show  Windows. 
— A  good  cleaning  powder  which  leaves 
no  dirt  in  the  joints,  etc.,  is  prepared  by 
moistening  calcined  magnesia  with  pure 
benzine  so  that  a  mass  is  formed  sufficiently 
moist  to  let  a  drop  appear  when  pressed. 
The  mixture  is  to  be  preserved  in  glass 
bottles  with  ground  stoppers,  in  order  to 
retain  the  easily  volatile  benzine.  A  little 
of  the  mixture  when  to  be  used  is  placed 
upon  a  lump  of  cotton  and  applied  to  the 
glass  plate. 


NOTES  ON  POLISHING  IN  WATCH  WORK. 


Polishing. — Those  who  have  not  had 
much  experience  in  polishing,  may  with 
advantage  use  a  lap  for  straight  pivots  and 
shoulders.  The  lap  and  pinion  are  rotated 
in  opposite  directions  by  means  of  two 
bows  held  in  the  right  hand,  the  lap  being 
centered  in  the  back  limb  of  a  depthing 
tool,  and  the  pinion  in  the  front  limb.  An 
arm  is  fixed  to  the  depthing  tool  to  hold  it 
in  the  vise,  and  a  piece  of  brass  wire  clasps 
the  runners  of  the  front  limb,  so  that  the 
-operator  can  move  the  pinion  to  and  fro 
with  his  left  hand.  A  soft  steel  lap  at  first 
and  a  fine  lap  afterwards  are  generally 
used.  They  should  be  turned  true  to  the 
edge  and  the  face  slightly  undercut.  Above 
method,  however,  is  useful  only  for  those 
who  have  no  American  lathe,  as  a  neat  lap 
holder  accompanies  this  lathe.  It  may  be 
angled  in  any  direction,  and  is  also  suitable 
for  damaskeening. 

The  tools  used  for  producing  the  beau¬ 
tiful  polished  and  square  surfaces  to  be 
found  in  watch  work  may  be  divided 
into  two  general  principles:  first,  where 
the  work  is  rigid  and  receives  a  repro¬ 
duction  of  a  previously  squared  surface, 
and,  secondly,  where  the  work  is  “swung,” 
-or  arranged  so  as  to  yield  to  unequal  pres¬ 
sure  in  polishing.  Polishers  for  steel  are 
either  of  soft  steel,  iron,  bell  metal,  tin. 
zinc,  lead  or  boxwood.  They  must  in  all 


cases  be  formed  of  softer  material  than  the 
object  to  be  polished  ;  for  instance,  bell 
metal,  which  brings  up  a  good  surface  for 
hard  steel,  is  unsuited  for  soft.  Polishers 
used  for  brass  are  generally  of  tin  or  box¬ 
wood,  with  willow  for  finishing.  The  pol¬ 
ishing  medium  is  either  emery,  which  is 
used  for  gray  surfaces,  oil-stone  dust, 
rouge  or  diamantine,  used  with  oil.  Brass 
surfaces  are  generally  “  stoned  ”  prepara¬ 
tory  to  polishing;  that  is,  rubbed  square 
with  blue  stone  and  water  of  Ayr  stone  and 
water  or  oil. 

Success  in  polishing  depends  much  on 
the  mode  of  mixing  and  using  the  pol¬ 
ishing  agent.  Oil  stone  dust  is  often 
recommended  and  employed,  but  in  the 
opinion  of  The  Gircular  it  should 
never  be  used  by  watchmakers.  It  is  very 
dirty,  and  it  is  impossible  to  make  any¬ 
thing  flat  with  oilstone  dust  and  a  steel 
polisher.  Watch  finishers  used  to  be  fond 
of  preparing  their  work  for  gilding  with 
steel  polishers  and  oilstone  dust;  but  it 
was  only  necessary  to  rub  a  flat  stone  over 
the  piece  to  see  how  uneven  it  was. 

Polishing  Material. — The  polishing 
materials  are  oilstone  dust,  crocus-antimony 
and  diamantine.  The  oilstone  dust  should 
be  well  mixed  with  refined  sperm  oil,  as 
should  also  the  crocus-antimony.  The 
diamantine  should  also  be  well  beaten  up 


2/8 


GRAVERS. 


and  mixed  in  a  similar  manner  on  glass 
and  with  a  glass  beater,  but  it  must  be 
used  with  as  little  oil  as  possible.  One 
thing  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  in 
regard  to  any  polishing  material,  it  must  be 
absolutely  free  from  all  dust  or  grit,  or 
good  results  will  be  impossible.  I  keep 
polishing  materials  ready  mixed  in  small, 
round  wooden  boxes,  which  I  procured  at 
the  druggist’s  and  lit  them  inside  with 
thick  flat  glasses. 

Polishing  Pinions  and  Arbors. — The 
pinions  and  arbors  are  to  be  polished 
highly  ;  some  workmen  burnish  the  arbors, 
but  a  high  polish  can  be  got  very  quickly 
with  a  zinc  polisher  and  diamantine.  The 
faces  of  the  third  and  fourth  pinions 
are  finished  with  the  ordinary  facing  tool, 
but  as  the  large  pivot  on  the  center  arbor 
precludes  the  use  of  such  a  tool,  it  is  faced 
square  down  to  the  arbor;  the  pinion  is 
placed  in  the  turns,  and  small  turns  that  fit 
into  the  rest  holder  carry  a  roller  mounted 
on  an  arbor  ;  this  roller  is  brought  to  bear 
against  the  face  of  the  pinion,  and  the  pin¬ 
ion  is  rotated  backward  and  forward  with 
the  bow.  The  roller  first  used  is  steel,  to 
bring  up  the  face  flat  and  square,  after  which 
soft  metal  rollers  are  used  for  finishing. 

Polishers. — Among  the  several  tools 
used  by  the  watchmaker  and  repairer,  pol¬ 
ishers  are  of  a  good  deal  of  importance. 
The  polisher  for  square  pivots  and  shoul¬ 
ders  consists  of  a  strip  of  soft  steel  or  iron 


about  six  inches  long  and  about  three-six¬ 
teenths  square,  with  end  curved,  and  the 
edge  that  faces  the  shoulder  should  be  filed 
back  at  a  very  slight  angle.  A  similar 
strip  of  bell  metal  will  also  be  required. 
They  should  both  be  filed  into  shape  with 
a  medium  coarse  file  drawn  crosswise  so 
that  the  grain  made  by  the  file  will  serve  to 
hold  the  polishing  material.  The  edge  also 
should  be  very  sharp  and  clean  cut,  so  that 
a  sharp  corner  may  be  well  polished. 
They  should  be  refiled  as  often  as  they  be¬ 
come  worn  smooth.  For  conical  pivots 
similar  polishers  are  required,  with  the 
edges  left  straight  and  the  corners  rounded 
so  as  to  exactly  conform  to  the  shape  of 
the  pivot,  and  they  should  be  made  so  that 
either  can  follow  the  other  without  any 
perceptible  difference. 

Polishing  Roller  Edges.  —  Roller 
edges  for  lever  and  chronometer  escape¬ 
ments  are  often  polished  by  means  of  a 
rotating  disk  or  mill  of  bell  metal.  The 
roller  on  an  arbor  is  fixed  to  the  slide  rest 
of  the  lathe  in  a  pair  of  turns  or  specially 
adapted  holder.  When  brought  into  con¬ 
tact  with  the  mill,  it  is  turned  with  the  bow 
or  the  thumb  and  finger,  and  the  slide  rest 
traversed  the  while  so  as  to  move  the  roller 
in  a  plane  parallel  with  the  face  of  the  mill. 
After  the  edge  is  polished,  if  the  corners  of 
the  rollers  are  to  be  chamfered,  the  holder 
is  turned  first  one  way  and  then  the  other 
to  an  angle  of  45 °. 


NOTES  ON  ENGRAVING  IN  WATCH  WORK. 


Light  in  Engraving. — The  engraver  has 
only  the  eye  to  guide  him  in  the 
various  devices  of  his  art,  and  as  the  result 
depends  upon  the  skill  of  the  operator, 
that  eye  should  be  a  pretty  correct  one. 
Good  light  is  very  necessary  in  engraving  ; 
gaslight  being  extremely  tedious  and  try¬ 
ing,  globes  filled  with  water  are  used,  which, 
being  placed  between  the  workman  and  the 
gas  jet,  steady  the  light  and  throw  it  more 
clearly  upon  the  work.  Besides  this,  the 
light  is  perfectly  cold,  as  no  heat  passes 
through  the  water  globes. 

Stoning  a  Graver. — When  stoning  the 
belly  of  a  graver  the  blade  should  be  held 
as  lightly  as  possible  between  the  thumb 
and  second  finger,  the  tool  being  barely 
touched  by  them,  they  being  used  simply 
as  checks  on  either  side  of  the  tool  to  keep 
it  in  position.  The  only  pressure  that 
should  be  applied  to  the  tool  is  that  steady 


power  supplied  by  the  tip  of  the  forefinger 
to  its  point,  holding  it  down  finnly  upon 
the  stone.  Pressure  applied  to  any  other 
portion  of  a  graver  blade  while  stoning  its 
belly  only  hinders  the  work  in  hand  as  to 
speed,  and  also  diminishes  the  average  cer¬ 
tainty  of  securing  for  it  a  surface  that  shall 
be  perfectly  flat. 

Gravers. — As  regards  gravers,  I  would 
have  plenty  of  them — a  good  assortment  of 
shapes  and  sizes,  and,  above  all,  the  best 
quality  obtainable.  In  sharpening  or  grind¬ 
ing  be  sure  and  get  the  face  flat,  and  if  you 
have  never  been  able  to  accomplish  the 
latter  feat,  take  an  old  graver  and  practise 
for  an  hour  or  so,  for  you  will  never  be  able 
to  do  any  kind  of  good  work  unless  a  prop¬ 
erly  ground  graver  is  used. 

Gravers  made  by  different  makers  will 
be  found  to  be  of  different  lengths,  and 
very  often  in  those  of  the  same  make  will 


engravers’  border  wax. 


279 


be  found  a  like  variation.  To  overcome 
any  difficulty  this  circumstance  may  pro¬ 
duce  graver  handles  of  different  lengths 
should  be  procured.  The  hands  of  no  two 
persons,  any  more  than  their  faces,  will  be 
found  to  correspond  exactly,  and  therefore 
no  rule  as  to  size  of  handle  and  length  of 
blade  of  graver  that  is  the  most  comfortable 
to  hold  and  easiest  to  use  can  be  laid 
down.  The  party  must  “fix”  the  tool  to 
the  hand.  It  will  be  found  upon  inquiry 
that,  as  with  most  things,  habit  has  a  good 
deal  to  do  with  the  matter.  The  length 
of  tools  and  the  form  given  to  them  in  set¬ 
ting  up,  will  be  found  to  vary  perceptibly 
among  engravers,  no  two  men  “fixing” 
them,  in  either  particular,  exactly  alike. 

Good  Advice. — The  writer  finds  in  a 
horological  exchange  the  following  sound 
advice  to  persons  learning  the  art  of  en¬ 
graving  :  “  There  is  no  greater  hindrance 
to  progress  in  learning  to  engrave  than  in 
trying  to  cut  with  a  badly-set  or  a  half-sharp 
graver.  Such  a  practise  speedily  engenders 
some  of  the  worst  evils — ‘  constraint  ’  and 


‘restraint’ — in  the  use  of  the  graver,  by 
which  is  meant  that  the  wrist  becomes 
stiffened,  the  easy  motion  of  the  hand  im¬ 
paired,  and  the  ability  to  hold  a  graver 
lightly  materially  crippled,  and  thus  the 
power  to  cut  strokes  clean,  true  and  free,  is 
largely  destroyed.” 

Graver  Blade. — A  graver  blade  having 
its  cutting  edges  at  right  angles  one  with 
the  other,  as  they  must  be  if  the  graver  is 
square,  will  make  too  wide  and  shallow  a 
stroke.  It  will  be  found  that  from  the 
edge  of  the  graver  on  one  side  to  the  cor¬ 
responding  edge  on  the  other  side,  cross¬ 
wise,  as  it  is  fitted  into  the  handle,  meas¬ 
ures  one-third  more  than  it  does  across 
either  of  the  flat  sides  of  its  belly.  For 
certain  kinds  of  work, ^ the  tool  to  be  used 
should  be  diamond  in  shape  endwise,  and 
the  distance  from  edge  to  edge  crosswise 
of  the  blade  should  be  equal  to  a  width  of 
a  side  of  its  belly. 

Engravers’  Border  WAX.-Beeswax,  one 
part;  pitch,  two  parts;  tallow,  one  part; 
mix. 


GOLD  AND  SILVER  WORKING. 


JBWEI/HY  REPAIRING. 

Some  manufacturers  do  not  care  to  be 
troubled  with  repairs,  and  when  they 
do  take  them,  they  are  handed  to  some  in¬ 
ferior  workman,  who  is  ‘‘good  enough  for 
such  jobs.”  This  is  a  mistake  ;  it  takes  a 
man  of  considerable  skill  and  long  experi¬ 
ence  to  make  repairing  pay,  as  otherwise 
the  accidents  will  consume  all  the  profits 
that  would  otherwise  be  made.  The  re¬ 
pairer  must  be  on  the  alert  for  all  the  tricks 
that  are  often  used  to  patch  up  a  piece  of 
work  which  has  been  repaired  several 
times  ;  he  must  know  how  to  distinguish 
an  old  gilt  article  from  a  colored  one,  and 
be  able  to  find  all  the  weak  points  and  thin 
places  before  attempting  to  solder  or  repair 
in  any  way,  or  he  may  find  himself  in  “a 
peck  of  trouble  ”  before  he  has  been  work¬ 
ing  at  the  job  for  five  minutes.  A  few  sug¬ 
gestions  showing  how  to  avoid  these  traps 
for  the  unwary  are  as  follows  : 

Upon  receiving  a  colored  gold  article  to 
be  repaired,  especially  if  it  is  an  old  one 
that  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  have 
been  repaired  several  times  before,  the  first 
thing  to  do  is  to  ascertain  whether  it  has 
been  repaired  with  soft  lead  solder  any¬ 
where,  as  if  this  is  the  case  and  you 
attempt  to  hard  solder  without  removing 
the  lead,  the  result  is  that  the  soft  solder 
burns  through  the  surface  of  the  gold  and 
thus  destroys  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  pre¬ 
vent  a  good  job  being  made  of  it.  If  upon 
examination  you  find  soft  solder  present, 
remove  as  much  as  possible  by  scraping, 
and  then  immerse  the  article  in  a  solution 
of  four  parts  muriatic  acid  to  one  part  water. 
This  should  be  done  in  an  earthenware 
pipkin,  and  not  a  metallic  vessel.  Making 
the  solution  warm  will  remove  the  solder 
more  quickly,  but  it  is  not  altogether  neces¬ 


sary,  as  tlie  cold  solution  will  do  it  and  is 
more  convenient,  the  warm  acid  eivine  off 
more  fumes  than  the  cold.  When  the 
solder  is  gotten  rid  of,  the  article  should  be 
boiled  in  clear  water  in  a  copper  pan,  to 
remove  all  traces  of  acid. 

Now,  before  attempting  to  hard-solder 
the  part  to  be  repaired,  cover  the  work  with 
a  solution  of  borax  rubbed  fine  in  water  and 
mixed  with  charcoal  dust  into  a  thin  paste. 
Apply  this  all  over  the  article  with  a  cam¬ 
el’s  hair  pencil,  then  anneal  gradually,  being 
careful  not  to  make  it  too  hot.  Afterward 
boil  out  in  a  weak  mixture  of  nitric  acid 
and  water,  and  then  dry  in  hot  sawdust — 
fine  boxwood  sawdust  is  the  best,  as  it  does 
not  give  out  resinous  compound  that  com¬ 
mon  woods  are  liable  to  do.  You  will  then 
be  able  to  solder  in  the  ordinary  way  with 
either  gold  or  silver  solder  as  the  case  may 
require.  If  the  article  is  strong  enough  to 
stand  recoloring,  use  gold  solder;  if  it  is 
too  far  gone  for  this  use  silver  solder  and 
gild. 

It  happens  sometimes  that  the  article  to 
be  repaired  has  been  so  worn  and  patched 
as  to  make  it  quite  impossible  to  use  hard 
solder  of  either  kind.  In  this  case  there 
is  nothing  for  it  but  to  soft-solder,  and  this 
may  be  done  much  neater  and  better  than 
is  often  seen.  The  important  thing  to  re¬ 
member  is  that  soft  solder  will  not  take 
where  there  is  the  smallest  trace  of  dirt  or 
grease.  Commence,  then,  by  washing  out 
the  work  in  hot  soda  water  and  soap,  with 
a  moderately  soft  brush,  dry  in  hot  saw¬ 
dust  and  then  shrape  the  parts  to  be  sol¬ 
dered  together  bright  and  clean.  If  any 
part  has  to  be  added,  such  as  a  joint  or  a 
catch  on  a  plate,  put  a  coating  of  solder  on 
the  sides  to  be  mitered  togetherby  warming 
them  in  the  soldering  gas  or  lamp,  and 
o 


GOLD  SOLDERING. 


rubbing  a  copper  point,  which  has  already 
been  tinned  over  the  surface,  using  a  little 
soldering  fluid  or  Venice  turpentine.  Then 
place  the  two  surfaces  together,  using  a 
a  little  fresh  fluid,  and  warm  them  with  a 
a  small  blast  from  the  blowpipe  until  the 
solder  runs,  when  the  whole  will  be  cleanly 
and  soundly  joined,  provided  the  two  sur¬ 
faces  fit  one  to  the  other.  This  method  is 
far  superior  to  that  of  putting  small  pellets 
of  solder  along  the  mitered  edges  in  hard 
soldering  and  trying  to  draw  it  through,  as 
it  is  generally  a  failure,  the  solder  running 
about  the  outside  surface  and  causing  a 
deal  of  trouble  afterward. 

Now,  if  fluid  has  been  used,  the  article 
must  be  washed  out  in  cold  water;  hot 
water  will  only  fix  it  on  and  make  it  dirty 
for  finishing.  If  Venice  turpentine  has 
been  used  as  a  soldering  medium,  wash 
out  in  ordinary  turpentine  and  dry  in  hot 
sawdust  ;  after  trimming  up,  polishing  a 
little  where  necessary,  washing  out  in  hot 
water  and  soap,  and  again  drying  in  hot 
sawdust,  it  will  be  ready  for  gilding,  sand¬ 
blasting,  etc. 


SOLDERING. 

he  modus  operandi  of  soldering  is  as  fol¬ 
lows  :  A  thorough  cleaning  of  the  sur¬ 
face  to  be  united  is  always  needful.  This 
may  be  effected  by  means  of  acids,  or  with  a 
graver  or  scraper,  etc.  ;  the  cleaned  sur¬ 
face  must  not  be  touched  with  the  fingers, 
and  the  soldering  should  be  done  at  once, 
if  acids  are  employed  ;  the  objects  should 
be  thoroughly  washed  after  soldering,  and 
after  drying  they  should  be  rinsed  with 
alcohol.  Before  heating,  if  there  are'  al¬ 
ready  parts  united  with  solder,  they  should 
be  covered  with  borax  to  prevent  softening. 
Only  a  moderate  heat  should  at  first  be 
applied,  so  as  to  melt  the  borax  or  sal- 
ammoniac,  without  displacing  it.  The  vio¬ 
lent  frothing  up,  which  is  very  liable  to 
displace  the  parts  or  the  pellets  of  solder, 
can  thus  be  avoided.  If  a  naked  lamp- 
frame  is  used,  or  if  it  is  directed  on  to  the 
object  with  a  blow-pipe,  it  should  be,  so  to 
speak,  large  and  soft,  and  the  point  should 
not  be  directed  to  the  place  of  juncture 
until  the  solder  is  observed  to  have  fused. 
The  hard  solders  for  gold,  silver,  etc.,  re¬ 
quire  a  considerable  degree  of  heat. 

On  a  hard  wetted  surface,  marble,  for 
example,  rub  a  piece  of  borax  until  a  white 
liquid  paste  is  obtained,  or  the  powdered 


281 

borax  sold  by  druggists  can  be  made  into  a 
paste  direct.  Having  prepared  the  borax, 
the  surfaces  to  be  united  are  cleansed, 
either  by  scraping,  or  with  diluted  nitric 
acid  ;  the  acid  may  be  previously  heated  to 
boiling,  as  it  will  then  act  more  rapidly; 
and  the  surfaces  are  subsequently  scraped. 
They  are  now  covered  with  the  borax  with 
a  paint  brush,  set  in  position,  and  small 
pieces  of  solder  placed  on  the  junction. 
As  already  observed,  the  heating  must  at 
first  be  gentle  to  avoid  displacing  the 
solder  by  the  frothing  of  the  borax. 

Soft  Gold  Solder  for  14  Karats. — 
Melt  equal  parts  of  14-karat  gold  and  silver 
solder,  and  hammer  it  into  thin  sheets  upon 
the  anvil.  This  solder  will  satisfy  all  the 
demands  of  a  watch  repairer.  It  is  advis¬ 
able  to  use  silver  solder  for  a  low  grade,  say 
6  or  8  karat  gold  goods,  which  consists  of  2 
parts  fine  silver  and  1  of  brass,  with  the 
addition  of  about  10  or  15  grains  of  tin. 

Soft  Gold  Solder  for  8  and  14 
Karats. — A  nice  soft  solder  for  8  and  14- 
karat  gold  consists  of  parts  fine  silver, 
one-half  part  fine  copper,  1.6  parts  14-karat 
gold,  and  0.4  part  zinc  ;  the  first  three  metals 
are  well  melted  and  mixed  together,  and 
when  well  in  a  fluid  state,  the  zinc  is  added, 
the  whole  left  for  a  few  moments  in  fusion, 
until  the  latter  melts,  not  volatilizes,  and 
then  cast. 


GOI/D  SOLDERING. 

he  article  to  be  soldered  is  placed  upon 
a  bunch  of  old  binding  wire  hammered 
flat,  or  on  a  piece  of  charcoal.  If  a  breach 
or  crack  has  to  be  filled,  a  small  thin  plate 
of  the  same  quality  of  gold  as  the  article 
under  repairs  should  be  used.  Rub  borax 
and  water  to  a  thin  paste  on  a  piece  of 
slate,  brush  one  side  of  the  plate  with  this, 
and  run  small  pallions  (or  pellets  as  they 
are  also  called)  of  suitable  solder  over  it. 
The  plate  is  then  boiled  in  diluted  sulphuric 
acid  and  hammered  or  rolled  very  thin.  A 
bit  of  this  gold  plate  of  a  shape  to  fill  the 
breach  is  cut  off.  Any  old  soldering  near 
the  breach  should  be  coated  with  a  paste 
of  rouge  with  water,  and  to  preserve  the 
polish  and  color  of  the  article  it  should  be 
covered  with  equal  parts  of  borax  and  char¬ 
coal  pounded  up  together  and  mixed  into 
a  paste  with  water.  This  “black  stuff,” 
which  must  be  carefully  excluded  from  the 
part  to  be  soldered,  is  dried.  Any  stone  or 
settings  in  the  article  should  be  covered 
with  a  thick  paste  of  whiting  and  water; 


282 


STRIPPING  ARTICLES. 


some  bury  the  part  in  a  piece  of  raw  potato, 
others  in  wet  sand.  If  it  is  a  ring  that  is 
being  soldered  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
settings,  a  piece  of  charcoal  may  also  with 
advantage  be  placed  through  the  ring. 
When  all  necessary  precautions  have  been 
taken,  the  breach  is  boraxed  and  the  piece 
of  plate  laid  in  and  heat  directed  to  it  by 
means  of  a  blow-pipe.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  apply  too  much  heat.  When  the 
solder  begins  to  flow,  the  plate  will  drop 
slightly,  and  the  solder  round  its  edges 
glistens.  By  following  this  method  a  strong 
job  is  made,  the  color  of  the  article  pre¬ 
served,  and  very  little  cleaning  is  required 
afterwards. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  mistake  made  by 
tyros  in  soldering  is  that  in  their  anxiety 
to  see  the  solder  flow  they  direct  the  flame 
too  suddenly  to  it,  and  in  consequence  the 
dampness  of  the  borax  causes  the  solder, 
if  used  loose,  to  corn,  and  it  will  not  run 
at  all.  The  heat  should  be  applied  to  the 
surrounding  parts  first,  gradually  approach¬ 
ing  the  solder,  and  stopped  the  moment 
the  solder  glistens. 

Great  care  is  required  in  dealing  with 
very  low  quality  gold  rings  when  broken. 
File  the  edges  flat,  so  that  no  light  is  seen 
when  brought  together.  Cut  a  very  thin 
piece  of  silver  solder,  a  trifle  larger  than 
the  section  of  the  ends.  Cover  the  ends 
with  borax,  and  place  the  piece  of  silver 
solder  between  them.  Apply  heat  with  the 
blow-pipe  till  the  solder  begins  to  glisten. 

Gold  Solder— For  18-karat  gold  :  18- 
karat  gold,  12  parts;  fine  silver,  2  parts; 
.brass  wire,  1  part.  For  lower  qualities  of 
gold  substitute  for  the  18-karat  gold  the 
same  standard  as  the  article  to  be  soldered, 
and  add  the  same  proportion  of  silver  and 
brass  wire  as  given  above.  For  the  brass 
wire,  pins  are  generally  used,  as  they  contain 
a  little  tin,  which  is  an  excellent  ingredient 
for  causing  the  solder  to  flow.  Some  jew¬ 
elers  use  copper  in  place  of  the  brass  pins, 
and  add  a  little  zinc.  Ordinary  silver  sob 
der  is  quite  unsuitable  for  gold  work  which 
has  been  colored. 

Silver  Solder — To  one  ounce  of  stand¬ 
ard  silver  add  pwt.  of  white  pins  ;  melt 
the  silver  first  with  a  good  piece  of  borax. 

Jewelers’  Solder. — Fine  silver,  19  parts; 
copper,  x  part;  brass  pins,  10  parts. 

White  Silver  Solder. — Equal  parts  of 
silver  and  tin  ;  melt  silver  first. 

Soft  Solder. — Pure  tin,  2  parts  ;  pure 
lead,  1  part;  melt  lead  first. 

Soldering  Fluxes.  -With  hard  solder, 


use  borax  ;  with  soft  solder,  chloride  of  zinc, 
prepared  by  dissolving  small  pieces  of  zinc 
in  spirits  of  salt  until  no  more  can  be 
dissolved. 


TO  REMOVE  SOFT  SOLDER  FROM 
GOLD. 

ONE  of  the  most  serious  evils  the  repair¬ 
er  has  to  contend  with  is  the  presence 
of  soft  solder  on  the  piece  under  treatment, 
being  the  imperishable  record  of  some 
botch  ;  all  this  must  be  removed  or  de¬ 
stroyed  before  the  article  can  be  properly 
repaired.  Workmen  generally  believe  that 
annealing  and  boiling  out  will  destroy  it, 
while,  in  fact,  it  has  the  very  opposite  effect. 
The  heat  thus  applied  simply  aids  in  driv¬ 
ing  it  in  and  amalgamating  the  solder  with 
the  gold.  We  have  often  tried  to  remove 
the  solder  after  the  annealing  process  by 
scraping  and  filing,  but  invariably  found 
that  it  had  penetrated  so  deeply  into  the 
gold  that  it  would  be  utterly  impossible  to 
eradicate  it  by  any  such  means. 

One  of  the  common  methods  of  treating 
this  class  of  solder  in  the  workshop  is  to 
remove  whatever  can  be  gotten  off  with  the 
scraper,  which  consists  of  a  three-square 
file  sharpened  at  the  point,  and  then  to  place 
the  article  for  some  time  into  strong  muri¬ 
atic  acid.  Nitric  acid  would  answer  much 
better,  but  it  cannot  be  safely  applied  to 
articles  of  inferior  qualities  of  gold,  as  it 
would  act  upon  the  alloy  of  which  they  are 
partly  composed. 

For  colored  gold,  however,  it  can  be  used 
with  advantage  and  safety.  From  a  long 
practical  experience  in  the  matter  of  soft 
solder,  we  have  arrived  at  the  conclusion 
that  there  is  no  better  way  of  treating  it 
than  that  which  we  are  about  to  point  out. 
The  solvent  to  be  employed  is  a  mixture 
of  muriatic  acid  and  crocus,  and  prepared 
as  follows  :  To  8  ounces  of  muriatic  acid 
add  1  ounce  of  crocus,  and  shake  it  well 
to  increase  a  perfect  intermixing  :  to  one 
ounce  of  this  mixture  add  4  ounces  of  hot 
water,  place  in  a  pipkin  and  keep  up  the 
heat  by  means  of  a  gas  flame;  then  intro¬ 
duce  your  soft  soldered  article  and  you 
will  soon  be  satisfied  with  the  result. 


STRIPPING  ARTICLES. 

ometimes  articles  composed  of  copper, 
brass,  or  German  silver  which  have 
been  silver-plated  require  to  have  the 


TO  POLISH  METALS. 


283 


coating  entirely  removed.  Occasionally, 
also,  the  plater  desires  to  replate  old  arti¬ 
cles,  the  coating  upon  which  has  partly 
worn  away;  these  require  that  the  remain¬ 
ing  portions  of  silver  be  removed,  in  order 
to  obtain  a  uniform  surface  to  deposit  upon. 
The  removal  is  called  “stripping.”  To 
effect  this,  add  a  very  little  nitrate  of  soda 
(Chili  saltpeter)  to  a  quantity  of  strong  and 
hot  oil  of  vitriol,  and  immerse  the  articles 
in  the  mixture  until  all  silver  is  dissolved. 
If  the  action  becomes  slow,  apply  more 
heat,  and.  add  more  saltpeter  at  the  moment 
of  using.  The  copper  will  not  be  much 
acted  upon,  if  the  articles  are  not  allowed 
to  remain  in  too  long. 

Or,  the  silver  may  be  removed,  but  more 
slowly,  without  the  aid  of  heat,  by  suspend¬ 
ing  the  article  for  a  greater  or  less  length  of 
time,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  coat¬ 
ing,  in  a  bulky  mixture  of  ten  measures  of 
strong  sulphuric  acid  and  one  measure  of 
concentrated  nitric  acid,  contained  in  a  large 
stoneware  vessel.  The  liquid  must  not  be 
diluted,  but  be  kept  as  free  from  water  as 
possible,  by  not  immersing  wet  articles  in  it, 
and  by  keeping  it  covered  from  the  air ; 
otherwise  it  will  attack  the  copper,  brass, 
bronze,  or  German  silver  base  of  the  articles. 
This  will  also  remove  nickel  plating.  As 
the  liquid  becomes  weaker,  very  small  por¬ 
tions  of  strong  nitric  acid  are  added  to  it. 
Its  action  is  less  rapid  than  that  of  the  hot 
mixture  above  described. 

In  stripping  an  article  for  re-plating,  the 
whole  of  the  silver  should  be  taken  off, 
otherwise  the  deposit  is  apt  to  show  lines. 
If  the  base  of  the  article  is  composed  of  iron, 
steel,  zinc,  or  iead,  the  above  mode  of  strip¬ 
ping  by  acid  cannot  be  employed,  and  the 
coating  is  best  removed  by  making  the  arti¬ 
cles  the  anode,  in  an  ordinary  cyanide  of 
silver-plating  solution  until  the  silver  is 
dissolved. 

The  articles  to  be  desilvered  are  first 
cleaned  in  soda  lye,  next  in  a  sulphuric  acid 
bath  and  then  entered  in  an  ordinary  silver- 
plating  bath.  The  conducting  wires  are 
now  fastened  in  a  reverse  way,  making  the 
article  the  anode.  By  this  reversal,  the 
silver  is  loosened  from  the  article  and  de¬ 
posited  upon  the  silver  plate.  In  this 
manner  the  desilvering  is  done  so  perfectly 
that  not  a  trace  of  silver  remains  on  the 
article.  After  all  the  silver  has  disap¬ 
peared,  the  conduits  are  simply  changed 
into  their  customary  positions,  and  the  pro¬ 
cess  of  silver-plating  commences  without 
other  trouble. 


TO  POLISH  METALS. 

etals  are  polished  either  by  burnish¬ 
ing  or  buffing.  The  process  of  bur¬ 
nishing  consists  of  rubbing  down  all  the 
roughness  with  a  highly  polished  steel  or 
agate  tool — none  of  the  metal  being  re¬ 
moved.  The  action  of  the  burnisher  ap¬ 
pears  to  depend  upon  two  circumstances  : 
First,  that  the  harder  the  material  to  be 
polished,  the  greater  luster  it  will  receive  ; 
the  burnisher  is,  therefore,  commonly  made 
of  hardened  steel,  which  exceeds  in  hardness 
nearly  every  metallic  body.  Secondly  it  de¬ 
pends  on  the  closeness  of  the  contact  be¬ 
tween  the  burnisher  and  the  work ;  and 
the  pressure  of  the  brightened  burnisher 
being,  in  reality,  from  its  rounded  or  ellip¬ 
tical  section  exerted  from  only  one  mathe¬ 
matical  line  or  point  of  the  w'ork  at  a  time 
it  acts  with  great  pressure  and  in  a  manner 
distinctly  analogous  to  the  steel  die  used 
in  making  coin.  In  the  latter  case  the  dull 
but  smooth  blank  becomes  instantly  the 
bright  and  lustrous  coin,  by  virtue  of  the 
contact  produced  in  the  coining  press  be¬ 
tween  the  entire  surface  of  the  blank  and 
that  of  the  highly  polished  die. 

It  by  no  means  follow's,  however,  that 
the  burnisher  will  produce  highly  polished 
surfaces,  unless  they  have  been  previously 
rendered  smooth  and  proper  for  the  appli¬ 
cation  of  this  instrument.  A  rough  surface 
having  any  file  marks  or  scratches  will  ex¬ 
hibit  the  original  defects,  notwithstanding 
that  they  may  be  glossed  over  with  the 
burnisher,  which  follows  every  irregularity, 
and  extensive  pressure,  which  might  be  ex¬ 
pected  to  correct  the  evil,  as  in  coining, 
only  fills  the  work  with  furrows  and  pro¬ 
duces  an  irregular,  indented  surface,  which 
by  workmen,  is  said  to  be  full  of  utters. 

Therefore,  the  greater  the  degree  of  ex¬ 
cellence  that  is  required  in  burnished  work, 
the  more  carefully  should  it  be  smoothed 
before  the  application  of  the  burnisher. 
This  tool  should  also  be  cleaned  on  a  buff- 
stick  with  crocus  immediately  before  use  ; 
and  it  should  generally  be  applied  with  the 
least  degree  of  friction  that  will  suffice. 
Cutters  generally  consider  that  burnishers 
for  steel  are  best  rubbed  on  a  buffstick 
with  the  finest  flour  emery  ;  for  silver,  how¬ 
ever,  they  polish  the  burnisher  with  crocus 
in  the  usual  way.  Most  of  the  metals,  pre¬ 
vious  to  their  being  burnished,  are  rubbed 
with  oil,  to  lessen  the  risk  of  tearing  or 
scratching  them,  but  for  gold  or  silver  the 
burnisher  is  commonly  used  dry,  unless 
soap  and  water  or  skimmed  milk  are  em 


284 


PARTING  GOLD  FROM  OTHER  METALS. 


ployed.  For  brass  furniture,  beer  or  water, 
with  or  without  a  little  vinegar,  is  preferred 
for  lubricating:  the  burnisher. 

Buffing  is  performed  by  rubbing  the  metal 
with  soft  leather,  which  has  been  charged 
with  very  fine  polishing  powder.  The  rub¬ 
bing  is  sometimes  done  by  hand,  but  more 
frequently  the  buff  is  made  into  a  wheel 
which  revolves  rapidly  in  a  lathe  and  the 
work  is  held  against  it.  The  polishing 
powder  that  is  selected  must  be  chosen 
with  special  reference  to  the  metal  that  is 
to  be  buffed.  Thus,  for  steel  and  brass 
the  best  polishing  powder  is  crocus  or 
rouge.  The  hardest  part  of  the  rouge  must 
be  selected  and  great  care  should  be  taken 
to  have  it  clean  and  free  from  particles  of 
dust  and  sand,  which  would  inevitably 
scratch  the  article  polished  and  render  it 
necessary  to  repeat  all  the  previous  pro¬ 
cess  of  filing,  grinding,  etc.  Soft  metals 
like  gold  and  silver  may  be  polished  with 
comparatively  soft  powder,  such  as  pre¬ 
pared  chalk  or  putty  powder  (oxide  of  zinc). 

When  metals  are  to  be  polished  on  the 
lathe,  the  process  is  very  simple.  After  be¬ 
ing  turned  or  filed  smooth,  the  article  is 
still  further  polished  by  means  of  fine 
emery  and  oil  applied  with  a  stick,  and  in 
the  case  of  rods  or  cylinders,  a  sort  of 
clamp  is  used,  so  that  great  pressure  can 
be  brought  to  bear  on  the  part  to  be  pol¬ 
ished.  The  work  must  be  examined  from 
time  to  time,  to  see  that  all  parts  are  brought 
up  equally  to  the  greatest  smoothness  and 
freedom  from  scratches,  and  as  fast  as  this 
occurs,  polishing  powder  of  finer  and  finer 
quality  should  be  used,  until  the  required 
finish  is  attained. 

In  polishing  metals  or  any  other  hard 
substance  bv  abrasion,  the  great  point  is  to 
bring  the  whole  surface  up  equally.  A 
single  scratch  will  destroy  the  appearance 
of  the  finest  work,  and  it  cannot  be  re¬ 
moved  except  by  going  back  to  the  stage 
to  which  it  corresponds,  and  by  beginning 
again  from  that  point.  Thus,  if  in  working 
with  a  smooth  file,  we  make  a  scratch  as 
deep  as  the  cut  of  a  bastard  file,  it  is  of  no 
use  to  try  and  remove  this  scratch  with  the 
smooth  file  ;  we  must  go  back,  and,  taking 
a  bastard  file,  make  the  surface  as  even  as 
possible  with  it,  and  afterward  work  forward 
through  fine  files  and  polishing  powder. 

PARTING  GOI/D  FROM  OTHER 

metaes. 

Thkrk  are  two  principal  methods  of  gold 
parting,  termed  the  wet  and  dry.  The 


wef  methods  are  the  sulphuric  and  nitric 
acid  processes.  The  chlorine,  cementation, 
litharge  and  sulphur  are  dry  processes. 
In  the  wet  process  there  should  be  two  or 
three  parts  of  silver  to  one  of  gold.  The 
metals  can  be  alloyed  by  fusing  in  a  plum¬ 
bago  crucible.  The  melted  alloy  is  poured, 
into  cold  water  to  obtain  the  alloy  in  a  flake 
condition,  so  that  it  can  be  readily  acted  on 
by  the  acids. 

In  the  sulphuric  acid  the  alloy  is  boiled 
with  two  or  three  times  its  weight  of  acid 
in  a  cast  iron  vessel.  After  the  gold  has 
subsided,  the  sulphates  of  silver  and  copper 
are  decanted.  Repeat  the  process,  wash 
the  gold,  and  boil  again  with  acid.  The 
gold  is  obtained  in  the  solid  form  by  wash¬ 
ing,  drying,  melting  and  casting  into  bars 
or  ingots.  The  silver  is  collected  on  cop¬ 
per  plates  or  turnings  introduced  into  the 
solution,  and  bar  silver  is  obtained  by 
washing,  drying,  melting  and  casting. 

In  the  nitric  acid  process,  a  platinum 
vessel  fitted  with  a  lid  from  which  issues  a 
stoneware  pipe  for  condensing  and  collect¬ 
ing  nitric  oxide  and  nitrous  anhydride, 
which  are  given  off  from  the  decomposition 
of  the  acid  by  the  copper  and  silver  respect¬ 
ively.  The  granulated  alloy  is  introduced 
into  the  platinum  digested  with  nearly 
twice  as  much  acid.  The  lid  is  luted  on 
and  the  digester  heated  on  a  sand-bath. 
When  the  violent  action  has  ceased,  the 
digester  is  cooled  and  the  liquor  decanted. 
The  residue  of  gold  is  treated  with  acid 
and  the  last  operation  repeated.  The  resi¬ 
due  of  gold  is  obtained  in  the  solid  form, 
as  in  the  sulphuric  acid  process. 

In  the  chlorine  process  the  gold  is  melted 
in  a  clay  crucible  fitted  with  a  lid,  in  which 
an  opening  for  the  introduction  of  a  clay 
pipe,  by  which  the  chlorine  generated  by 
any  of  the  usual  processes  is  conveyed  to 
the  bottom  of  the  melted  mass,  while  the 
surface  of  the  gold  is  covered  with  a  layer 
of  borax.  The  chlorine  is  absorbed  by  the 
metals  that  may  be  associated  with  the 
gold,  converting  them  into  chlorides,  which 
are  generally  volatilized,  except  the  silver, 
which  remains  fused  as  chloride  of  silver. 
As  soon  as  orange-colored  vapors  appear 
the  current  of  chlorine  is  stopped,  for  the 
chlorine  attacks  the  baser  metals  first. 
The  crucible  is  taken  from  the  fire,  and 
after  10  minutes  the  gold  sets  and  the 
chloride  of  silver  is  poured  off.  The  gold 
is  melted  and  cast  into  bars. 


ALUMINIUM  AND  ITS  ALLOYS. 


HOW  TO  ANALYSE  NATIVE  AL¬ 
LOYS  CONTAINING  GQLD.SILVEE, 
PLATINUM,  ETC. 

May  be  the  reader  lives  in  a  region  in 
which  auriferous  native  alloys  are 
found  combined  by  nature  in  the  bosom  of 
the  earth,  and,  as  is  very  likely  to  be  the  case, 
in  absence  of  an  analyzing  chemist,  he 
may  be  called  upon  to  determine  the 
different  metallic  substances  of  which  a 
given  sample  is  composed.  It  would  never 
do  for  him  to  plead  ignorance  of  the  simple 
method  for  doing  this,  and  it  is  therefore 
well  to  read  the  following  carefully. 

These  affinities  are  well  known  in  chem¬ 
istry,  and  the  analysis  of  a  metallic  com¬ 
pound,  consisting  of  a  variety  of  different 
metals,  is  an  easy  matter.  Let  us  suppose 
that  a  metallic  mass  is  made  up  of  plati¬ 
num,  gold,  silver,  bismuth,  lead,  iron  and 
copper  ;  we  then  separate  the  constituent 
parts  in  the  following  manner  : 

i.  The  alloy  must  be  comminuted  by 
either  filling  or  granulation  ;  it  is  next 
digested  in  diluted  nitric  acid,  until  this 
agent  exerts  no  further  action  on  the  resi¬ 
due.  In  order  to  be  certain  that  the  diges¬ 
tion  of  the  soluble  parts  is  completed, 
decant  the  acid  from  the  residue,  and  pour 
small  quantities  of  fresh  acid,  until  all  ac¬ 
tion  ceases.  Add  the  last  acid  to  the 
former  decantations;  the  residue,  consist¬ 
ing  of  gold  and  platinum,  must  be  washed 
with  a  small  quantity  of  lukewarm  water, 
which  is  also  added  to  the  decanted  acids. 

2.  Pour  quantities  of  cold  water  into  the 
solution,  until  all  turbidity  ceases,  then  per¬ 
mit  the  precipitate  to  settle,  after  which  dry 
it.  This  is  the  oxide  of  bismuth,  of  which 
123  parts,  dry,  equal  100  parts  metallic  bis¬ 
muth;  the  analyzer  may,  if  he  chooses,  re¬ 
duce  it  to  its  metallic  state  by  mixing  the 
dry  precipitate  with  oil  to  the  consistency 
of  a  thick  paste,  and  fusing  it  briskly  under 
a  cover  of  charcoal  dust. 

3.  Concentrate  the  fluid  from  which  the 
bismuth  was  separated,  by  boiling  it  to 
about  half  its  volume,  and  immerse  into  it 
a  clean  copper  plate;  the  silver  will  then 
settle  on  the  copper  in  a  metallic  state  ; 
collect  the  former  from  the  latter  by  wash¬ 
ing,  and  repeat  the  process  of  immersion, 
etc.,  until  no  more  precipitate  is  formed. 
The  silver  may  then  be  dried  and  reduced 
to  a  button  bv  melting  it  with  a  little  car¬ 
bonate  of  soda. 

4.  Next  separate  the  lead  by  dropping 
sulphuric  acid  into  the  fluid  of  the  last  pro¬ 


cess  until  precipitation  takes  place  no 
longer.  The  precipitate  obtained  is  sul¬ 
phate  of  lead,  of  which  100  parts,  when  per¬ 
fectly  dry,  equal  30  parts  metallic  lead. 

5.  The  fluid  is  then  mixed  with  liquid 
ammonia,  by  which  a  brown  precipitate  is 
thrown  down  ;  this  is  iron  which  was  con¬ 
tained  in  the  alloy. 

6.  We  have  now  obtained  four  metals  : 
bismuth,  silver,  lead  and  iron,  from  the 
same  fluid.  It  should  next  be  tested  for 
copper.  Pour  into  it  a.  saturated  solution 
of  potash,  and  boil  the  fluid  a  little;  the 
ammonia  is  volatilized  thereby,  and  an 
oxide  of  copper  is  precipitated.  To  obtain 
the  copper  in  a  metallic  state,  dissolve  this 
oxide  in  muriatic  acid,  and  dilute  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  water;  then  immerse  into 
a  clean  iron  plate,  when  the  copper  will  ad¬ 
here  to  it. 

7.  Next  take  the  insoluble  residue  left  in 
the  first  process,  and  dissolve  it  in  aqua 
regia,  a  mixture  of  three  parts  of  muriatic 
and  one  of  nitric  acid,  till  a  complete  solu¬ 
tion  is  effected.  Mingle  this  solution  with 
a  saturated  solution  of  sal  ammonia,  and 
the  platinum  will  become  separated  as  a 
precipitate  and  leave  the  gold  in  the  solu¬ 
tion.  The  precipitated  platinum  is  well 
washed  and  boiled  in  clear  water  to  soak 
out  the  ammonia,  and  finally  washed  with 
alcohol,  it  is  then  ready  to  be  welded  to  the 
metallic  state. 

8.  To  recover  the  gold,  mingle  the  re¬ 
maining  solution  from  which  the  platinum 
has  been  separated  with  a  diluted  solution 
of  sulphate  of  iron,  a  precipitate  falls  down, 
which  is  metallic  gold;  collect  and  fuse  it 
with  a  little  borax  into  a  solid  mass. 

The  analysis  is  now  completed,  and  the 
combined  weight  of  the  obtained  products 
will  correspond  with  the  weight  of  the  sub¬ 
stance  submitted  to  examination,  if  the 
manipulation  has  been  done  carefully. 


ALUMINIUM  AND  ITS  ALLOYS. 

luminium  is  now  very  largely  em¬ 
ployed  in  the  industrial  arts,  says 
Le  Monitcur  de  la  bijcmterie,  etc.,  although 
for  certain  articles  it  is  blamed  for  not 
being  sufficiently  strong,  and  the  attempts 
to  correct  this  defect  will  doubtless  be  suc¬ 
cessful  eventually,  so  that  this  very  ’light 
metal  will  be  employed  more  and  mote, 
either  in  a  state  of  purity  or  as  alloy.  The 
Elcctrochimie  published  the  very  interesting 
researches  of  Messrs.  A.  E.  Hunt,  T-  W. 
Langley  and  C.  M.  Hall  on  this  subject. 


286 


FRENCH  FIRE-GILDING. 


According  to  these  specialists,  silicium  hard¬ 
ens  aluminium  considerably,  diminishes 
its  malleability,  and  augments  its  tenacity; 
it  prevents  aluminium  from  taking  a  high 
gloss,  but  guards  that  which  it  may  have 
received.  A  metal  thus  alloyed  with  sili¬ 
con  of  more  than  3  per  cent,  is  covered 
rapidly  with  a  blackish  coating  disagree¬ 
able  to  the  eyes.  Where  a  polish  is  not 
necessary  and  the  principal  aim  is  to  com¬ 
pound  a  light  metal,  an  alloy  of  6  to  8  per 
cent,  silicium  is  of  advantage.  The  silicium 
is  found  in  it  in  a  graphitic  condition.  If 
it  were  possible  to  mix  the  silicium  in  an 
amorphous  state  it  would  be  possible  to 
produce  a  metal  possessing  the  required 
hardness  without  its  being  impaired  in 
strength. 

Small  quantities  of  iron  harden  alumin¬ 
ium  and  make  it  magnetic,  but  at  the  same 
time  its  malleability  is  deteriorated  and  the 
alloy  does  not  take  a  high  polish.  I3y 
melting  equal  parts  of  iron  and  aluminium 
an  alloy  desirable  in  all  respects  is  pro¬ 
duced,  but  it  is  shortly  afterward  reduced 
into  powder. 

Aluminium  unites  readily  with  copper, 
nickel,  brass,  etc.,  but  the  proportions  of 
these  metals  must  not  exceed  3  per  cent.; 
beyond  this,  the  alloy  loses  a  large  part  of 
its  malleability. 

Carbon  combines  with  aluminium  only 
at  a  very  high  temperature,  and  in  propor¬ 
tions  not  to  exceed  3  per  cent.  ;  it  renders 
aluminium  fragile  and  porous. 

Sulphur  combines  with  difficulty  ;  it  is  but 
rarely  found  in  the  aluminium  of  commerce. 

Lead  is  found  sometimes,  but  in  minute 
proportions,  which  exert  no  appreciable  in¬ 
fluence  upon  the  metal.  • 

Antimony  does  not  unite  with  aluminium. 

Chromium,  however,  enters  readily  into 
an  alloy,  makes  the  aluminium  harder,  but 
impairs  its  malleability. 

Tungsten  hardens  aluminium.  Platinum 
combines  with  it,  but  makes  a  brittle  alloy 
and  one  of  little  homogeneity. 

Silver,  up  to  a  proportion  of  5  percent, 
increases  the  elasticity  and  hardness  of 
aluminium  without  injuring  its  malleability. 
The  silver  alloy  is  susceptible  of  taking  a 
beautiful  polish. 

Tin  makes  aluminium  brittle.  A  pro¬ 
portion  of  2  per  cent,  of  aluminium  in  tin 
makes  the  latter  harder  and  more  elastic. 

Cadmium  unites  with  aluminium  and 
makes  an  alloy  that  is  fusible  and  malle¬ 
able,  but  wants  strength.  Bismuth  forms 
brittle  but  quite  fusible  alloys. 


The  alloys  with  zinc  are  brittle  and  very 
crystalline ;  they  make  good  solders  for 
aluminium  and  are  applied  with  Venice 
turpentine;  deplorably  the  alloy  does  not 
spread  well  upon  the  metal,  and  the  sol¬ 
dered  joints  do  not  resist  a  great  strain. 


FRENCH  FIRE-GILDING. 

s  is  known,  says  the  Metallarbeiter , 
immense  quantities  of  imitation  jew¬ 
elry,  such  as  watch  chains,  necklaces, 
brooches,  etc.,  are  sent  from  the  jewelry 
manufacturing  centers  of  Germany  to  Paris, 
to  be  *‘  fire-gilt  ”  and  returned  to  the  Ger¬ 
man  jewelers.  The  price  of  this  gilding 
moves  between  40  and  60  francs  per  kilo¬ 
gram,  according  to  the  gold  coating.  This 
proceeding  essentially  increases  the  price 
of  the  articles,  because  the  French  under¬ 
stand  how  to  place  an  immense  value  on 
their  skill,  and  it  would,  therefore,  be  well 
if  the  German  manufacturer  were  to  acquire 
this  skill  himself.  The  method  is  based  on 
the  fact  that  k  is  extremely  simple  to  deposit 
with  a  correctly  working  galvanic  bath  the 
same  quantity  of  gold  upon  a  certain  article 
as  can  be  done  by  fire-gilding  when  apply¬ 
ing  and  dissipating  the  gold  amalgam. 

The  objection  that  a  heavy  galvanic  pre¬ 
cipitation  is  very  brittle,  and  does  not  enter 
into  the  same  intimate  connection  with  the 
underlying  metal  as  the  coating  of  the  fire¬ 
gilding  does,  is  correct.  In  consequence  of 
this  defect  it  is  apt  to  rise  up  in  polishing, 
and  scale  when  the  article  is  worn,  which 
can  be  prevented  by  the  following  treat¬ 
ment  : 

The  articles  are  entered  for  from  30  min¬ 
utes  to  one  hour,  according  to  the  required 
thickness  of  the  coating,  in  a  medium  rich 
gold  bath,  during  which  time  they  remain 
suspended  to  the  action  of  a  correctly  reg¬ 
ulated  current  ;  once  or  twice  in  the  course 
of  the  work  they  are  entered  into  a  cyanide 
of  mercury  bath,  in  which  they  are  exposed 
to  the  influence  of  a  weak  current,  until 
well  and  equally  quickened,  for  which  from 
one  minute  to  two  minutes  is  sufficient. 
They  are  then  carefully  rinsed  and  re¬ 
turned  into  the  gold  bath.  When  the 
gilding  operation  is  ended,  they  are  quick¬ 
ened  another  time,  and  the  mercury  is  then 
evaporated  over  a  uniform  charcoal  fire,  the 
articles  lying  upon  a  wire  netting. 

The  following  method  is  still  more  simple: 
The  article  is  gold  plated  without  inter¬ 
mission,  until  a  sufficiently  heavy  precip- 


PRACTICAL  ELECTROPLATING. 


287 


itate  is  deposited  ;  then  quickened  in  an 
aqueous  solution  of  proto-nitrate  of  mer¬ 
cury  and  dissipated.  A  yellow  deposit  will 
become  green  after  the  mercury  is  driven 
■off  ;  since,  however,  the  gold  plater  must 
imitate  the  alloys  of  genuine  gold  jewelry, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  articles  like  the 
sprays  of  lightning  rods,  etc.,'  he  has  to 
imitate  the  color  of  12,  13  and  14  karat  gold, 
and  gold  plate  the  articles  red,  which  is  done 
by  an  addition  of  copper,  to  the  gold  bath. 
This  addition  of  copper,  however,  must  be 
made  with  care,  because  most  of  the  baths, 
after  having  been  used  for  a  time,  are  in¬ 
clined  to  become  red  ;  this  caution  must  be 
observed  especially  in  cases  when  the  bath 
is  to  be  used  until  exhausted,  in  place  of 
being  renewed.  If  the  gold  plater  is  using 
such  a  bath,  he  had  better  dispense  entirely 
with  the  addition  of  copper.using  a  new  bath 
for  first  gilding:,  and  an  old  for  finishing. 

Articles  gilt  red  in  this  manner  more  or 
less  assume,  after  driving  off  the  Mercury, 
the  colors  of  above  stated  alloys  ;  I  say 
more  or  less  because  even  a  skilful  work¬ 
man  will  experience  great  difficulties  in 
imitating  a  certain  color  precisely.  Beside 
this,  the  demands  of  customers  vary  great¬ 
ly,  and  it  is  well  to  keep  on  hand  several 
small  baths  of  different  colors  in  which  the 
articles,  after  having  been  scratch-brushed, 
are  colored  to  shade.  The  coloring  baths 
consist  of  the  ordinary  fresh  gold  bath  to 
which,  according  to  requirement,  from  ten 
to  thirty  per  cent,  of  cyanide  of  copper  and 
very  small  quantities  of  cyanide  of  silver 
are  added. 

A  definite  formula  cannot  be  given  be¬ 
cause  the  different  colors  vary  too  largely, 
but  the  gold  plater  with  even  a  little  ex¬ 
perience  will  quickly  compose  a,  bath  ap¬ 
proximating  very  closely  to  the  shade 
desired.  The  following  direction  may  serve 
him  in  composing  his  bath  :  To  a  new 
cold  bath  add  sufficient  cyanide  of  copper 
until  a  rose  color  is  produced  in  gold  plating, 
and  when  this  has  been  obtained,  an  ad¬ 
dition  by  drops,  of  silver,  is  to  be  made 
until  the  shade  is  as  desired.  A  platinum 
wire  is  used  as  a  rule,  and  as  the  coloring 
is  the  work  of  a  moment,  it  is  advisable  not 
to  hang  in  large  lots,  but  always  small  ones 
at  a  time. 

In  spite  of  the  most  thorough  cleansing 
by  hand  or  revolving  scratch  brush,  and 
subsequent  polishing  with  bloodstone, 
strongly  gilt  small  articles  frequently  show 
disagreeable-looking  spots  ;  these  articles 
sometimes  have  hollows  into  which  the 


cleansing  apparatus  cannot  enter,  and  they 
will  subsequently  look  dull  and  unsightly. 
In  order  to  correct  this,  let  the  gold  plater 
procure  a  revolving  drum,  into  which  are 
to  be  placed  from  six  to  nine  pounds  of 
very  small  brass  or  copper  grains  of  about 
the  size  of  half  a  pin  head  ;  into  this  is  to 
be  poured  the  necessary  quantity  of  soap  or 
licorice  root  solution,  and  next  a  corre¬ 
sponding  quantity  of  articles,  after  which 
the  drum  is  revolved  either  by  hand  or  me¬ 
chanical  pow'er.  After  revolving  it  for  from 
\]/2  to  two  hours,  the  articles  are  polished, 
and  the  plater  wall  at  first  sight  be  satisfied 
that  this  is  a  far  more  satisfactory  wmy  of 
working  than  by  scratch  brushing.  The 
friction  of  the  small  grains  polishes  the  hol¬ 
lows  as  brightly  as  the  outside,  and  beside 
this,  a  large  saving  of  time  is  effected. 

As  is  well  known,  the  articles  require  a 
very  thorough  cleansing  before  they  are 
galvanized,  and  it  must  therefore  never  be 
omitted  to  boil  them  in  a  potash  or  soda 
solution,  and  then  dip  them  in  a  pickle  or 
cooking  salt  and  nitric  acid,  until  certain 
that  no  filth  of  any  kind  adheres  to  them. 


PRACTICAL  ELECTROPLATING. 

The  following  solution  for  gilding  to  be 
used  with  a  common  battery  is  suf¬ 
ficient  for  a  four  gallon  jar  : 


Chloride  of  gold . 4.  oz. 

Cyanide  of  potash . 12  oz. 


Concentrated  ammonia. 

Dissolve  the  chloride  in  pure  boiling 
water,  then  by  the  use  of  a  very  small  quan¬ 
tity  of  concentrated  ammonia,  precipitate 
the  gold  from  the  solution.  Let  the  water 
stand  until  settled;  pour  off  the  water ;  re¬ 
peat  operation  two  or  three  times,  taking 
care  not  to  wash  out  the  gold.  Now  dis¬ 
solve  the  cyanide  in  hot  water  ;  this  must  be 
done  in  a  vessel  which  is  to  hold  the  solu¬ 
tion  ;  pour  in  the  gold  and  boil. 

Nickel  Solution. — To  one  gallon  of 
water  add  from  one  to  two  pounds  of  nickel 
salts  or  crystals;  boil  and  stir  until  cold. 

Silver  Solution. — 


Chloride  of  silver . 10  oz. 

Carbonate  of  soda . 12  oz. 


Cyanide  of  potash,  enough  to  take  up  silver.  Make 
same  as  for  gold  plating. 

Brass  Solution. — 


Sulphate  of  copper . 3  lbs.  6  oz. 

Sulphate  of  zinc . 3  lbs.  6  oz. 

Carbonate  of  soda . 10  lbs. 

Carbonate  of  soda . 5  lbs. 

llisulphate  of  soda . 5  lbs. 

Cyanide  of  potassium . 6  lbs. 


288 


PRACTICAL  ELECTROPLATING. 


Dissolve  3  lbs.  6  oz.  each  of  the  sulphate 
of  copper  and  zinc  in  hot  water  ;  dissolve 
io  lbs.  of  carbonate  of  soda  in  hot  water, 
and  add  to  the  first.  Let  the  mixture  set¬ 
tle,  then  pour  off  the  water  and  repeat 
two  or  three  times  ;  now  dissolve  5  lbs. 
each  of  carbonate  and  bisulphate  of  soda 
and  add  ;  then  dissolve  6  lbs.  of  cyanide  of 
potassium  in  hot  water  ;  add  the  other  sub¬ 
stances,  and  set  the  mixture  aside  for  two 
or  three  days  before  use. 

Copper  Solution. — 


Sulphate  of  copper . 10  lbs. 

Carbonate  of  soda. . . 17  lbs. 

Carbonate  of  soda . 5  lbs.  2  oz. 

Bisulphate  of  soda . 7  lbs.  6  oz. 

Cyanide  of  potassium . 5  lbs. 


Dissolve  first  10  lbs.  of  sulphate  of  cop¬ 
per  and  17  lbs.  carbonate  of  soda  ;  pour 
together,  wash,  and  repeat  as  in  brass  solu¬ 
tion  ;  now  dissolve  5  lbs.  2  oz.  carbonate  of 
soda  and  7  lbs.  6  oz.  bisulphate  of  soda  ; 
add  ;  dissolve  5  lbs.  cyanide  of  potassium 
and  add.  Let  the  mixture  stand  two  or  three 
days,  then  use. 

The  above  solutions  may  all  be  used 
with  the  aid  of  a  dynamo  or  common  Bun¬ 
sen  or  Smee  cells.  The  solutions  may  be 
placed  in  jars  or  tanks,  over  which  two 
brass  rods  are  stretched,  connecting  witli 
the  poles  of  the  battery.  An  anode,  cor¬ 
responding  to  the  solution  in  the  jar,  must 
be  attached  by  means  of  a  copper  wire 
to  the  rod  connected  with  the  positive 
pole,  while  the  cathode  or  article  to  be 
plated  should  be  attached  to  the  negative 
pole. 

Bronze. — This  result  is  obtained  by  plat¬ 
ing  the  article  in  copper  or  brass,  and  dip¬ 
ping  it  into  a  hot  solution  of  sulphide  of 
potassium. 

Oxidized  Silver. — Plate  the  article  in 
silver,  and  dip  it  into  a  solution  of  any  of 
the  following  :  bichromate  of  potash,  bisul¬ 
phite  of  soda,  persulphite  of  soda,  or  chro¬ 
mic  acid. 

Brass  Dips. — Equal  parts  of  sulphuric 
and  nitric  acid,  to  which  a  small  quantity 
of  muriatic  acid  is  added,  must  be  pre¬ 
pared.  Cleanse  as  if  to  plate  ;  that  is,  dip 
into  hot  potash,  then  into  cold  water,  before 
placing  in  the  acid,  where  it  must  remain 
but  for  an  instant,  then  at  once  into  and 
shaken  about  in  cold  water,  thoroughly 
washing  off  the  acid  ;  then  into  hot  water 
and  sawdust. 

To  secure  the  perfect  cleanliness  neces¬ 
sary  to  the  article  to  be  plated,  there  must 


be  placed  near  at  hand  solutions  of  boiling 
hot  carbonate  of  potash,  plenty  of  perfectly 
clean  hot  and  cold  water  and  solution  of 
cyanide  of  potassium. 

Operation. — First  place  the  article 
which  is  attached  to  a  copper  wire  for  a 
moment  in  the  hot  potash  to  remove  all 
vegetable  substance  ;  then  quickly  plunge 
it  into  cold  water,  which  should  be  run¬ 
ning  ;  then  into  cyanide;  once  more  into  cold 
water.  The  article  is  now  chemically  clean 
and  ready  to  be  placed  in  the  plating  solu¬ 
tion.  Judgment  must  now  govern  the  plater 
when  to  remove  the  article  and  quickly  into 
clear,  cold  water,  and  then  immediately 
into  the  clean  hot  water  and  last  into  the 
boxwood  sawdust,  where  it  must  be  shaken 
until  dry. 

If  the  article  should  now  be  dim  from 
an  excess  of  gold,  a  small  wire  scratch-brush 
should  be  placed  in  the  lathe  and  the  arti¬ 
cle  gently  brushed,  all  the  time  being  kept 
moist  by  frequent  dipping  into  a  solution  of 
soap  and  water.  Silver  may  be  brushed  in 
the  same  way,  but  it  is  generally  burnished. 
Nickel,  copper  and  brass  are  buffed. 

Gold  Silvering  By  Rubbing  with  the 
Thumb,  .or  a  Cork,  or  a  Brush. — The  re¬ 
sults  are  better  than  those  by  the  so-called 
whiteningprocess,  but  not  so  durable.  The 
method  is  useful  for  repairing  slight  defects 
upon  more  durable  silverings.  It  may 
also  be  employed  for  producing  a  mixture 
of  gold  and  silver  upon  slightly  gilt  ob¬ 
jects,  thus  avoiding  the  use  of  resist  var¬ 
nishes. 

Make  a  paste  by  thoroughly  grinding  in 
a  porcelain  mortar,  or  with  a  muller  upon  a 
slab.  Avoid  the  light,  however,  as  far  as 
practicable. 

Formula  I.  — 

Water . .  Ounces  3^4  to  5 

White  fusel  nitrate  of  silver,  or 

preferable,  the  chloride .  “  7 


Binoxolate  of  potash . 

.  “  10% 

Bitartrate  of  potash . 

.  “  ioj4 

Common  salt . 

.  “  D 

Formula  II. — 

Chlorate  of  silver . 

.  Ounces  334 

Bitartrate  of  potash . 

.  “  7 

Common  salt . 

- - -  “  1034 

Pulverize  finely  in  a  porcelain  mortar  and 
triturate  under  a  muller  upon  a  plate  of 
ground  glass,  until  there  is  no  granular 
feeling.  Keep  the  paste  in  a  porcelain  pot, 
or  in  a  black  glass  vessel  to  preserve  it 
from  the  light,  which  decomposes  it  rapidly. 
When  about  to  use,  add  a  little  water  so  as 
to  form  a  thin  paste,  which  apply  with  a 


t 


ELECTRO  GOLD  AND  SILVER  PLATING. 


brush  or  pencil  upon  the  cleansed  articles 
of  copper,  or  upon  those  gilt  by  clipping; 
or  even  upon  those  gilt  by  the  battery,  pro¬ 
viding  the  coating  is  thin  enough  to  allow 
the  copper  to  decompose  the  silver  paste 
through  the  coat  of  gold.  Allow  the  paste 
to  dry  naturally  or  with  the  aid  of  gentle 
heat.  The  chemical  reaction  is  more  or 
less  complete,  according  to  the  thickness 
of  the  gold  deposit,  and  the  dry  paste  is  of 
a  pink  shade,  or  entirely  green.  The  salts 
are  removed  by  a  thorough  rinsing  in  cold 
rvater,  and  the  silver  appears  with  a  frosted 
appearancg,  the  brightness  of  which  may  be 
increased  by  a  few  seconds  immersion  in  a 
very  dilute  solution  of  sulphuric  acid,  or  of 
cyanide  of  potash.  This  silvering  will  bear 
the  action  of  the  wire  brush  and  of  the 
burnishing  tool  very  well.  It  may  also  be 
oxidized.  Should  a  first  silvering  not  be 
found  sufficiently  durable  after  scratch 
brushing,  apply  a  second  or  third,  coat. 
This  silver  is  not  so  adhering  or  so  white 
on  pure  copper  as  upon  gilt  surface. 

For  the  reflectors  of  lanterns  the  paste  is 
rubbed  upon  the  reflector  with  a  fine  linen 
pad  ;  then,  with  another  pad,  a  thin  paste 
of  Spanish  white,  or  similar  substance,  is 
spread  over  the  reflector  and  allowed  to  dry. 
Rubbing  with  a  fine  and  clean  linen  rag 
will  restore  the  luster  and  whiteness  of  the 
plated  silver. 


EDECTro  goed  and  sii/ver 

PI/ATING. 

Complaints  are  quite  frequent  concern¬ 
ing  the  non-durability  of  the  ordinary 
gold  and  silver  plating  by  contact  or 
limited  electro-battery,  and  to  the  wear 
when  exposed  to  friction  or  weather,  and 
unfavorable  comparison  has  been  made 
with  the  old  fire  gilding.  The  former,  how¬ 
ever,  is  generally  acknowledged  to  have  the 
richer  appearance.  The  primary  cause 
for  the  complaint  lies  in  the  fact  that  de¬ 
posits  of  the  precious  metal  by  the  galvano- 
electric  system  are  not  solid  and  compact. 
Electro-gilt  ornaments,  balls,  eagles  and 
other  devices  such  as  are  used  to  decorate 
monuments,  public  buildings,  etc.,  tarnish 
rapidly  because  of  this  unsound  and  porous 
deposit  upon  the  metal  case. 

To  produce  substantial  and  lasting  de¬ 
posits  by  electricity,  it  is  necessary  to  use 
dynamo-electric  apparatus  operated  by 
steam  or  batteries  of  great  power.  The  ex¬ 
pense  necessary  to  the  purchase  and  opera¬ 
tion  of  such  a  plant  is  practically  prohib- 


289 

itory  to  the  jeweler  or  watchmaker  whose 
business  is  conducted  upon  a  limited  scale; 
and  who,  even  if  in  a  financial  position  to 
purchase  and  maintain  these  expensive  ap¬ 
paratus,  does  not  have  sufficient  work  to 
realize  a  profit  large  enough  to  warrant  the 
entailed  expense.  To  avoid  this  expense 
and  at  the  same  time  secure  a  good,  lasting 
deposit  by  electricity,  the  following  method 
is  recommended  as  effective. 

To  the  ordinary  gold  solution  for  electro¬ 
gilding  add  some  mercury  previously  dis¬ 
solved  in  nitric  acid.  This  solution  should 
be  diluted  with  water  and  neutralized  of 
the  acid  by  adding  small  quantities  of 
spirits  of  ammonia  until  immersed  litmus 
paper  does  not  change  its  blue  color  into 
red.  Previous  to  dissolving  the  mercury  in 
the  acid,  it  is  necessary  to  free  it  from  the 
lead  with  which  commercial  mercury  is 
generally  contaminated.  This  may  be  ef¬ 
fected  by  pressing  the  mercury  through  a 
piece  of  wash-leather  which  will  allow  the 
mercury  to  pass  through  by  squeezing. 
The  leather  will  retain  the  lead  and  leave 
the  mercury  pure. 

This  prepared  gold  solution  will  be  a 
mercurial  gold  amalgam  of  a  fluid  or  watery 
nature,  and  should  not  be  mixed  in  larger 
quantities  than  required  for  immediate  use. 
The  articles  to  be  gilt  are  immersed  in  this 
solution  appended  to  the  wire  in  connection 
with  the  colbode  (zinc)  of  any  battery,  and 
will  receive  -a  gold  deposit  of  quicksilver 
appearance  after  the  article  has  remained 
a  sufficient  time  in  the  solution.  When 
withdrawn,  rinse  in  water  and  lay  on  a 
fresh  fire  made  of  small  pieces  of  charcoal 
until  the  mercury  lias  evaporated.  This 
will  take  place  very  soon,  as  the  quantity 
of  mercury  is  small  in  proportion  to  the 
gold  deposit,  although  the  color  of  the 
former  predominates.  After  the  evapora¬ 
tion  of  the  mercury,  the  article  has  all  the 
characteristics  in  color  and  toughness  of 
fire-gilding — pale  yellow  and  dead  surface. 
If  the  article  is  then  scratch-brushed  in 
beer  it  will  assume  a  fine  luster  I  f  a  strong 
deposit  of  gold  is  required  the  operation 
may  be  repeated  after  each  scratch-brush¬ 
ing.  By  weighing  the  article  before  its  first 
immersion  into  the  gold  solution  and  again 
after  the  last  scratch-brushing,  the  weight 
of  the  gold  deposited  can  be  ascertained 
very  accurately.  In  the  last  evaporation, 
the  article  should  be  left  for  about  one- 
half  minute  or  so  longer  on  the  fire  than 
necessary  for  driving  off  the  mercury,  to 
deepen  the  color  of  the  gilding. 


290 


TO  SILVER  PLATE  THINLY. 


Mix  together  two  parts  of  saltpeter,  one 
part  of  table  salt  and  six  parts  of  alum,  with 
six  and  one-half  parts  of  water  and  warm 
the  mixture  in  a  porcelain  vessel.  As  soon 
as  it  begins  to  rise  add  one  part  of  hydro¬ 
chloric  acid  and  bring  the  contents  of  the 
vessel  to  a  boil,  stirring  in  the  meantime 
with  a  glass  rod.  The  articles  to  be 
colored,  suspended  on  hooks  made  of  strong- 
platinum  wire  or  of  glass,  are  first  dipped  in 
sulphuric  acid  and  then  entered  into  the 
slowly  cooking  solution  last  described  and 
moved  to  and  fro  in  it.  In  about  three 
minutes  they  are  taken  out  and  dipped  into 
a  large  vessel  of  water,  so  as  to  see  what 
color  they  are.  If  the  desired  shade  is  not 
yet  obtained  they  are  dipped  in  again  as 
often  as  necessary  until  it  appears. 


TO  SIXVERPlyATE  THINTY. 

here  are  two  ways  by  which  a  film  of 
silver  may  be  precipitated  on  an  ar¬ 
ticle,  viz.,  by  boiling  and  by  the  cold  way. 

TO  SlLVERPLATE  BY  BOILING. — Dissolve 
six  parts  of  tartar  and  six  parts  of  table 
salt  in  water,  heat  to  a  boil,  and  add  to 
this  liquor  one  part  freshly  precipitated 
chloride  of  silver;  when  this  has  dissolved, 
enter  the  article  to  be  silverplated  into  the 
boiling  hot  bath,  and  connect  it  with  a 
piece  of  zinc  corresponding  to  its  size. 
The  galvanic  current  engendered  in  this 
manner  causes  the  rapid  precipitation  of  a 
uniformly  thick  silver  film,  which  is  almost 
as  handsome  as  that  obtained  by  the  elec¬ 
tro-chemical  way.  The  articles  may  also 
be  silverplated  in  this  bath  without  the 
contact  (touch  with  the  piece  of  zinc) ;  the 
time  required  in  this  case,  however,  is  from 
15  to  20  minutes,  while  by  the  use  of  the 
contact,  somewhat  less  than  one-half  of  the 
time  only  is  necessary. 

In  place  of  the  above  detailed  silverplat¬ 
ing  fluid  the  operator  may  also  use  one 
prepared  for  the  electro-chemical  way  of 
silvering,  to  wit,  a  solution  of  cyanide  of 
potash  and  silver,  using  also  in  this  in¬ 
stance  the  contact  with  zinc.  1’he  princi¬ 
ple  of  the  two  is  identical,  the  difference 


consisting  only  in  the  circumstance  that 
for  the  latter  the  electric  current  is  pro¬ 
duced  specially,  while  with  the  contact  the 
current  is  produced  by  the  combination  of 
the  two  metals. 

Although  the  silverplating  is  uniform,  it 
is  of  a  matt  luster ;  if  desired  to  be  of  a 
peculiar  gray,  the  so-called  luster,  enter  the 
article  coming  immediately  from  the  silver- 
plating  bath  into  another,  a  solution  of  10 
parts  hyposulphite  of  soda  in  100  parts  of 
water,  to  which  liquor  was  added  a  solution 
of  3  parts  acetate  of  lead  in  50  parts  water, 
and  heat  to  from  155'  to  1 7 5 0  F.  Sulphide 
of  lead  hereby  precipitates  upon  the  sur¬ 
face,  which  assumes  an  agreeable  gray- 
color. 

A  more  durable  film  is  obtained  by  dis¬ 
solving  one  part  chloride  of  silver  in  8  parts 
caustic  ammonia,  to  which  solution  is 
poured  another  of  5  parts  cyanide  of  pot¬ 
ash,  5  parts  crystallized  soda.  2  parts  table 
salt,  dissolved  in  144  parts  distilled  water, 
boiling  the  whole  for  15  minutes  in  a  por¬ 
celain  dish  and  filtering  the  liquor.  Make 
the  articles  desired  to  be  silverplated  as 
clean  as  you  can  by  pickling,  scouring  in  a 
strong  soda  lye,  rubbing  with  bright  silver 
sand,  etc.  After  having  cleaned  them, 
never  handle  them  with  your  fingers, 
but  make  use  of  a  pair  of  boxwood  pliers. 

Silverplating  by  the  Cold  W  ay. — A 
heavily  diluted  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver 
in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  this  to  at 
least  50  or  60  parts  water  may  be  used  fur 
silverplating  by  the  cold  way  :  in  fact,  the 
greater  the  dilution  the  slower  the  precipi¬ 
tation  of  the  film,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
more  tenacious  it  becomes.  By  wrapping 
the  bright  pickled  article  with  a  zinc  wire 
and  setting  or  hanging  it  into  the  fluid,  the 
precipitation  of  the  silver  takes  place 
quicker  in  consequence  of  the  contact. 

The  silver  film  forming  at  first  is  very  thin, 
but  soon  increases  in  thickness,  if  the  bath 
is  kept  at  the  same  strength  by  occasion¬ 
ally  pouring  in  a  small  quantity  of  a  con¬ 
centrated  silver  solution.  When  the  film 
comes  to  be  burnished,  polish  the  well 
rinsed  article  first  with  prepared  chalk,  and 
next  with  the  blood  stone. 


THE  DUPLEX  ESCAPEMENT. 


29I 


THE  DUPLEX  ESCAPEMENT. 

HE  perfection  of  the  Duplex  Escape¬ 
ment,  which  followed  its  adoption  by 
one  of  our  great  American  watch  compa¬ 
nies,  is  another  example  of  “  transforma¬ 
tion,  ”  accomplished  by  the  mechanical  in¬ 
genuity  of  the  American  mechanic.  The 
evolution  of  this  escapement  from  the  del¬ 
icate  old  English  model  to  the  practical, 
hardy,  accurate  one,  which  has  been  so 
very  extensively  used  in  this  country,  is 
one  of  the  horological  accomplishments  of 
the  age.  It  may  indeed  be  chronicled  as 
the  birth  of  a  new  escapement,  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Duplex.  As  such  we  will  treat  it,  for 
it  is  this  perfected  duplex  that  the  jeweler 
will  most  frequently  have  occasion  to 
handle,  the  sales  of  the  movement  in  many 
grades  and  sizes  now  running  into  the 
enormous  thousands. 

The  first  crude  model  of  the  Duplex 
Escapement  was  designed  by  Dutetre,  a 
French  watchmaker,  during  the  first  part 
of  the  last  century,  but  its  real  inventor 
was  Pierre  LeRoy  (about  1750),  who,  in 
course  of  his  numerous  experiments,  while 
endeavoring  to  construct  a  time-piece  suf¬ 
ficiently  accurate  to  be  used  in  determin¬ 
ing  longitude  at  sea,  constructed  it  in  sub¬ 
stantially  its  present  form.  At  about  the 
same  time  he  conceived  the  idea  of  the 
“  spring  detent  ”  or  “  chronometer  ”  escape¬ 
ment,  which,  as  better  suited  for  the  con¬ 
struction  of  marine  chronometers,  he 
adopted,  but  not,  as  some  claim,  because 
he  formed  an  unfavorable  opinion  of  the 
Duplex  Escapement. 

No  maker  to-day  would  think  of  using 
the  Cylinder  Escapement  in  a  watch  from 
which  more  than  a  fair  average  rate  was 
expected,  while  those  who  have  practically 
studied  the  Duplex  will  agree  that,  when 
carefully  made  by  competent  workmen,  it 
is  capable  of  the  finest  results  for  a  very 
long  period.  Some  of  the  old  style  English 
specimens  of  this  escapement  have  given 
rates  for  accuracy  that  have  never  been 
surpassed  by  any  form  of  escapement. 

M.  Saunier,  speaking  of  the  Duplex, 
said : 

••  In  the  climate  of  England,  the  Duplex 
Escapement  is  more  satisfactory  than  any 
other.  Where  the  pivots  are  sufficiently 
fine  as  to  require  but  little  oil,  the  Duplex 
will  continue  in  action  and  give  an  even 
rate  much  longer  than  either  the  cylinder 
or  lever.” 

To  construct  this  Escapement  by  hand, 
so  as  to  get  its  best  results,  would  require 


a  very  high  degree  of  mechanical  skill, 
which  would  make  it  unpractically  costly, 
both  to  build  and  repair.  The  American 
Duplex  is  the  English  model  modified  and 
perfected,  and  the  accuracy  of  fit  and  pro¬ 
portion  which  made  the  hand-made  Duplex 
so  costly  has  been  secured  by  a  system  of 
duplicating  machinery  that  works  with 
wonderful  precision.  In  a  recent  test  a 
thousand  parts  were  found  to  be  accurately 
interchangeable. 

The  Escape  Wheel. — The  Duplex,  as 
originally  made,  consisted  of  two  sets  of 
teeth  (hence  the  name),  the  smaller  or  im¬ 
pulse  wheel  being  above  the  larger  rest 
wheel  on  the  same  arbor.  In  the  American 
Duplex  but  one  wheel  is  used,  the  smaller 
or  impulse  wheel,  being  replaced  by  short 
triangular  pillars  projecting  upward  from 
the  web  of  the  wheel,  inside  the  “rest” 
teeth,  which  are  in  the  same  plane  as  the 
web  and  arms  of  the  wheel.  These  teeth 
are  so  designated  because,  during  that  part 
of  the  balance’s  vibrations  not  included  in 
the  lifts,  one  of  the  long  teeth  rests  against 
the  roller  or  slot  in  the  balance  staff,  while 
the  impulse  is  communicated  to  the  bal¬ 
ance  by  the  impulse  teeth  driving  against 
the  point  of  the  impulse  pallet  during  the 
“  great  lift.”  The  escape  wheels  are  made 
of  fine  brass,  the  points  of  the  rest  teeth 
being  carefully  smoothed  and  polished. 

The  Balance  Staff. — In  the  American 
Duplex,  the  delicate  ruby  roller  of  the  old 
model  is  supplanted  in  the  lower  priced 
watches  by  a  notch  made  in  the  staff  itself, 
which,  being  hardened  and  polished,  meets 
every  requirement.  Repairers  have  found 
that,  even  after  several  years’  running,  the 
tooth  and  slot  have  shown  no  perceptible 
sign  of  wear. 

The  Impulse  Pallet. — This  is  a  little 
steel  finger  by  which  the  impulse  is  de¬ 
livered  by  the  impulse  teeth  of  the  escape 
wheel. 

Action  of  the  Escapement. — It  is  not 
self-starting.  When  at  rest  the  hairspring 
is  in  neutral  position  and  the  point  of  the 
rest  tooth  directly  in  the  slot  of  the  balance 
staff. 

A  slight  rocking  motion  will  start  it,  and 
the  rest  tooth  will  escape  from  the  slot. 
The  impulse  pallet  will  then  have  reached 
a  point  10  deg.  in  front  of  one  of  the  im¬ 
pulse  teeth  of  the  escape  wheel,  and  this 
pallet  will  then  strike  the  impulse  tooth 
and  drive  it  forward,  until  the  next  rest 
tooth  enters  the  slot  in  the  balance  staff. 
This  operation  is  repeated  at  each  full 


2g2 


THE  DUPLEX  ESCAPEMENT. 


revolution  of  the  balance,  every  second 
vibration,  as  will  be  seen,  being  dumb. 

The  energy  imparted  to  the  impulse  thus 
must  be  sufficient  to  maintain  the  arc  of 
motion  of  the  balance  during  two  vibra¬ 
tions.  The  arc  traveled  through  by  the 
pallet,  while  receiving  this  impulse,  consti¬ 
tutes  what  is  known  as  the  “great  lift,” 
and  its  duration  is  measured  by  the  arc 
embraced  between  the  two  points  of  inter¬ 


ing  decrease  of  friction  and  wear.  Having 
nothing  but  balance  and  escape  wheels  act¬ 
ing  directly  together  for  adjustment,  ob¬ 
viates  many  difficulties  that  are  encoun¬ 
tered  in  the  lever  escapement,  which  re¬ 
quires  the  greatest  accuracy  to  produce 
proper  results — the  utmost  nicety  of  the 
locking,  the  drop,  the  slide,  the  impulse, 
the  roller  pin,  the  size  of  roller,  the  guard 
pm,  the  notch  in  fork;  or,  the  pallet  stone 


section  of  the  circle  traced  by  the  point  of 
the  impulse  pallet  with  the  impulse  circle 
of  the  escape  wheel,  less  rodeg.  for  drop. 

The  pressure  of  the  point  of  the  rest 
tooth  in  the  notch  of  the  balance*  staff, 
from  its  entrance  to  its  escape,  is  called 
the  “small  lift,”  and  its  duration  is  meas¬ 
ured  by  the  arc  embraced  between  the  two 
intersections. 

In  the  Duplex,  the  escape  wheel  acts  di¬ 
rectly  on  balance  wheel,  and  hence  requires 
less  power  than  a  lever  escapement  ;  con¬ 
sequently,  lighter  mainsprings  are  used,  and 
they  can  be  tempered  higher,  allowing  a 
more  equal  distribution  of  power  than  with 
a  heavy  spring,  and  there  is  a  correspond- 


may  be  loose,  the  roller  pin  also  not  ce¬ 
mented  upright  or  tight,  guard  pin  bent,  or 
many  of  the  other  tine  points,  not  neces¬ 
sary  with  the  Duplex  Escapement,  may  be 
out  of  adjustment. 

The  Duplex  will  run  much  longer,  with¬ 
out  cleaning,  than  a  lever.  The  oil  on  a 
lever  escapement  soon  becomes  heavy,  and 
the  result  is  a  dropping  off  in  motion  and 
poor  time,  while  the  parts  in  a  Duplex  that 
require  oil  for  action  are  so  few  that  the 
thickening  of  the  oil  is  not  known  by  any 
action  of  the  movement,  in  cleaning  a 
lever  escapement,  the  greatest  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  loosen  either  pallet  stones 
cr  roller  pin.  These  are  held  in  place  by 


TIIE  DUPLEX  ESCAPEMENT. 


293 


shellac,  and  if  they  are  loosened  trouble  is 
at  hand.  With  the  Duplex,  there  are  no 
parts  to  get  out  of  order,  and  should  any 
become  broken  they  can  be  replaced  with¬ 
out  fitting. 

The  American  Duplex  is  the  simplest 
escapement  made,  and  a  remarkable  thing 
with  the  Duplex  over  any  other  escape¬ 
ment  is  the  fact  that  a  compensation  bal¬ 
ance  and  isochronal  balance  or  hairspring 
is  not  essential,  for  a  neutral  compensation 
exists  between  the  several  functions  that 
cannot  be  aided  by  either.  It  is  not  ef¬ 
fected  by  magnetism,  and  it  has  other 
natural  advantages  that  no  other  escape¬ 
ment  possesses. 


A  FEW  HINTS  FOR  INSPECTING 

AND  REPAIRING  AMERICAN  DU 
PEEX  WATCHES. 

'O  prepare  a  Duplex  watch  properly,  it 
should  be  thoroughly  examined  and  ad¬ 
justed  from  hair-spring  to  main-spring,  not 
forgetting  the  hands  and  dial  train,  also 
winding  and  working  parts  of  the  case. 
First,  locate  defects  of  cause  of  stopping 
by  tracing  loss  of  power,  beginning  at 
hands,  then  escapement,  and  back  toward 
barrel  until  found.  Never  attempt  to  start 
or  wind  a  watch  running  before  trouble  is 
located.  Note  that  crystal  is  not  so  low  as 
to  touch  cannon  pinion.  Note  that  hands 
are  free.  Try  and  shake  on  cannon  pinion 
and  hour  wheel. 

Hair-Spring. — Next  inspect  hair-spring. 
See  that  it  is  not  bent,  is  free  from  rust 
and  oil,  is  flat,  centered  and  leveled,  outer 
coil  vibrates  between  the  regular  pins  and 
does  not  strike  stud.  See  that  hair-spring 
collet  is  not  loose  in  staff.  To  separate 
balance  and  hair-spring  from  plate,  do  not 
unpin  spring  from  stud,  thereby  destroying 
the  timing  and  beat,  simply  push  the  stud 
out  from  opposite  side  of  plate,  or  use 
plyers  and  lift  stud  from  plate. 

Balance  Wheel. — See  that  balance  is 
true,  arms  and  rim  do  not  strike  stud,  reg¬ 
ular  pin  or  escape  bridge. 

Balance  Staff. — See  that  staff  has  suf¬ 
ficient,  and  not  too  much,  end  shake,  by 
adjusting  lower  end  stone  screw  under  dial. 
See  that  slot  in  staff  is  not  badly  worn  and 
is  free  from  dirt.  '■ 

Impulse  Finger  (or  pin). — See  that  im¬ 
pulse  finger  is  smooth  and  polished  on 
locking  surface.  See  that  impulse  finger 
(orpin)  does  not  strike  long  teeth. 


Escape  Wheel. — See  that  escape  wheel 
is  not  bent,  and  that  long  teeth  run  in  cen¬ 
ter  on  slot  in  staff.  All  short  teeth  must 
be  alike  and  strike  impulse  finger  (or  pin) 
the  same.  If  escape  wheel  pivot-holes  are 
badly  worn,  causing  too  much  side  shake, 
either  bush  or  close  with  hollow  punch. 
If  teeth  are  badly  worn,  bent  or  defective, 
do  not  attempt  to  repair  them.  A  new 
wheel  is  invariably  the  best.  See  that 
escape  wheel  has  enough,  and  not  too 
much  end  shake.  See  that  escape  teeth  do 
not  strike  the  bridge.  See  that  escape 
teeth  do  not  strike  fourth  wheel  pinion. 

Train  Wheels  and  Pinions. — See  that 
train  runs  free  ;  look  for  chip  or  dirt  in 
wheel  teeth  and  pinion  leaves.  See  that 
wheels  are  true  and  teeth  are  not  bent  or 
broken.  See  that  pinions  are  free  and 
have  end  shake,  and  pivots  are  not  badly 
worn  or  bent.  Bush  or  close  pivot-holes  if 
too  large.  See  that  second  wheel  does  not 
rub  on  barrel  or  top  plate. 

Barrel  and  Main-Spring. — See  that 
barrel  does  not  rub  in  the  recess  of  bottom 
plate.  See  that  barrel  teeth  are  not  bent 
and  are  free  from  chips  or  dirt.  See  that 
barrel  is  free  on  arbor.  See  that  barrel 
cap  is  in  place  and  time  wheel  fastened  on 
cap  has  strong  and  equal  friction.  Always 
take  out,  clean  and  oil  main-springs.  See 
that  main-spring  has  good  strength  and 
does  not  bind  or  rub  on  barrel  cap. 

Dial. — To  remove  dial,  use  screw-driver 
and  lift  dial  from  friction  posts.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  take  off  hands,  hour  wheel  or 
cannon  pinion  when  removing  the  dial 
from  movement. 

Dial  Train. — See  that  dial  train  is  free 
and  that  no  oil  is  left  on  minute  or  in¬ 
termediate  wheel.  See  that  setting  wheel 
is  free  between  the  plates. 

Jewels. — Examine  hole  jewels  and  bal¬ 
ance  end  stones.  (Lower  balance  end 
stone  is  set  in  screw  from  opposite  side  of 
plate,  and  used  to  adjust  the  end  shake  of 
balance  staff.)  Unscrew,  examine,  clean, 
and  oil.  Most  jewels  in  American  Duplex 
watches  are  held  in  the  plates  by  being 
made  in  carefully  made  settings,  friction 
tight.  To  remove,  use  peg-wood  or  jewel 
extracting  tool  from  small  end  of  setting. 

Clean,  Oil  and  Assemble:  Clean  all 
parts  of  watch  thoroughly  with  benzine,  al¬ 
cohol,  chalk  or  other  preparations,  and  as¬ 
semble.  Oil  main-springs,  pivot-holes,  bal¬ 
ance  end  stones  with  very  little  in  slot  in 
balance  staff  ;  but  do  not  oil  impulse  finger 
or  pin.  Use  good  quality  of  oil,  a  small 


294 


THE  DUPLEX  ESCAPEMENT. 


quantity  in  right  place  is  sufficient.  To 
easily  assemble  the  single  top  plate  move¬ 
ments  where  ratchet  wheel  and  click  are 
underneath  plate — put  ratchet  wheel  on 
barrel  arbor  square,  insert  small  pillar  screw 
or  pin  in  hole  above  click,  force  same 
through  and  allow  it  to  hold  click  back 
until  wheels,  pivots,  etc.  are  in  their  proper 
position. 

To  Adjust  the  American  Duplex 
Escapement:  See  that  the  escapement  is 
in  beat,  and  that  the  drop  or  lockings  of 
long  teeth  on  staff  and  short  teeth  on  im¬ 
pulse  finger  (or  pin)  are  safe. 

To  Put  the  Escapement  in  Beat: 
Have  the  slot  in  balance  staff  facing  in  a 
direct  line  with  escape  wheel  pinions  when 
the  balance  is  free  and  at  rest. 

To  Change  the  Beat:  1 1  is  not  neces¬ 
sary  to  take  the  movement  apart.  Simply 
insert  a  small  tool  into  slot  of  hair-spring 
collet,  and  turn  collet  on  staff  in  either  di¬ 
rection  until  slot  in  staff  is  in  direct  line 
with  escape  wheel  pinion  . 

To  Adjust  the  Drop  or  Impulse: 
See  that  the  upright  teeth  have  from  four 
to  ten  degrees  of  locking.  If  more  or  less 
drop  then  required,  use  tool  to  move  im¬ 
pulse  finger  on  staff  in  either  direction  as 
desired.  When  impulse  pin  takes  place  of 


finger,  and  it  is  necessary  to  change  angle 
or  locking  or  drop — take  balance  out  and 
turn  same  on  staff  as  required.  See  that 
impulse  pin  or  finger  does  not  strike  long 
escape  tooth.  The  short  or  impulse  tooth 
imparts  the  great  lift.  The  long  or  rest 
tooth  imparts  the  small  lift. 

To  Test  the  Depth  ing  and  Proper 
Action  of  Escapement  :  Turn  balance 
backward  and  forward,  looking  at  points 
described,  as  follows,  viz.  :  When  upright 
tooth  escapes  from  impulse  finger  the  next 
long  tooth  should  jump  to  side  of  staff 
where  it  rests  until  the  balance  returns  and 
allows  long  tooth  to  drop  in  slot.  The 
balance  next  returns,  allowing  the  long 
tooth  to  escape  from  slot,  and  the  following 
upright  tooth  should  jump  to  locking  face 
of  impulse  finger.  Continue  this  operation 
until  all  teeth  have  passed  their  respective 
points  of  contact.  See  that  impulse  finger, 
after  having  allowed  short  tooth  to  escape, 
does  not  strike  same  on  its  return.  If  im¬ 
pulse  is  found  too  long,  and  strikes,  use  oil 
stone  and  shorten.  If  the  long  escape 
teeth  are  found  to  be  either  shallow  or 
deep  (short  or  long),  do  not  attempt  to 
shorten  or  lengthen.  This  is  a  rare  occur¬ 
rence,  and  should  be  replaced  with  a  new 
wheel. 


SIMPLE  TOOTS  FOR  THE  DUPJbFX  MOVEMENT. 


THE  BEAT  SET  is  used  to  change  ihe  beat  ot 
watch.  Insert  point  into  slot  of  hair  spring  collet,  and 
turn  same  until  slot  in  staff  is  on  direct  line  with  ihe 
escape  wheel  pinion. 

THE  IMPULSE  MOVER  is  used  to  change  angle 
or  length  of  drop  from  point  of  upright  tooth  to  poinf 
of  Impulse  finger.  Insert  point  of  tool  to  cover  Impulse 
finger  and  turn  same  either  direction  to  give  more  or 
less  drop,  as  desired. 


IMPULSE  MOVER. 


INDEX  TO  HOROLOGY. 


A 

Acceleration,  42,  225. 

Action  of  the  escapement,  9. 

“Adjusted,”  meaning  of,  90. 

Adjusted  watch  in  order,  put  an,  91. 

Adjusting  balance,  236. 

escapement,  185. 

of  large  and  small  watches,  64,  237. 

Adjustment,  notes  on,  235,  236,  237. 

to  isochronism,  69. 

Adjustments,  ear  tests  for,  201. 

Agents,  255  to  262. 

Alteration  caused  by  balance  spring,  224. 

Annealing  and  hardening,  70,  275. 
new  method  for,  31. 

Arbor,  art  of  turning,  97. 

Arbors,  polishing,  278. 

the  barrel,  21,  246. 
notes  on,  245,  246,  247,  248. 

Attraction  of  gravitation,  76. 

Audible  unrolling  of  mainspring,  62. 

B 

Bad  depthings,  248. 

Balance,  45,  72,  236. 

Balance  spring,  adjust,  224. 

alteration  caused  by,  224. 
centering  the,  10. 
correcting,  227. 
hardening,  226. 

.  length  of,  60. 

lengthening  a,  73. 
pinning,  224,  226,  227. 
relation  to  escapement,  195. 
the,  30,  224,  225,  226,  227,  228. 
to  flatten  a,  84,  226. 
to  replace,  201. 
to  test,  227. 

Balance,  compensated,  27,  236. 
duplex,  224,  232,  233. 
expansion  and  contraction  of,  46. 
fastening,  225. 

importance  of  the  proportions  of  a 
watch,  34. 
pivot,  broken,  76. 
pivot,  centering  a,  24. 
pivots,  length  of,  10. 
staff,  centering  a,  24. 
staff,  measure  for  the  length  of,  85. 
staff,  pivoting  a,  39. 
staff,  replace  a,  44,  78. 
staff,  truing.  235,  237. 
vibration,  observe,  29,  235. 

Balances,  deceptive,  196. 

sizes  and  weights  of,  47. 


Banking  American  watch,  232. 
error,  89. 
pin,  fit  in,  50. 

Barometrical  error,  79,  264. 

Barrel  arbor,  the,  21,  217,  244. 
hook,  261. 

relation  of  mainspring  to,  2 7. 
repairs,  216. 

take  down  and  repair  the,  n. 
teeth,  261. 

Beat  of  English  watch,  208. 

Beat  of  escapement,  229. 

Bench,  notes  on,  266  to  270. 

Bending  pivot,  242. 

Bent  pivots,  242. 

Benzine  in  watch  cleaning,  84,  256,  257. 

jars,  improved,  57. 

Beveled  pinion,  239. 

Blue  for  steel,  transparent,  55. 

Blue  from  balance  arms,  removing,  236. 
Bluing,  274. 

Bouchon,  fit  a,  49,  84. 

Bouchons,  movable,  262. 

riveting  of,  262. 
solid,  262. 
tapped,  262. 

Bow,  drilling,  59,  62. 

Breguet  spring,  71,  200,  227,  228. 

isochronism  in,  198. 
Broach  a  hole,  vertically,  56. 

Broaches,  polishing,  29. ' 

Broaching  hole  in  dial,  234. 

solder  broken,  55,  260. 

Broken  balance  pivot.  76. 

cylirder  plug,  replace,  214. 
pillar  screw,  58. 
pivots,  218,  241,  242. 
screws.  44,  54,  55. 

Brush,  care  of  the,  57. 

Brushes,  256. 

Burnisher,  make  a,  29. 

the  use  of  the  cutting,  06. 
Burnt  bone.  256. 

Bush,  fit  center,  49. 
a  hole,  259. 

C 

Calculate  vibrations,  235. 

Calculating  a  lever  watch  train,  253. 
Cannon  pinion,  238,  239. 

Cap  jewel,  care  in  repairing,  97. 

to  fix,  60. 

Care  of  lathe,  271. 

Cases,  notes  on.  263. 

Catching  hand  together,  21 1. 


296 


INDEX  TO  HOROLOGY. 


Cement  for  brass  upon  glass,  275. 

Luiur  bush,  lit  in  me,  49. 

Centering  a  balance  staff,  24. 

balance  pivot,  24. 
the  balance  spring,  10. 

Center  of  oscillation,  265. 

pinion  touching  crystal,  261. 
pivot,  repair,  50. 
staff,  correct,  32. 
wheel,  bad  uprighting,  10. 
wheel  arbor,  246. 

Chamfers,  268. 

Chamois  leather,  to  clean,  255. 

Chronograph.  229. 

Chronometer,  marine,  51. 

Chronometer’s  rate,  Influence  of  magnetism 
on,  204. 

Chucks,  care  of,  58. 

Clean  a  gold  dial,  234. 

a  mainspring,  good  way  to,  72. 
a  nickel  movement,  28. 
a  watch,  7. 
a  watch  case,  59. 
pinion  leaves,  238. 

watches  with  cyanide  of  potassium,  7. 

Cleaning  agents,  255  to  262. 

notes  on,  255  to  262. 
of  a  watch,  5. 
pith,  63. 

Click-work,  lubricate,  92. 

repair  a  cheap,  61. 

Clock  bezels,  262. 

cases,  marble,  263. 
repairing,  39. 

Clocks,  motive  power  in,  92. 

Close  observation  necessary,  74. 

Club  teeth,  86. 

pins,  influence  of.  61. 
tooth  lever  escapement,  4. 
toothed  scape  wheel,  247. 

Collet,  234,  262. 

fasten  spring  on,  54. 
putting  in,  237. 
to  make  a  new,  262. 

Color  iron  and  steel  brown,  84. 

of  nickel  movement,  232. 

Common  hand  screw  plates,  88. 

Compensated  balance,  27,  235,  236,  237. 

Compensating  pendulum,  266. 

Compensation,  235. 

over-active,  29. 

pendulums,  rules  governing,  81. 

Composition  file,  make  a,  62. 

Conical  pivots,  74,  242. 

Corals,  clean,  104. 

Cord  and  tension  pulley,  222. 

Correct  end  shake  of  barrel  arbor,  217. 

Correcting  the  spring,  227. 

Countersinks,  261. 

Crutch,  pendulum,  42. 

Cut  glass  without  a  diamond,  275. 

Cutters,  267,  268. 

Cutting  down  jewels,  250. 

Cutting  of  hollows,  etc.,  89. 

Cyanide  of  potassium,  to  clean  watches  with, 
7,  256,  258. 

Cylinder  escapement,  inspection  of  the,  5. 
pivoting  a,  18. 
pivots,  86. 

pivots,  size  of  the,  30. 


Cylinder  plug,  replacing,  214. 

wheel,  straighten,  85. 

D. 

Damaskeening.  Sec  Spotting. 

Dead-beat  escapement,  231. 

Deceptive  balances,  J96. 

jJepthing,  notes  on,  245,  246,  247,  248,  268. 

Depthings,  inspect,  9/. 

rules  for,  96. 

Depthing  tool,  use,  30.  220.  26S. 

Depths,  doubtful  and  invisible,  10. 
visible,  10,  97. 

Determining  shape  of  globe,  223. 
Development  of  the  latne.  101. 

Dial,  cleaning,  234. 

feet,  fit  the,  50,  234. 
foot,  to  replace,  234. 
mounting  a,  20. 
post,  repairing,  210. 
reduce,  54. 

repaint  the  hours  on,  103. 

Dials,  bleach  watch,  43. 
pictures  on,  222. 
repairing,  104. 
watch,  31. 

Diamantine,  255. 

Diameter  of  dial,  234. 

Diamond  broaches,  269. 

drills  and  gravers,  mount,  43. 
file,  63. 
laps,  220. 

Diamond-point  tool,  make  a,  59. 

Displaced  barrel,  245. 

Double  roller,  262. 

Drawpiate,  269. 

Drifting  tool,  269. 

Drill  a  staff,  218. 

hard  steel,  85. 

make  a  good,  58,  62,  272. 

shape  of,  273. 

temper,  58,  59. 

Drilling  bows,  59. 

glass,  276. 

Drills,  hardening  small,  260. 
steel  for,  58. 
watchmakers’,  219. 

Drop  in  the  lever  escapement,  too  much,  23. 
Duplex  Escapement.  291. 

Dust  pipes,  20. 

E 

Ear  tests  for  adjustment,  201. 

Ease  an  index,  54. 

Emery  grinders,  268. 

End-stone,  249. 

End-shake,  freedom  and,  9. 

of  balance,  236. 

of  barrel  arbor,  to  correct,  217. 
English  lever  and  its  repairs,  207. 

watch  in  beat,  208. 

Engravers'  wax,  279. 

Engraving,  notes  on,  278,  279. 

Escapement,  229  to  234. 

action  of  the,  9,  229. 
adjusting,  203. 
club-tooth  lever.  4. 
cylinder,  230,  231. 

Graham,  231.  233. 
inspection  of  the  cylinder,  5. 


INDEX  TO  HOROLOGY. 


297 


Escapement,  lever,  2,  231. 

proportion  of,  85. 
recoil,  229. 

relation  to  balance  spring,  195. 
Etching  on  glass,  275,  277. 

Examine  a  watch,  102. 

Examining  pieces,  258. 

Geneva  movement,  9. 
watches,  repairing  and,  7. 
Expansion. and  contraction  of  balances,  46. 

balance,  truing,  195. 

Extracting  broken  screws,  260. 

Eyes,  care  of  the,  92. 

F 

Fastening  balance  spring,  225. 

letters  on  glass,  277. 
mainspring,  244. 

File,  diamond,  63. 

make  a  composition,  62. 
make  a  pivot,  60. 

Files, '  266,  267. 

renew  old,  53,  260. 
sharpen  fine,  56. 
to  re-sharpen  old,  260. 

Filling  pendulums,  265. 

Final  review,  102. 

Fit  a  bouchon,  84. 

in  a  center  bush,  49. 
in  a  new  scape  wheel,  90. 
in  a  scape  pinion,  99. 
in  banking  pins,  50. 

Flat  polish,  53. 

Flat  springs,  225,  227. 

isochronism  in,  198,  22G 
Flatten  a  balance  spring,  84. 

Fluid  for  watch  cleaning,  257. 

Foot  pivot  in  a  cylinder,  242. 

Foot  wheel,  57. 

Forks,  long  or  short,  33. 

Freedom  and  end-shake,  9. 

French  pendules,  timing,  265. 

Friction.  206. 

of  coils,  244. 

Frosting.  Sec  Spotting. 

Frost  steel  work,  272. 

Frosting  of  wheels,  handsome,  83. 
Functions  of  inertia,  37. 

G 

Gauges,  about,  69. 

Geneva  movement,  examine  a,  9. 

Gild  steel,  44,  274. 

Gilding  on  marble,  263. 

Glass,  notes  on,  275,  276,  277. 

tightening,  261. 

Gold  spring,  harden,  84. 

Gravers,  278. 

blades,  279. 
stoning,  278. 
temper,  53. 

Gravitation,  attraction  of,  76. 

Grindstone,  to  mount,  270. 

truing,  269. 

Guard  pin,  depth,  233. 


H 

Hairspring,  put  in  a,  48. 

and  regulator  pins,  200. 

Hands,  catching  together,  21 1. 

motion  work  and,  9. 

Hand  turning  in  watch  work,  98. 

Hardening,  annealing  and,  70,  226. 

delicate  steel  parts,  82. 
gold  springs,  84. 
without  discoloring,  273. 

Heavy  wheels,  37. 

Hole  in  dial,  to  broach,  234. 

Hollows,  the  cutting  of,  89. 

Hook  in  the  mainspring,  2 2. 

Hour  hand,  261. 

I 

Impulse,  magnitude  of  pallet,  55. 

Index,  ease  the,  54. 

Inertia,  37. 

Influence  of  curb  pins,  61. 

of  magnetism  on  chronometer's  rate, 
204. 

Ink  for  etching  on  glass,  277. 

Inventions  in  horology,  103. 

Isochronism,  35,  59,  228,  230. 

adjustment  to,  69. 
in  flat  and  Breguet  springs,  198, 
226,  277. 

J. 

Jewel  holes,  248,  249. 

thickness  of,  249. 
widening,  249. 
pallets,  freeing,  238. 

pin  into  an  American  watch,  to  put  a,  21. 
Jeweling,  notes  on,  248,  249,  250,  251. 

Jewels,  cutting  down,  250. 
in  watches,  96,  249. 
re-setting,  249. 
screwed,  96. 
set.  23. 

Joint  pusher,  269. 

K 

Keep  steel  from  rusting,  272. 

Knack  of  pivoting,  92. 

Knife  suspension,  31,  264. 

L 

Lantern  pinion,  239. 

Laps,  diamond,  220. 

Lathe,  development  of  the,  101. 

notes  on,  270,  271. 

Length  of  balance  pivots,  240. 

of  balance  spring,  60. 
of  pendulum,  264. 

Lengthening  a  balance  spring,  73. 

Letters  on  glass,  277. 

Lever,  and  its  repairs,  207.' 
correct  length  of,  28. 
escapement,  2. 

the  club-tooth,  4. 

too  much  drop  in  the  25. 

watch  timing,  252. 

Light  wheels,  errors  of,  38. 

Lockings,  pallet,  63.  238. 

Long  or  short  forks,  33. 


293 


INDEX  TO  HOROLOGY. 


Loose  jewel  holes,  248. 

Lubricate  click-work,  etc.,  92. 

Lubricating  oil,  53,  253. 

watch,  259. 

M 

Magnetism  on  a  chronometer's  rate,  204. 
Magnetized  watches,  188,  206,  263. 
Magnifying  glass.  221. 

Mainspring,  audible  unrolling  of,  62. 

good  way  to  clean  a,  72,  244. 
hook  in  the,  22. 
manipulate  the,  31. 
notes  on,  243,  244,  245. 
relation  of  barrel  to,  27. 
uncoiling,  244. 
watch,  77. 
winder,  use  of,  28. 

Make  a  balance  staff,  245. 

Marble  clock  cases,  263. 

gilding,  263. 
mending,  263. 

Marine  chronometer,  51. 

Meaning  of  “adjusted,”  90. 

of  pitch-circle,  27. 

Measure  for  the  length  of  balance  staff,  85. 
Mem.,  43. 

Mending  cases,  notes  on,  263. 

Mercurial  pendulum,  265. 

Mercury,  to  purify,  265. 

Method  of  straightening  bent  balance  pivot, 
197- 

Mix  polishing  material,  255. 

Momentum,  228. 

Motion  work  and  hands,  9. 

Motive  force  in  watches,  75. 

Mount  photographs  on  glass,  276. 

power  in  clocks,  93. 

Movement,  clean  a  nickel,  28. 

N 

New  center  pivot,  241. 

New  wheels,  246. 

Nickel  movement,  clean  a,  28. 

restore  color  of,  232. 

O 

Oil,  fine  lubricating,  53. 
how  to  supply,  54,  55. 
notes  on,  253,  254,  255. 

Oiling  center  wheel,  254. 

detached  lever,  255. 
notes  on,  253,  254,  255. 
pallets  of  levers,  29. 
roller  jewel,  238. 
stem-wind,  254. 
the  parts,  254. 

Oilstone,  270. 

to  smooth,  261. 

Overactive  Compensation,  29. 

Overbanking,  25,  43,  232. 

Over-coil  making,  226. 

spring,  225. 

P 

Pallet  action,  bail,  01. 

impulse,  magnitude  of,  55. 
lockings,  63,  238. 

Pallets  and  their  functions,  21,  237,  238. 


Pallets,  care  of.  237. 

freeing  jewel,  238. 
make,  43. 
oiling,  29. 
poising,  237. 
unequal,  238. 

Patent  lever  watches,  repairing,  67. 

Pendules,  timing  French,  265. 

Pendulum  bobs,  264. 

crutch,  42. 
wire.  266. 

wood  rod  and  lead  bob  for,  73. 

Pendulums,  79,  189,  223,  264,  265,  266. 

rules  governing  compensation,  81 

Photographs  on  glass,  276. 

Pictures  on  watch  dials,  222. 

Pillar  screw,  broken,  58. 

Pinion,  cannon,  238,  239. 
harden  a,  52. 
leaves,  238,  239. 
polish  the  fourth,  62. 
polishing,  278. 
repair  a,  85. 

Pinions,  beveled,  239. 

lantern,  239. 
notes  on,  238,  239. 

Pinning  in  springs,  224,  226. 

Pin  pallet  escapement,  230. 

Pins,  steady,  210. 

Pitch-circle,  meaning  of,  27. 

Pivot,  broken  balance,  76. 

centering  a  balance,  24. 
file,  make  a,  60. 
new  center,  241. 
repair  fusee  top,  241. 
size  of  the  cylinder.  30. 
straighten  a,  60,  197. 

Pivoting,  239. 

a  balance  staff,  39,  245. 
a  cylinder,  18. 
the  knack  of,  92. 

Pivots,  balance  staff,  240. 
blackening,  240. 
broken,  218,  241. 
conical,  74. 
cylinder,  86. 

length  of  balance,  10,  240. 
notes  on,  239,  240,  241,  242. 
play  of  train-wheel,  10. 
poising  pallet,  237. 
polish,  60,  240. 
replacing,  239. 

Play  of  train-wheel  pivots,  10. 

Pliers,  266. 

Polish  a  wheel,  36. 
flat,  53. 
steel,  29,  52. 

Polishers,  278. 

Polishing  broaches,  29. 

conical  pivot,  242. 
fourth  pinions,  62. 
leathers,  cleanse,  50. 
material.  255.  277. 
notes  on,  277,  278. 
pinions  and  arbors,  278. 
pivot,  240. 
steel  pieces,  274. 

Proportion  scape-wheel  to  pinion,  233. 

Punches,  to  handle,  273. 

Purify  mercury,  265. 


INDEX  TO  HOROLOGY. 


299 


Putting  in  a  mainspring,  243,  244. 
teeth  into  wheel,  247. 
up  a  watch,  259. 
watch  in  beat,  259. 

Q 

Quarter  screws,  235. 

R 

Ratio  of  spring  to  balance,  233. 

Recoil  escapement,  229,  230. 

Redress  a  bent  pivot.  242. 

Reduce  diameter  of  dial,  234. 

Regulate  a  fine  watch,  90,  260. 

Regulating  in  the  temperatures,  251. 
Regulator  pins  and  hairsprings,  200. 
Regulators,  265. 

Relation  of  escapement  to  balance  spring,  195. 

of  mainspring  to  barrel,  27. 
Remontoire,  229. 

Remove  a  broken  screw,  55,  260. 

Renew  old  files,  53. 

Repaint  the  hour  on  dial,  102. 

Repair  a  pinion,  85. 

a  Yankee  clock,  82. 
cheap  clocks,  61. 
fusee  top  pivot,  241. 

English  patent  lever  watches,  67. 
notes  on,  255  to  262. 

Repairing  and  examining  watches,  7. 
clock,  39. 
dial  post,  210. 
tools  used  in,  16. 

Repairs  of  barrel,  216. 

Replace  a  balance  staff,  44,  78. 

an  old  balance  spring,  201. 
broken  cylinder  plug,  214. 
dial  foot,  234. 

Replacing  broken  foot  jewel,  250. 

pivot  of  hollow  pinion,  239. 
roller  jewel,  250. 

Restore  color  of  nickel  movement,  232. 
Review,  final,  102. 

Riveting  of  bouchons,  262. 

stake,  267. 

Roller  jewels,  251. 

edges,  polishing,  278. 
oiling,  238. 

tool  for  fastening,  64,  250. 
Rounding  a  pivot,  242. 

Rounding-up  tool,  74,  267. 

Ruby  pin,  fitting  in  the,  50. 
reset,  54. 
setting,  249. 

Ruby  pins,  shape  of,  21. 

Rules  governing  compensation  pendulums,  81. 
Rust,  272. 

S 

Safety  action,  233. 
pin,  234. 

Scape  wheel, club  toothed,  247. 

cylinder,  247. 
loss  of,  89. 

put  in  a  new,  24,  90. 
setting  of,  26. 

Scape  wheels  of  Swiss  watches,  78. 
straighten,  53. 


Screw,  broken  pillar,  »8. 
dies,  88. 
driver,  268. 
jewels,  96. 

plate,  clean  a  stopped  hole  in  a,  89. 
taps,  268. 
thread,  cut,  30. 

to  the  fan  of  a  music  box,  61. 

Screw  plates  and  taps,  88. 

common  hand,  88. 
fine  threaded,  88. 

Screws,  broken,  44,  54,  55,  260. 
quarter,  235. 

Second-hand,  tightening,  261. 

Selecting  a  mainspring,  244. 

Self-winding,  245. 

Set  English  watch  in  beat,  208. 

Setting  of  scape  wheel,  26. 

Shape  of  globe,  223. 

of  ruby  pins,  21. 

Sharpen  cutting  tools,  44. 
fine  files,  36. 

Shellac  for  use,  prepare,  62. 

in  horology,  use  of,  56. 

Short  arcs,  228. 

Show  windows,  cleaning  powder,  277. 
Sidereal  day,  263. 

Size  of  the  cylinder  pivot,  30. 

Sizes  of  weights  of  balances,  47. 

Sizing  wheels  and  pinions,  246. 

Sliding  carrier,  269. 

Smoothing.  See  Spotting. 

Snailing.  See  Spotting. 

Solar  day,  263. 

Solder  a  stay  spring,  60. 

broken  broaches,  55,  260. 

Solvent  of  rust,  272. 

Speed  of  different  timepieces,  30. 

Spotting,  103. 

the  plates,  261. 

Spring,  Breguet,  71. 

flatten  a  balance,  84. 
lengthening  a  balance,  73. 
on  collet,  fasten,  54. 

Springing,  228. 

Springs,  harden  gold,  84. 

throw  away  bad,  89. 

Staff,  centering,  24. 

correct  the  center,  32. 
drill,  218. 
make,  23. 

measure  for  the  length  of  balance,  85. 

notes  on,  245,  246,  247,  248. 

take  out  temper  of,  55. 

temper,  245. 

to  harden,  274. 

turning,  245. 

punch,  267. 

Stay  spring,  solder,  60. 

Steady  pins,  210. 

Steel  and  its  treatment,  notes  on,  271  to  273. 
bluing,  .  275. 
cracks  in,  272. 
drill  hard,  85. 
engraving  on,  273. 
for  drills,  58. 
gild,  44. 
gilding,.  274. 
hammering,  273. 
hardening,  272,  273,  274. 


INDEX  TO  HOROLOGY. 


300 

Steel  parts,  hardening,  82. 
polish,  29,  52. 
temper,  58. 
to  drill,  273. 
to  temper,  274. 
transparent  blue,  for,  55. 
write  upon,  55. 

Stones  for  jeweling,  248. 

Stoning  a  graver,  278. 

Stoning.  See  Spotting. 

Stool,  266. 

Stop-work  indispensable,  78. 
test  the,  11. 

Straighten  a  pivot,  60,  197. 

scape-wheel,  53,  85. 

Strike  half  hours,  264. 

Stud,  movable,  63. 

Suspension,  knife,  31. 

T 

Take  out  temper  of  staff.  55. 

Taking  down  a  watch,  212,  258. 

Taps,  screw  plates  and,  88. 

Teeth,  notes  on,  247. 

Temper,  a  staff,  245. 
draw,  53. 
drill,  58,  59. 
gravers,  53. 
of  staff,  take  out,  55. 
steel,  58,  271. 

Tempering  case  and  other  springs,  274. 
Tension  pulley  and  cord,  222. 

Testing  balance  spring,  227. 

escapement,  230. 

Throw  away  bad  springs,  89. 

Tightening  second-hand,  261. 

Time  a  watch,  44,  65,  97. 

Timepieces,  speed  of  different,  30. 
Timing,  notes  on,  251,  252,  253. 
lever  watch,  252. 

Tool  for  fastening  roller  jewels,  64. 
make  a  diamond-point,  59. 
rounding-up,  74. 

Tools  in  watch  cleaning,  258. 
notes  on,  266  to  270. 
used  in  repairing,  16,  266. 

Tooth,  shape  of,  247. 

Top-plate,  cleaning,  261. 

Torsion  pendulum.  264. 

Train,  watch,  54,  86. 

Trains,  248. 

Train-wheel  pivots,  play- of.  10. 

Truing  a  staff,  245. 

balance,  235,  237. 
expansion  balance.  195. 

Turning,  art  of,  97,  271,  276. 

glass,  276. 

T  weezers,  266. 

U 

Unequal  pallets,  238. 

Uniting  escapement  parts,  230. 


Uprighting  tools,  268. 

Use  of  lathe,  270. 

V 

Verdigris  spots,  63. 

Vibration,  observe  balance,  29,  235,  237. 

calculate,  235. 

Visible  depths,  10,  247. 

W 

Washers,  233. 

Watch  case,  clean,  59. 

clean,  5,  7,  256,  257,  258. 
cleaning  agents,  257. 
cleaning,  benzine  in,  84. 
cleaning  with  cyanide  of  potassium, 
^56. 

dials,  31,  222. 

dials,  bleach,  43,  234. 

examine,  102. 

external  examination  of,  8. 

hands,  102. 

in  beat,  259. 

jewels,  249. 

mainspring,  77. 

oil,  43,  253.  254.  255. 

oil,  apply,  54. 

regulate  a  fine,  90. 

repairing,  1 1,  70. 

screws,  extract  broken,  44. 

“setting”  in  locking,  251. 

taking  down,  212. 

the,  1. 

time  a,  44. 

train,  54,  86. 

work,  hand-turning  in,  98. 

Watches,  adjusting  of  large  and  small,  64. 
jewels  in,  96,  248,  249,  250. 
motive  force  in,  75. 
repairing  and  examining,  7. 
repairing  English  patent  lever.  67. 
timing  of.  44.  65,  97,  251,  252,  253. 
Watchmakers’  drills,  219. 

Wax,  engravers'  border,  279. 

Wheel  gauging,  246'. 

magnifying  glass,  221. 
notes  on.  245,  246,  247,  248. 
polish,  36. 

straighten  cylinder,  85. 

Wheels  and  pinions,  246. 
frosting  of,  83. 
heavy,  37. 
light,  38. 
train  of,  102. 

Whetstone,  make  a,  85. 

Widening  jewel  holes,  249. 

Wood  rod  and  lead  bob  for  pendulum.  73. 
Write  upon  steel,  55. 

Y 

Yankee  clock,  repair  a,  82. 


INDEX  TO  GOLD,  SILVER,  ETC 


A 

Abyssfnian  gold,  168. 

Accidents  in  pouring.  141. 

Acid  coloring  123. 

Alloy  for  models,  187. 
gold,  no,  285. 
new,  167. 
silversmiths’,  162. 

Alloys,  aluminium,  285. 
gold  and  its,  in. 
native,  285. 

of  common  silver,  145. 
platinum,  285. 
silver,  161,  285. 
silver-aluminium,  161. 

Alum,  170. 

Aluminium,  alloys,  285. 

bronzes,  172. 
gold,  168. 
melt.  17 1 . 
solder  for,  169. 

Amalgam,  make  gold,  137. 

Analyzing  native  alloys,  285. 

Antimony  and  aluminium,  286. 
Armenian  cement,  169. 

Artificial  gold,  168. 

Avoirdupois  weight,  176. 

B 

Bell  metal,  170. 

Boiling  process  in  plating,  290. 

Borax  and  saltpeter,  property  of,  109. 
Brass,  coloring  and  lacquering,  173. 
Brass  dips,  288. 

Britannij,  170. 

Brittle  gold,  121. 

Bronze  coating  on  iron,  etc.,  185. 
Bronzing,  288. 

BrPnzing  iron  and  steel,  186. 

Brushes,  cleanse,  187. 

C 

Cadmium,  286. 

Cast  in  fish-bone,  139. 

Casting,  136. 

best  mold  for,  I09. 

Cement,  acid  proof,  167. 
alabaster,  186. 
excellent,  186. 
for  fastening  metal,  173. 
for  glass  and  metal,  170. 
for  lamps,  171. 
for  meerschaum,  187. 
jewelers’  Armenian,  169. 
transparent,  187. 


Chalk,  prepare,  186. 

Charcoal,  167. 

Chloride  of  gold,  make,  137. 

Chromium  and  aluminium,  286. 

Clean  silver,  160. 

Cleanse  silver  tarnished  by  soldering.  160 
Cleansing  gold  tarnished  in  soldering,  140. 
mat  gold,  141. 

Cold  silvering,  152,  160,  290. 

Coloring  and  lacquering  brass,  173. 
gold,  138,  170. 
soft  solder,  140. 
tin  solder  yellow,  142. 

Colors  of  gold,  1 12. 

Conversions,  175. 

Cracked  gold,  correct.  109. 

Crocus  for  polishing  steel,  168. 

Cyanide  of  gold,  140. 

D 

Dead-white  on  silver.  164. 

Diamond  weight,  176. 

Dipping  mixture,  162. 

Dips,  288. 

Dissolvents,  163. 

Dissolving  gold.  122. 

silver,  154. 

Drill  onyx,  187. 

E 

Electro  fire-gilding  and  silvering,  127,  286 
Electro-plating,  287,  289,  290. 

brass  solution.  287. 
common  battery,  287. 
copper  solution,  288. 
nickel  solution,  287. 
silver  solution,  287. 
Enameling,  129. 

Engraving,  letter,  180. 

Etching  fluid  for  steel,  185. 
gold,  158. 

on  glass  and  metal.  169. 
silver,  158. 

Eyes,  care  of  the,  181. 

F 

Facetious  gold,  140. 

Fire-gilding,  286. 

Fish-bone,  cast  in,  139. 

Fluid,  soldering,  116. 

Fluoric  acid  for  etching  glass,  173. 

French  fire-gilding,  286. 

Friction  powder,  gold,  138. 

Frosting  gold.  138. 

pickle  for,  161. 
polished  silver,  161. 


INDEX  TO  GOLD,  SILVER,  ETC. 


3o2 

Frosting  silver,  157. 

Fusing  gold  dust,  136. 

G 

German  silver,  167. 

restore,  167. 
solder,  167. 

Gilding,  286. 

without  a  bath,  136. 

Gilt  metal,  recover  gold  from,  141. 

Glass  tubes,  bending,  187. 

Gold,  Abyssinian,  168. 

and  its  alloys,  in. 
aluminium,  168. 
artificial,  168. 
changing  color,  143. 
coloring,  170. 
dust,  fusing,  136. 
electro-plating,  289. 
friction  powder,  138. 
mystery,  168. 
parting,  284. 
plating,  289. 

removing  solder  from,  282. 
salts,  preparation  of,  142. 
scraps,  1 19. 
silvering,  288. 
solders,  114,  281,  282. 
tinge,  172. 

Goldsmith,  mission  of  the,  105. 

Gram  weight  in  troy  weight,  176,  179. 

H 

Hole  in  glass,  187. 

I 

Imitate  inlaying  of  silver,  154. 

Imitation  silver,  165. 

Ingot,  malleability  of  the,  109. 
molds,  137. 

Inlaying  of  silver,  imitate,  154. 

Inscriptions  on  metals,  172. 

Iron,  case-harden,  187. 

J 

Jewelers’  pickle,  142. 

solder,  167,  282. 

Jewelry  repairing,  128,280. 

K 

Karats  in  thousandths,  179. 

L 

Lacquer,  pale  gold,  186. 

Lapping,  123. 

Letter  engraving,  180. 

Luster  of  gold,  restoring,  136. 

of  silver,  restoring,  159. 

M 

Making  gold  roll  well,  141. 

Malleability  of  the  ingot,  109. 

Mat  brushing,  166. 

gold,  cleansing,  141. 

Melting  and  refining,  141. 
gold,  108. 


Melting  waste,  no. 

Metal  letters  on  plate-glass,  186. 

Metals,  parting  gold  from,  284. 

polishing,  283. 

Metric  system  of  lenses,  177. 

Millimeter  and  inch  measures,  177. 
Mold  for  casting,  the  best,  109. 
Mystery  gold,  168. 

O 

Oil-stones,  smoothing,  187. 

Ounces  in  grams,  172. 

Oxidizing  silver,  154,  162,  288. 

P 

Paint  for  sheet  iron,  186. 

Parting  gold  from  other  metals,  284. 
Pearls,  cleaning,  167. 

Pickle  for  frosting,  161. 

jewelers’,  142. 

Plate  powder,  163. 

Plating  by  electricity,  287,  289. 

Polish  gold  articles,  138. 

metals,  283. 

Polishing  powder,  172. 
silver,  158. 

Pouring,  accidents  in,  141. 

Powdered  glass,  187. 

Precipitating  gold,  122. 

Preparation  of  gold  salts,  142. 
Preparing  for  wet  coloring.  125. 
Protect  polish  of  metals,  173. 

Pure  gilding,  know,  137. 
gold,  141. 

R 

Random  weights,  176. 

Real  gold,  how  to  distinguish,  137. 
Recovering  gold  from  coloring  bath,  141 
from  gilt  metal,  141. 
from  solution,  140. 
lost  in  coloring,  139. 
Reduce  jewelers’  sweepings,  121. 
Refining  and  melting,  141. 
gold,  1 18. 

Removing  gold,  141. 

soft  solder.  282. 

Repairing  jewelry,  128,  280. 

Resilvering  brass  clock  dials,  162. 

Resist  varnish,  163. 

Restore  luster  of  gold,  136. 

Restoring  color  of  gold,  116. 

luster  of  silver,  159. 

Ring  stick,  17J. 

Rolling,  gold  smelting  and,  106. 

Rust  on  machinery,  preventing,  186. 

S 

Saltpeter,  property  of  borax  and,  109. 
Satinizing  silver.  See  Frosting. 

Scrap  gold,  use  of,  109. 

Separating  gold,  117. 

gold  from  silver,  138. 

Silver,  alloys  of  common,  145. 
aluminium  alloy,  161. 
articles,  whiten,  164. 
dead  white  on,  164. 
electro-plating,  289. 
fictitious,  172. 
filigree  work,  clean,  166. 


INDEX  TO  GOLD,  SILVER,  ETC. 


3<>3 


Silver  from  copper,  separate,  165. 
from  wastage,  161. 
imitation  alloys,  145. 
ink  stains  from,  166. 
liquid  for  cleaning,  166. 
oxidizing,  162,  288. 
plating,  289,  290  . 
plating  by  boiling,  290. 
plating  cold  way,  290. 
powder  for  copper,  163. 
recovering,  166. 
reduce  chloride  of,  165. 
refine,  164. 
solder,  152,  282. 
solders,  147,  282. 
stripping  mixture,  163. 
white-pickling,  165. 

Silvering  by  dipping,  153. 
cold,  152,  290. 
gold,  288. 
rapid,  165. 
solution,  170. 
without  battery,  161. 

Silverware,  cleaning,  165. 

testing,  164. 
washing,  161. 

Sizes  of  watch  movements,  176. 

Smelting  and  rolling  gold,  106. 

Soft  solder,  163,  281,  282. 

coloring,  140. 
electro-plating,  163. 
for  gold,  different  karats,  281. 
remove,  116,  117,  282. 

Soft  soldering,  171. 

articles,  116. 

Solder  for  aluminium,  169. 
jewelers’,  167,  282. 
pearl  ring,  173. 
remove  from  gold,  282. 
silver,  152,  282. 
soft  gold,  281. 
stain,  remove,  116. 
stone-set  ring,  173. 
wrong,  1 1 7. 

Soldering,  281. 

a  ring  with  a  jewel,  116. 
fluid,  1 16,  163. 


Soldering  fluid,  non-corrosive,  167,  171. 
fluxes,  282. 
gold,  281. 

support  in  hard,  170. 

Solders,  gold,  114. 

Solutions  for  electro-plating,  287,  288. 
Specific  gravity,  177. 

Spectacles  and  eye-glasses,  184. 

Stain  horn  black,  188. 

Steel,  etching  fluid  for,  185. 
soldering  cast,  185. 
work  hard,  185. 

Stripping  articles,  282. 
brass,  282. 
copper,  282. 

German  silver,  282. 
gold,  1 18. 
silver,  163. 

Support  in  hard  soldering,  170. 

Sweepings,  refine,  172. 

T 

Tarnishing  of  silver,  160. 

Thermometer  scales,  178. 

Thin  silver  plating,  290. 

Tin  and  aluminium.  286. 

from  stock,  remove,  138. 
solder,  yellow,  coloring,  142. 

Toughen  brittle  gold,  122. 

Troy  weight,  176. 

V 

Varnish,  gold-like,  171. 

W 

Washing  silverware,  161. 

Wastage,  silver  from,  161. 

Waste,  melting,  no. 

Watch  movements,  sizes  of,  174. 

Wet  coloring  by  the  German  process,  126. 

preparing  for,  125. 

White  color  after  pickling,  137. 
metal  alloys,  143. 
pickling  silver,  165. 
silver  solder,  282. 


jaaM.  r 


fj/M 


^C^.C^C^C^.O^OCOOOOOOOCOOOCOCHt'OOOOCHX’C^OO 

FRANCE  1 

ocmx>oooooooooooo<xm:'Ooc<h:-oo»:.c<m;.ooch»^c»<:‘v 


THE  TRUE  BLUE  BEADED  LABEL 


THE 

uENUINE 

ARE 

LABELED 


FRANCE 

™  Beware  ofjj 
Imitations. 


=  =  WATCH  GLASSES  =  = 

ASK  YOUR  JOBBER  FOR  THEM. 

SUSSFELD,  LORSCH  &  CO., 

NEW  YORK. 


LIQUID  AMBER,  "cement 

^  VET  DISCOVERED. 

For  Cementing  Roller  Pins,  Pallet  Jewels, 
Watch  Glasses,  Pearls,  China,  and  Cut  Glass 

FOR  SALE  BY  ALL  TOOL  AND  MATERIAL  JOBBERS. 


SUSSFELD,  LORSCH  &  CO., 


WHOLESALE  AGENTS. 


NO  “STOPPER”  ever  gets  as  far  as 
our  shipping  room.  The  movements 
must  pass  a  rigid  inspection  at  every 
step  in  the  manufacture;  then,  after 
being  put  in  their  cases ,  they  are  timed  for  six 
days  in  pivoted  trays,  these  trays  being  so  ar¬ 
ranged  that  they  can  be  turned  to  six  different  positions: 


When  delivered  to  the  dealer  our  Watches  are  com¬ 
plete — ready  to  pass  over  the  counter  to  the  wearer.  No 
case  fitting,  nor  timing,  nor  regulating.  We  do  all 
that ,  and  warrant  our  work  to  be  perfect.  No  trouble 
to  handle  such  watches.  Not  much  talking  to 
sell  them.  No  complaints  when  they  are  sold. — 
The  New  England  Watch  Co.,  Waterbury,  Conn. 


'4 


